Heavy metal availability in soil amended with composted urban solid wastes

An Overview of Bacteria-Mediated Heavy Metal Bioremediation Strategies

Contamination-free groundwater is considered a good source of potable water. Even in the twenty-first century, over 90 percent of the population is reliant on groundwater resources for their lives. Groundwater influences the economical state, industrial development, ecological system, and agricultural and global health conditions worldwide. However, different natural and artificial processes are gradually polluting groundwater and drinking water systems throughout the world. Toxic metalloids are one of the major sources that pollute the water system. In this review work, we have collected and analyzed information on metal-resistant bacteria along with their genetic information and remediation mechanisms of twenty different metal ions [arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), palladium (Pd), zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co), antimony (Sb), gold (Au), silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), selenium (Se), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), tungsten (W), and uranium (U)]. We have surveyed the scientific information available on bacteria-mediated bioremediation of various metals and presented the data with responsible genes and proteins that contribute to bioremediation, bioaccumulation, and biosorption mechanisms. Knowledge of the genes responsible and self-defense mechanisms of diverse metal-resistance bacteria would help us to engineer processes involving multi-metal-resistant bacteria that may reduce metal toxicity in the environment.

Systemic impact of heavy metals and their role in cancer development: a review

Heavy metals are well-recognised as environmental hazards due to their toxicity, environmental persistence, and bioaccumulation in living organisms. Human health is a crucial concern related to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems poisoned by harmful heavy metals. Most heavy metals pollute the air, water, and soil, which can be fatal to humans. Humans and other species can be exposed to heavy metals through the food chain if the metals oxidise or combine with other environmental elements (such as water, soil, or air). Their entry into the food chain assures interactions with biological macromolecules in living systems, including humans, resulting in undesirable outcomes. Human poisonings have typically been caused by mercury, lead, chromium, cadmium, and arsenic. The build-up of these metals in living organisms causes various harmful consequences on different organs and tissues. The gravitas of heavy metal toxicity regarding molecular impact and carcinogenesis needs in-depth understanding despite the plethora of available data. Hence, additionally, we attempt to elaborate on the multi-level impact of five heavy metals and emphasise their role in cancer development. The rationale of this essay is thus to understand the role of five heavy metals, viz., lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), and mercury (Hg), in carcinogenesis. Heavy metals interfere with various biological functions, including proliferation, differentiation, repair of damage, and apoptosis. By comparing their modes of action, we see that these metals share common mechanisms for inducing toxicity, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, antioxidant defence weakening, enzyme inactivation, and oxidative stress.

Bioaccumulation Factor of Selected Heavy Metals in Zea mays

BACKGROUND

Health risks arising from heavy metal pollution have attracted global attention. As a result, many studies on the accumulation of heavy metals in soil-plant systems have performed human health risk assessments.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to examine the ability of Zea mays (maize) to accumulate heavy metals and assess the bioaccumulation factor (BAF) by collecting, collating, and analyzing data on heavy metal concentrations in Zea mays.

METHODS

This study reviewed the accumulation of five selected heavy metals, cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) in soil and the corresponding BAF of Zea mays grown on those soils using a systematic search of peer-reviewed scientific journals. A total of 27 research works were reviewed after screening 52 articles for subject matter relevancy, including dumpsites, industrially polluted soils, inorganically fertilized soils, mining sites, smelting sites, municipal wastewater irrigated soils, and a battery waste dumpsite.

RESULTS

Among the reviewed sites, concentrations of Cd and Cr were highest at a tin mining site, where prolonged mining, mineral processing and other production activities contributed heavy metal pollution in the soil. The soil at a battery waste dumpsite exhibited the highest Pb concentration, while the soil at a Zn smelting site presented the highest concentration of Zn. The highest soil Cu concentration was found in an area where sewage irrigation had been carried out over a long period. The BAF of the five heavy metals in Zea mays increased with the metal concentrations in the soil. The BAF of Cd, Cr, Pb, Cu, and Zn in Zea mays from the study areas fall within the ranges of 0-0.95, 0-1.89, 0-1.20, 0.011-0.99, and 0.03-0.99, respectively. Cadmium and Zn had the highest bioconcentration factors values in maize plants, likely due to their higher mobility rate compared to the other heavy metals.

CONCLUSIONS

The study concluded that Zea mays is capable of accumulating high amounts of heavy metals, although accumulation of these heavy metals is influenced by multiple factors including soil texture, cation exchange capacity, root exudation and especially soil pH and chemical forms of the heavy metals. Zea mays should not be planted on metal-contaminated soils because of its potential to act as a hyperaccumulator.

COMPETING INTERESTS

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Comparison of the effects of different maturity composts on soil nutrient, plant growth and heavy metal mobility in the contaminated soil

Numerous studies on the remediation of metal-contaminated soil by compost focus on the remediation efficiency of compost, however, they have not delved into the issue of nutrients and metal speciation. In this study, the application of municipal solid wastes primary compost (MSW-C), secondary compost (MSW-SC) and the aging compost (MSW-AC) has been conducted in heavy metal contaminated soil remediation. Eight different treatments were carried out to compare the effect of three different maturity composts and their addition ratio (i.e. 0, 25%, 50%) on the changes of physical properties, nutrient content and metal morphology distribution of soil. The enhancement of Sedum aizoon growth was also compared. The results showed that the treatments applied with composts increased the nutrient, organic carbon and the cation exchange capacity. In overall, the most effective treatment method was to use MSW-AC to improve soil physicochemical properties and reduce the heavy metals immobilization, and the addition of 25% MSW-AC showed significant promotion on plant biomass accumulation and root growth. The ability of compost to improve the conditions of the contaminated soil and increase the plant stress resistance was demonstrated by analyzing the root membrane lipid peroxidation, which was lower in the soil treatments with compost, especially with MSW-AC. Based on the compost maturity indexes, soil properties, and efficiency of metal activity reduction, the treatment of 25% MSW-AC is suggested for efficient soil remediation.

Current Scenario of the Tehran Municipal Solid Waste Handling Rules towards Green Technology

This study aims to study the waste management process and recycling of municipal waste in Tehran. Currently, Kahrizak is the defined landfill area which collects the waste generated from 22 districts of Tehran. The organic wastes undergo to the windrow composting method in order to manage the partial of the waste generated in the city. Samples from the compost pile generated in Kahrizak were examined to evaluate its fertilizer value to be used further by the farmers. The results show that the obtained compost does not reach the acceptable quality to be used further in agriculture, due to lack of homogeneity, aeration and presence of heavy metals. Overall, it has been concluded that, due to the improper waste segregation and management prior to sending to landfill and presence of non-organic materials such as hazardous metals and medical wastes, causes difficulties in proper waste management, implementation and producing high quality compost. Based on this study the existence of stakeholders, society, economy and proper handling rules can effectively improve the waste management system in the country and leads to the sustainable green environment.

Municipal solid waste (MSW): Strategies to improve salt affected soil sustainability: A review

Salt-induced soil degradation is a serious threat to global agriculture which is responsible for diminished productivity of agro-ecosystems. Irrigation with poor quality water and indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers to increase crop productivity creates salt accumulation in soil profile thereby reducing crop sustainability. High concentration of salts in soil inhibits plant growth due to low osmotic potential of the soil solution, ion toxicity and imbalance reduces nutrient uptake, crop yields. Low productivity of saline soils is not only due to salt toxicity or excess amounts of soluble salts but also lack of available mineral nutrients especially nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and soil organic matter. Hence, sustainable management of salt-affected soils are paramount importance to meet the demands of food grain production for an ever-rising population in the world. Recently, municipal solid waste has gained importance as an organic amendment for restoring soil fertility and finally contributing to productivity of salt-affected soils. This paper compares extant waste generation, their properties and standards pertinent to municipal solid waste in different countries and explores the unique recent history in some countries that shows high environmental regard and rapid changes and also suggests policy experiencing from high environmental regard and rapid changes from other countries, so that policy makers can propose new or revise current municipal solid waste standards for salt affected soils. Municipal solid waste compost improves soil biological, physical and chemical properties because of high soil organic matter and lower concentration of pollutants. Therefore, the use of municipal solid waste in salt-affected soils could be an alternative to costly chemical amendments as well as reduce the reliance on chemical fertilizers for increasing productivity of salt-affected soil. The municipal solid wastes significantly improve crop yields. However, further long-term experimental investigations are needed to re-validate the application of municipal solid waste compost in improving physical, chemical and biological properties and to step up organic fertilization use in a wide range of both saline and sodic soils. In future, research should be directed to address these issues globally to minimise ecological disturbances and to set environmental standards, and evaluate the feasibility of the policies in different countries and their impact on socio-economic conditions of local people.

Assessment of the use of organic composts derived from municipal solid waste for the adsorption of Pb, Zn and Cd

Waste management is a continuous global need. To minimize problems arising from municipal solid waste (MSW) disposal, composting has emerged as a simple alternative for the organic fraction of the waste. The composting process generates organic composts with a high metal retention capacity for potentially toxic elements (PTE). Thus, our objective was to examine how different composting methods (windrow composting, wire mesh composting bin, and passively aerated static pile composting) affect the final product, and how the characteristics of the generated composts influence their adsorption capacity for the lead (Pb), zinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd) elements from mining waste. Therefore, the physical and chemical properties of Brazilian composts were investigated, as well as their adsorption capacities, through batch equilibrium tests with Pb, Zn and Cd in single-element solutions. All composts revealed promising adsorption characteristics, including a near-neutral pH (6.4-7.7); a negative ΔpH (-0.4 to -1.0); oxidizing conditions (Eh between +267.67 and + 347.00 mV); a considerable presence of organic matter (193.92-418.70 g kg^-1); a substantial (albeit very varied) cation exchange capacity (29.00-75.00 cmol_c kg^-1); and significant porosity (pore volume between 0.01113 and 0.05400 cm³ g^-1). These results showed that the composts share similar intrinsic characteristics, indicating that the different composting methods influenced subtly the physical and chemical properties of the final products. Overall, the removal selectivity follows the order Pb > Cd > Zn, with the removal percentage ranging from 94.0 to 99.6% for Pb, 55.4-89.8% for Cd and 22.1-64.0% for Zn. Thus, the joint assessment of the characterization and adsorption results shows evidence that composts, a low-cost organic material produced from waste, may be promising as alternative reactive materials for remediation of soils contaminated by Pb, Zn and Cd.

A Review of Heavy Metal Contamination of Food Crops in Nigeria

Heavy metal contamination of food crops is an issue of global concern that ultimately results in toxicity and diseases in humans and animals through consumption of contaminated soils and food crops. With a population of 182 million people, Nigeria is regarded as the most populous country in Africa. The people suffer environmental pollution from high levels of heavy metal accumulation in the environment and in food crops. Heavy metals have atomic densities higher than 4 g/cm3, and these include lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), silver (Ag), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and platinum (Pt). The high level of environmental contamination by these metals is dangerous because their uptake by plants and subsequent accumulation in food crops consumed by humans and animals is deleterious to health. There are many known sources of harmful metals, including the earth, which releases them into food, air, and water, and anthropogenic activities, such as the application of fertilizer in agriculture, the use of pesticides and herbicides, and irrigation. Other sources are automobile emissions, paints, cigarette smoking, industries, and sewage and waste disposal. Evidence shows that vegetables and other food crops consumed in Nigeria are contaminated by heavy metals, and this is associated with adverse health issues, such as cancer, which is currently on the rise in Nigeria. It is therefore vital that communities with high levels of heavy metal pollution avoid eating large quantities of these food items. There is also the need for the monitoring of levels of these injurious elements in food crops.

Effect of calcium bentonite on Zn and Cu mobility and their accumulation in vegetable growth in soil amended with compost during consecutive planting

In this study, greenhouse pot experiment was carried out to investigate the Cu and Zn mobility and their accumulations in pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.) and Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapachinensis L.) growth in Ca-bentonite-pig manure co-compost (CBC)-soil system during three consecutive planting. Five composts (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10% Ca-bentonite-pig manure co-composts) amended soil with 5% (w/w) application rate and compared to control without any additive. The results showed that the addition of CBC increased the biomass and chlorophyll content of pakchoi, and the maximum overall yield was found in 7.5% CBC treatment (12.89 ± 0.25 g), while when compared with the 0% CBC (15.89 ± 0.52 g) treatment, the Ca-bentonite amendment slightly decreased the Chinese cabbage yield (14.65 ± 0.11-15.41 ± 1.97 g). Additionally, compared to the 0% CBC treatment (11.81 ± 0.57-25.75 ± 0.89 mg/kg), the Ca-bentonite amendments showed a positive effect on restraining the diethylene triamine penta-acetic acid Zn mobilization (4.43 ± 0.41-12.48 ± 2.54 mg/kg) in pakchoi and Chinese cabbage; beside this, no obvious effect was observed on DTPA-Cu. Furthermore, there were great potential impacts for plant-available Zn in Ca-bentonite amended treatments during the consecutive planting, which decreased the content of Zn in plants. DTPA extraction results showed significantly higher Cu and Zn contents in compost-soil mixture, but its availability for grown plant was not confirmed during the consecutive planting, because of the consecutive decrease heavy metals contents in crops. Overall, the Ca-bentonite could be a useful additive for restricting the heavy metal mobility and increase the pakchoi yield.

Detoxification strategies and regulation of oxygen production and flowering of Platanus acerifolia under lead (Pb) stress by transcriptome analysis

Toxic metal pollution is a major environmental problem that has received wide attention. Platanus acerifolia (London plane tree) is an important greening tree species that can adapt to environmental pollution. The genetic basis and molecular mechanisms associated with the ability of P. acerifolia to respond lead (Pb) stress have not been reported so far. In this study, 16,246 unigenes differentially expressed unigenes that were obtained from P. acerifolia under Pb stress using next-generation sequencing. Essential pathways such as photosynthesis, and gibberellins and glutathione metabolism were enriched among the differentially expressed unigenes. Furthermore, many important unigenes, including antioxidant enzymes, plants chelate compounds, and metal transporters involved in defense and detoxification mechanisms, were differentially expressed in response to Pb stress. The unigenes encoding the oxygen-evolving enhancer Psb and OEE protein families were downregulated in Pb-stressed plants, implying that oxygen production might decrease in plants under Pb stress. The relationship between gibberellin and P. acerifolia flowering is also discussed. The information and new insights obtained in this study will contribute to further investigations into the molecular regulation mechanisms of Pb accumulation and tolerance in greening tree species.

Water Quality and Toxic Element Effects on Isohumic Soil Properties and Crops in Semi-arid Regions

Treated wastewater (TWW) and freshwater used separately or within the same agricultural soil is a key element in soil parameter evolution, soil-plant pollution and crop yields. The long-term application of TWW increased CaCO3, P, N, K, TOC, metal contents, pH and salinity in isohumic soil in semi-arid and arid climates. Also, it was found that using freshwater after TWW within the same land leached soil compounds and pollutants. Consequently, a clear decline of salinity, pH, macronutrient and pollutant concentrations occured. Therefore, the economic profitability in topsoil decreased. TWW contributed to crop production increase, despite high fertilizer and metal concentrations in TWW and soil. Also, no toxic metal trace was detected in cultivated plants despite soil pollution. Occasional rainwater removed the stable part of fertilizers in topsoil and slightly improved plant development.

Influence of municipal solid waste compost application on heavy metal content in soil

Municipal solid waste composts (MSWC) are widely used over agricultural lands as organic soil amendment and fertilizer. However, MSWC use may result in various adverse impacts over agricultural lands. Especially, heavy metal contents of MSWC should always be taken into consideration while using in agricultural practices. The present study was conducted to find out heavy metal contents of municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) and to investigate their effects on soils. Experiments were carried out in three replications as field experiments for 2 years. Dry-based MSWC was applied to each plot at the ratios of 0, 40, 80, 120, 160, 200 t ha(-1). Results revealed that heavy metal content of MSWC was within the allowable legal limits. Compost treatments significantly increased Cu, Zn, Ni, Cr, Cd, and Pb content of soils (p < 0.01). Increasing soil heavy metal contents were observed with increasing applied compost doses. Although compost treatments significantly increased soil heavy metal contents, the final contents were still within the allowable legal limits. Results showed that MSWC doses over 10 t ha(-1) may create a heavy metal risk in long term for soils with pH ≥ 7. Therefore, in MSWC use over agricultural lands, heavy metal contents should always be taken into consideration and excessive uses should be avoided.

Effects of long-term cattle manure application on soil properties and soil heavy metals in corn seed production in Northwest China

To evaluate the effects of manure application on continuous maize seed production, 10-year cattle manure on soil properties, heavy metal in soil and plant were evaluated and investigated in calcareous soil. Results showed that manure application increased soil organic matter, total and available nutrients, pH, and electrical conductivity (EC), and the most massive rate caused the highest increase. Manure application led to an increase in exchangeable fraction and an increase of availability of heavy metal. Residual fraction was dominant among all metals, followed by the fraction bound to Fe and Mn oxides. Manure application involved accumulation of heavy metal on corn, but the accumulation in the stem is higher than that in the seed. Manure application led to a high deficiency of total Zn and high accumulation of total Cd in the soil of corn seed production, which should be a risk for safety seed production in calcareous soil in Northwest China.

The use of a biodegradable chelator for enhanced phytoextraction of heavy metals by Festuca arundinacea from municipal solid waste compost and associated heavy metal leaching

In a column experiment with horizontal permeable barriers, the effects of a biodegradable chelator-nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) on the uptake of heavy metals from municipal solid waste (MSW) compost by Festuca arundinacea and metal leaching were investigated. The use of NTA was effective in increasing Cu, Pb, and Zn uptakes in shoots of two crops of F. arundinacea. In columns with barriers and treated with 20 mmol NTA per kg MSW compost, metal uptakes by the first and second crop of F. arundinacea were, respectively, 3.8 and 4.0 times for Pb, and 1.8 and 1.7 times for Zn greater with the added NTA than without it. Though NTA application mobilized metals, it caused only slight leaching of metals from MSW compost. Permeable barriers positioned between compost and soil effectively reduced metal leaching. NTA-assisted phytoextraction by turfgrass with permeable barriers to cleanup heavy metal contaminated MSW compost should be environmentally safe.

Accumulation and spatial distribution of Cd, Cr, and Pb in mulberry from municipal solid waste compost following application of EDTA and (NH4)2SO4

Municipal solid waste compost can be used to cropland as soil amendment to supply nutrients and improve soil physical properties. But long-term application of municipal solid waste (MSW) compost may result in accumulation of toxic metals in amended soil. Phytoremediation, especially phytoextraction, is a novel, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly approach that uses metal-accumulating plants to concentrate and remove metals from contaminated soils. Ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) was applied to metal-contaminated soil to increase the mobility and phytoavailability of metals in soil, thereby increasing the amount of toxic metals accumulated in the upper parts of phytoextracting plants. The objectives of this study were (1) to investigate the accumulation and spatial distribution of toxic metals (Cd, Cr, and Pb) in mulberry from MSW compost with the application of EDTA and (NH(4))(2)SO(4), (2) to examine the effectiveness of EDTA and (NH(4))(2)SO(4) applied together on toxic metals (Cd, Cr, and Pb) removal by mulberry under field conditions, and (3) to evaluate the potential of mulberry for phytoextraction of toxic metals from MSW compost. The tested plant-mulberry had been grown in MSW compost field for 4 years. EDTA solution at five rates (0, 50, 100, 50 mmol L(-1) + 1 g L(-1) (NH(4))(2)SO(4), and 100 mmol L(-1) + 1 g L(-1) (NH(4))(2)SO(4)) was added into mulberry root medium in September 2009. Twenty days later, the plants were harvested and separated into six parts according to plant height. Cd, Cr, and Pb contents in plant samples and MSW compost were analyzed using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. In the same treatment, Cd, Cr, and Pb concentrations in mulberry shoot were all higher than those in root, and Cd and Pb concentrations in shoot increased from lower to upper parts, reaching the highest in leaves. Significant increases were found in toxic metal concentration in different parts of mulberry with increasing EDTA concentration, especially when combined with (NH(4))(2)SO(4). Mulberry exhibited high ability to accumulate Cd with bioconcentration factors (BCFs) higher than 1. EDTA application also significantly increased Cd BCFs. More than 30 % of metal uptake was concentrated in mulberry branches (stem of above 100 cm height) and leaves. Results presented here show that mulberry is a woody plant that has the potential of Cd phytoextraction from MSW compost by removing leaves and cutting branches. The application of EDTA combined with (NH(4))(2)SO(4) significantly enhanced the efficiency of mulberry in removing Cd from the compost medium. Adding (NH(4))(2)SO(4) into the compost will lower the risk of the exposure of environment to excessive non-biodegradable EDTA in a large-scale EDTA-assisted phytoextraction by reducing the dosage of EDTA. In China, the need for sod is increasing day by day. Sod is often produced on arable soil and sold together with soils. This would lead to the soil being infertile and the soil layer thin. After several times' production, the soil can no longer be used for cultivating crops and be destroyed. In order to fully utilize MSW compost resources and save valuable soil resources, MSW compost can be used to replace arable soil to produce sod after extraction of toxic metals in it.

Influence of compost addition on lead and arsenic bioavailability in reclaimed orchard soil assessed using Porcellio scaber bioaccumulation test

Long-term application of lead arsenate in orchards has led to a significant accumulation of Pb and As in the topsoil. Reclamation of old orchards for agricultural purposes entails the exposure of humans to Pb and As, which can be reduced by adequate remediation actions. In this study, we assessed the remediation efficiency of compost addition, commonly used as a sustainable agricultural practice, in decreasing the human exposure Pb and As by direct ingestion. The remediation was evaluated based on Pb and As bioavailability, assessed by means of a selective non-exhaustive chemical extraction (modified Morgan extraction, MME), with a physiologically based extraction test (PBET) for the assessment of Pb and As bioavailability in ingested soils and with a novel in vivo bioaccumulation test with isopods (Porcellio scaber). All the tests showed that compost addition consistently reduced Pb, but increased As potential bioavailability. The bioaccumulation test with P. scaber was sensitive to changes in Pb and As bioavailability in test soils. However, the results indicate that the bioavailability of As could be under- or overestimated using solely chemical extraction tests. Indirect assessment of trace metal bioavailability with bioaccumulation in isopods can be used as complementary source of data to the existing in vitro chemical extraction test approach for the estimation of human exposure to trace elements in polluted and remediated soil. This is the first report on the use of As accumulation in P. scaber as a tool for the assessment of As bioavailability in contaminated orchard soil.

Effects of municipal solid waste compost and mineral fertilizer amendments on soil properties and heavy metals distribution in maize plants (Zea mays L.)

Soil amendments based on crop nutrient requirements are considered a beneficial management practice. A greenhouse experiment with maize seeds (Zea mays L.) was conducted to assess the inputs of metals to agricultural land from soil amendments. Maize seeds were exposed to a municipal solid waste (MSW) compost (50 Mg ha(-1)) and NPK fertilizer (33 g plant(-1)) amendments considering N plant requirement until the harvesting stage with the following objectives: (1) determine the accumulation of total and available metals in soil and (2) know the uptake and ability of translocation of metals from roots to different plant parts, and their effect on biomass production. The results showed that MSW compost increased Cu, Pb and Zn in soil, while NPK fertilizer increased Cd and Ni, but decreased Hg concentration in soil. The root system acted as a barrier for Cr, Ni, Pb and Hg, so metal uptake and translocation were lower in aerial plant parts. Biomass production was significantly enhanced in both MSW and NPK fertilizer-amended soils (17%), but also provoked slight increases of metals and their bioavailability in soil. The highest metal concentrations were observed in roots, but there were no significant differences between plants growing in amended soil and the control soil. Important differences were found for aerial plant parts as regards metal accumulation, whereas metal levels in grains were negligible in all the treatments.

EDTA-assisted phytoextraction of heavy metals by turfgrass from municipal solid waste compost using permeable barriers and associated potential leaching risk

A column experiment with horizontal permeable barriers was conducted to investigate phytoextraction of heavy metals by Lolium perenne L. from municipal solid waste compost following EDTA application, as well as to study the effects of L. perenne and permeable barriers on preventing metal from leaching. In columns with barriers, EDTA addition yielded maximum concentrations of Cu, Zn and Pb of 155, 541 and 33.5 mg kg(-1) in shoot, respectively. This led to 4.2, 2.1 and 7.4 times higher concentrations of Cu, Zn and Pb compared to treatment with no chelating agent, respectively. In treatments with 10 mmol kg(-1) EDTA, the barriers reduced leaching of Cu, Zn and Pb by approximately three times, respectively, resulting in leaching of total initial Cu, Zn and Pb by 27.3%, 25.2% and 28.8%, respectively, after four times' irrigation. These results indicate that L. perenne and permeable barriers are effective to reduce leaching of heavy metals and minimize the risk of contaminating groundwater in EDTA-enhanced phytoremediation. Thus these findings highlight that turfgrass and permeable barriers can effectively prevent metal leaching.

Comparative study on open system digestion and microwave assisted digestion methods for metal determination in shrimp sludge compost

The aim of this work was to evaluate two different digestion methods for the determination of the total concentration of metals (Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb and Cd) in shrimp sludge compost. The compost made from shrimp aquaculture sludge co-composted with organic materials (peat, crushed bark and manure) was used as an organic growing medium for crop. Open system digestion and microwave assisted digestion procedures were employed in sample preparation. Various combinations and volumes of hydrofluoric, nitric and hydrochloric acids were evaluated for the efficiency of both methods. A certified reference material (CRM 146) was used in the comparison of these two digestion methods. The results revealed a good agreement between both procedures and the certified valued. The best recoveries were found in the range between 95% and 99% for microwave assisted digestion with a mixture of 2 ml of HF, 6 ml of HNO(3) and 2 ml of HCl. This procedure was recommended as the method for digestion the compost herein based on the recovery analysis and time taken.

Total and available soil trace element concentrations in two Mediterranean agricultural systems treated with municipal waste compost or conventional mineral fertilizers

The temporal dynamics of some trace elements in two different types of Mediterranean soils were studied in order to evaluate the possible long-term contamination following compost amendments. Total and available (DTPA-extractable) concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn were determined. The study was carried out on two agricultural soils in Campania region (southern Italy), a Sandy Loam Calcaric Cambisol (SG) and a Clay Gleyc Luvisol (CO), during 3 years of organic amendment with compost. The compost, produced from the organic fraction of municipal solid waste and urban yard trimmings, in accordance with the Italian law for agricultural use, was applied at annually rates of 15, 30, and 45 t ha(-1) (on dry weight basis). Wide variations in total and available Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn concentrations were observed over time, but appeared to be in many cases unrelated to the treatments, occurring also in control plots. After 3 years of compost application the amended SG soil showed the highest and significant increase in total Cd and Zn concentrations; in addition, the available Cd, Pb and Zn concentrations increased in accordance with the compost rates. The CO soil, characterized by a higher clay content, lower organic matter content and lower cation exchange capacity, exhibited a lower increase in available metal fractions. Our findings show that compost amendment affects more the available than the total metal concentrations in the two types of soils studied and thus it is important into legislation that metal "bioavailability" may be considered in defining threshold metal values.

Enhanced uptake of heavy metals in municipal solid waste compost by turfgrass following the application of EDTA

Enhancement of multiple heavy metal uptake from municipal solid waste (MSW) compost by Lolium perenne L. in a field experiment was investigated with application of EDTA. EDTA was added in solution at six rates (0-30 mmol kg( - 1)) after 50 days of plant growth. Two weeks later, plants were harvested for the first crop and then all the turfgrasses were mowed. After another 30 days of growth, EDTA was added again at above six rates to the corresponding sites and the second crop was harvested 2 weeks later. The results showed that EDTA significantly increased heavy metal accumulation in both crops of L. perenne. For the first crop, the concentrations of Mn, Ni, Cd, and Pb in the shoots increased remarkably with increasing EDTA supply, peaked at 25 mmol kg( - 1) EDTA, and shoots of 0-5 cm height (shoots from medium surface to 5 cm height) had higher metal concentrations than 5-10 cm and >10 cm shoots. The highest concentration of Mn, Ni, Cd, and Pb was 2.3-, 2.3-, 2.6-, and 3.2-fold, respectively, in 0-5 cm shoots higher than control. For the second crop, the concentrations of Mn, Cu, and Pb in shoots were, in general, less than those in the first crop. However, the second crop was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than the first crop in dry biomass, so the total amount of metals removed by the second crop was more than the first crop. In addition, EDTA significantly increased the translocation ratios of most heavy metals from roots to shoots. For the first crop, 38% of the total Zn, 51% of Cd, 49% of Pb, 60% Mn, 55% Ni, and 45% Cu taken up by the plant was translocated in the shoots of 0-5 cm height. Turfgrass would have potential for use in remediation of heavy metals in MSW compost or contaminated soils.

Effect of vermicompost on growth, yield and nutrition status of tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum)

An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of vermicompost on growth, yield and fruit quality of tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum var. Super Beta) in a field condition. The experiment was a randomized complete block design with four replications. The different rates of vermicompost (0, 5, 10 and 15 t ha(-1)) was incorporated into the top 15 cm of soil. During experiment period, fruits were harvested twice in a week and total yield were recorded for two months. At the end of experiment, growth characteristics such as leaf number, leaf area and shoot dry weights were determined. The results revealed that addition of vermicompost at rate of 15 t ha(-1) significantly (at p < 0.05) increased growth and yield compared to control. Vermicompost with rate of 15 t ha(-1) increased EC of fruit juice and percentage of fruit dry matter up to 30 and 24%, respectively. The content of K, P, Fe and Zn in the plant tissue increased 55, 73, 32 and 36% compared to untreated plots respectively. The result of our experiment showed addition of vermicompost had significant (p < 0.05) positive effects on growth, yield and elemental content of plant as compared to control.