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Residue Analysis and Assessment of the Risk of Dietary Exposure to Domoic Acid in Shellfish from the Coastal Areas of China. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120862. [PMID: 36548759 PMCID: PMC9783215 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms in Chinese waters have caused serious domoic acid (DA) contamination in shellfish. Although shellfish are at particular risk of dietary exposure to DA, there have been no systematic DA risk assessments in Chinese coastal waters. A total of 451 shellfish samples were collected from March to November 2020. The presence of DA and four of its isomers were detected using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The spatial-temporal distribution of DA occurrence and its potential health risks were examined. DA was detected in 198 shellfish samples (43.90%), with a maximum level of 942.86 μg/kg. DA was recorded in all 14 shellfish species tested and Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas) showed the highest average DA concentration (82.36 μg/kg). The DA concentrations in shellfish showed distinct spatial-temporal variations, with significantly higher levels of occurrence in autumn than in summer and spring (p < 0.01), and particularly high occurrence in Guangdong and Fujian Provinces. The detection rates and maximum concentrations of the four DA isomers were low. While C. gigas from Guangdong Province in September showed the highest levels of DA contamination, the risk to human consumers was low. This study improves our understanding of the potential risk of shellfish exposure to DA-residues.
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Aboualaalaa H, El Kbiach ML, Rijal Leblad B, Hervé F, Hormat-Allah A, Baudy L, Ennaskhi I, Hammi I, Ibghi M, Elmortaji H, Abadie E, Rolland JL, Amzil Z, Laabir M. Development of harmful algal blooms species responsible for lipophilic and amnesic shellfish poisoning intoxications in southwestern Mediterranean coastal waters. Toxicon 2022; 219:106916. [PMID: 36115413 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mediterranean waters have undergone environmental changes during the last decades leading to various modifications of the structure of phytoplankton populations, especially Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) species. Monitoring of the potentially toxic phytoplankton species was carried out biweekly in the western Mediterranean coast of Morocco from March 2018 to March 2019. Lipophilic Shellfish Toxins (LSTs) using LC-MS/MS and Domoic Acid (DA) using HPLC-UV were measured in the exploited mollusks, the cockle Acanthocardia tuberculata and the smooth clam Callista chione. We also determined the prevailing environmental factors in four surveyed sites (M'diq bay, Martil, Kaa Asras, and Djawn) selected to cover a variety of coastal ecosystems. Results showed that Pseudo-nitzschia spp. a DA producer species, was abundant with a pick of 50 × 103 cells l-1 on October 2018 in Djawn. Dinophysis caudata was the dominate Dinophysis species and showed a maximum density of 2200 cells l-1 on July in Djawn. Prorocentrum lima, an epibenthic dinoflagellate, appeared rarely in the water column with densities <80 cells l-1. Gonyaulax spinifera and Protoceratium reticulatum were found occasionally with a maximum density of 160 cells l-1. Karenia selliformis was detected only five times (<80 cells l-1) throughout the survey period. LC-MS/MS analyses revealed the presence of OA/DTX3, PTX-2, PTX-2 sa, and PTX-2 sa epi in the cockle at concentrations of up to 44.81 (OA/DTX-3+PTXs) ng g-1 meat. GYM-A was detected in the clam at concentrations of up to 4.22 ng g-1 meat. For the first time, AZAs and YTXs were detected in the southwestern Mediterranean with maximum values of 2.49 and 10.93 ng g-1 meat of cockle, respectively. DA was detected in moderate concentrations not exceeding 5.65 μg g-1 in both mollusks. Results showed that the observed toxic algae in the water column were responsible from the analysed toxins in the mollusks. It is likely that the southwestern Mediterranean waters could see the development of emergent species producing potent toxins (YTXs, AZAs, GYM-A). These dinoflagellates have to be isolated, ribotyped, and their toxin profiles determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hicham Aboualaalaa
- Equipe de Biotechnologie Végétale, Faculty of Sciences, Abdelmalek Essaadi University Tetouan, Morocco; INRH (Moroccan Institute of Fisheries Research), Marine Environment Monitoring Laboratory, Tangier, Morocco; Université Montpellier, MARBEC CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Benlahcen Rijal Leblad
- INRH (Moroccan Institute of Fisheries Research), Marine Environment Monitoring Laboratory, Tangier, Morocco.
| | - Fabienne Hervé
- Ifremer (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea), PHYTOX, METALG Laboratory, Nantes, France
| | - Amal Hormat-Allah
- INRH (Moroccan Institute of Fisheries Research), Marine Environment Monitoring Laboratory, Tangier, Morocco
| | - Lauriane Baudy
- Ifremer (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea), PHYTOX, METALG Laboratory, Nantes, France
| | - Ismail Ennaskhi
- INRH (Moroccan Institute of Fisheries Research), Marine Environment Monitoring Laboratory, Tangier, Morocco
| | - Ikram Hammi
- INRH (Moroccan Institute of Fisheries Research), Marine Environment Monitoring Laboratory, Tangier, Morocco
| | - Mustapha Ibghi
- Equipe de Biotechnologie Végétale, Faculty of Sciences, Abdelmalek Essaadi University Tetouan, Morocco; INRH (Moroccan Institute of Fisheries Research), Marine Environment Monitoring Laboratory, Tangier, Morocco; Université Montpellier, MARBEC CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, Montpellier, France
| | - Hind Elmortaji
- INRH (Moroccan Institute of Fisheries Research), Marine Biotoxins Laboratory, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Eric Abadie
- MARBEC, Université Montpellier, CNRS, Ifremer, IRD, Sète, France
| | - Jean Luc Rolland
- MARBEC, Université Montpellier, CNRS, Ifremer, IRD, Sète, France
| | - Zouher Amzil
- Ifremer (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea), PHYTOX, METALG Laboratory, Nantes, France
| | - Mohamed Laabir
- Université Montpellier, MARBEC CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, Montpellier, France
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Blanco J, Moroño Á, Arévalo F, Correa J, Salgado C, Rossignoli AE, Lamas JP. Twenty-Five Years of Domoic Acid Monitoring in Galicia (NW Spain): Spatial, Temporal and Interspecific Variations. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:756. [PMID: 34822540 PMCID: PMC8624277 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Prevalence, impact on shellfish resources and interspecific, spatial, and temporal variabilities of domoic acid (DA) in bivalves from Galicia (NW Spain) have been studied based on more than 25 years of monitoring data. The maximum prevalence (samples in which DA was detected) (100%) and incidence (samples with DA levels above the regulatory limit) (97.4%) were recorded in Pecten maximus, and the minimum ones in Mytilus galloprovincialis (12.6 and 1.1%, respectively). The maximum DA concentrations were 663.9 mg kg-1 in P. maximus and 316 mg kg-1 in Venerupis corrugata. After excluding scallop P. maximusdata, DA was found (prevalence) in 13.3% of bivalve samples, with 1.3% being over the regulatory limit. In general, the prevalence of this toxin decreased towards the North but not the magnitude of its episodes. The seasonal distribution was characterized by two maxima, in spring and autumn, with the later decreasing in intensity towards the north. DA levels decreased slightly over the studied period, although this decreasing trend was not linear. A cyclic pattern was observed in the interannual variability, with cycles of 4 and 11 years. Intoxication and detoxification rates were slower than those expected from laboratory experiments, suggesting the supply of DA during these phases plays an important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas, Xunta de Galicia, Dirección Pedras de Corón, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain;
| | - Ángeles Moroño
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain; (Á.M.); (F.A.); (J.C.); (C.S.); (J.P.L.)
| | - Fabiola Arévalo
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain; (Á.M.); (F.A.); (J.C.); (C.S.); (J.P.L.)
| | - Jorge Correa
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain; (Á.M.); (F.A.); (J.C.); (C.S.); (J.P.L.)
| | - Covadonga Salgado
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain; (Á.M.); (F.A.); (J.C.); (C.S.); (J.P.L.)
| | - Araceli E. Rossignoli
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas, Xunta de Galicia, Dirección Pedras de Corón, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain;
| | - J. Pablo Lamas
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain; (Á.M.); (F.A.); (J.C.); (C.S.); (J.P.L.)
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Melliti Ben Garali S, Sahraoui I, Ben Othman H, Kouki A, de la Iglesia P, Diogène J, Lafabrie C, Andree KB, Fernández-Tejedor M, Mejri K, Meddeb M, Pringault O, Hlaili AS. Capacity of the potentially toxic diatoms Pseudo-nitzschia mannii and Pseudo-nitzschia hasleana to tolerate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2021; 214:112082. [PMID: 33721579 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This study investigates the effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) on two potentially toxic Pseudo-nitzschia hasleana and P. mannii, isolated from a PAH contaminated marine environment. Both species, maintained in non-axenic cultures, have been exposed during 144 h to increasing concentrations of a 15 PAHs mixture. Analysis of the domoic acid, showed very low concentrations. Dose-response curves for growth and photosynthesis inhibition were determined. Both species have maintained their growth until the end of incubation even at the highest concentration tested (120 µg l-1), Nevertheless, P mannii showed faster growth and seemed to be more tolerant than P. hasleana. To reduce PAH toxicity, both species have enhanced their biovolume, with a higher increase for P. mannii relative to P hasleana. Both species were also capable of bio-concentrating PAHs and were able to degrade them probably in synergy with their associated bacteria. The highest biodegradation was observed for P. mannii, which could harbored more efficient hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria. This study provides the first evidence that PAHs can control the growth and physiology of potentially toxic diatoms. Future studies should investigate the bacterial community associated with Pseudo-nitzschia species, as responses to pollutants or to other environmental stressors could be strongly influence by associated bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sondes Melliti Ben Garali
- Laboratoire de Biologie Végétale et Phytoplanctonologie, Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Université de Carthage, Bizerte, Tunisia; Université de Tunis El Manar, Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, LR18ES41 Sciences de l'Environnement, Biologie et Physiologie des Organismes Aquatiques, Tunis, Tunisia.
| | - Inès Sahraoui
- Laboratoire de Biologie Végétale et Phytoplanctonologie, Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Université de Carthage, Bizerte, Tunisia; Université de Tunis El Manar, Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, LR18ES41 Sciences de l'Environnement, Biologie et Physiologie des Organismes Aquatiques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Hiba Ben Othman
- Laboratoire de Biologie Végétale et Phytoplanctonologie, Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Université de Carthage, Bizerte, Tunisia
| | - Abdessalem Kouki
- Laboratoire de Microscopie électronique et de Microanalyse, Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Université de Carthage, Bizerte, Tunisia
| | - Pablo de la Iglesia
- Institut de Recherche et Technologie Agroalimentaire (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou, Km 5.5, Sant Carles de la Rapita, 43540 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Jorge Diogène
- Institut de Recherche et Technologie Agroalimentaire (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou, Km 5.5, Sant Carles de la Rapita, 43540 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Céline Lafabrie
- UMR 9190 MARBEC IRD-Ifremer-CNRS-Université de Montpellier, Place Eugéne Bataillon, Case 093, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Karl B Andree
- Institut de Recherche et Technologie Agroalimentaire (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou, Km 5.5, Sant Carles de la Rapita, 43540 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Margarita Fernández-Tejedor
- Institut de Recherche et Technologie Agroalimentaire (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou, Km 5.5, Sant Carles de la Rapita, 43540 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Kaouther Mejri
- Laboratoire de Biologie Végétale et Phytoplanctonologie, Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Université de Carthage, Bizerte, Tunisia; Université de Tunis El Manar, Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, LR18ES41 Sciences de l'Environnement, Biologie et Physiologie des Organismes Aquatiques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Marouan Meddeb
- Laboratoire de Biologie Végétale et Phytoplanctonologie, Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Université de Carthage, Bizerte, Tunisia; Université de Tunis El Manar, Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, LR18ES41 Sciences de l'Environnement, Biologie et Physiologie des Organismes Aquatiques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Olivier Pringault
- UMR 9190 MARBEC IRD-Ifremer-CNRS-Université de Montpellier, Place Eugéne Bataillon, Case 093, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France; UMR 110 MOI Institut Méditerranéen d'Océanologie, UniversitéAix Marseille, Université de Toulon, CNRS, IRD, Marseille, France
| | - Asma Sakka Hlaili
- Laboratoire de Biologie Végétale et Phytoplanctonologie, Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Université de Carthage, Bizerte, Tunisia; Université de Tunis El Manar, Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, LR18ES41 Sciences de l'Environnement, Biologie et Physiologie des Organismes Aquatiques, Tunis, Tunisia
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Hassoun AER, Ujević I, Mahfouz C, Fakhri M, Roje-Busatto R, Jemaa S, Nazlić N. Occurrence of domoic acid and cyclic imines in marine biota from Lebanon-Eastern Mediterranean Sea. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 755:142542. [PMID: 33035983 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Marine biotoxins are naturally existing chemicals produced by toxic algae and can accumulate in marine biota. When consumed with seafood, these phycotoxins can cause human intoxication with symptoms varying from barely-noticed illness to death depending on the type of toxin and its concentration. Recently, the occurrence of marine biotoxins has been given special attention in the Mediterranean as it increased in frequency and severity due to anthropogenic pressures and climate change. Up to our knowledge, no previous study reported the presence of lipophilic toxins (LTs) and cyclic imines (CIs) in marine biota in Lebanon. Hence, this study reports LTs and CIs in marine organisms: one gastropod (Phorcus turbinatus), two bivalves (Spondylus spinosus and Patella rustica complex) and one fish species (Siganus rivulatus), collected from various Lebanese coastal areas. The results show values below the limit of detection (LOD) for okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1 and 2, pectenotoxin-1 and 2, yessotoxins, azaspiracids and saxitoxins. The spiny oyster (S. spinosus) showed the highest levels of domoic acid (DA; 3.88 mg kg-1), gymnodimine (GYM-B) and spirolide (SPX) (102.9 and 15.07 μg kg-1, respectively) in congruence with the occurrence of high abundance of Pseudo-nitzchia spp., Gymnodinium spp., and Alexandrium spp. DA levels were below the European Union (EU) regulatory limit, but higher than the Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level (0.9 μg g-1) for neurotoxicity in humans and lower than the Acute Reference Dose (30 μg kg-1 bw) both set by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA, 2009). Based on these findings, it is unlikely that a health risk exists due to the exposure to these toxins through seafood consumption in Lebanon. Despite this fact, the chronic toxicity of DA, GYMs and SPXs remains unclear and the effect of the repetitive consumption of contaminated seafood needs to be more investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abed El Rahman Hassoun
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon.
| | - Ivana Ujević
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia
| | - Céline Mahfouz
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon
| | - Milad Fakhri
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon
| | - Romana Roje-Busatto
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia
| | - Sharif Jemaa
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon
| | - Nikša Nazlić
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia
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Dursun F. Occurence and Variability of Domoic Acid in Mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) Samples from the Golden Horn Estuary, Sea of Marmara (Turkey). BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2021; 106:318-326. [PMID: 33394065 DOI: 10.1007/s00128-020-03082-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence and variability of domoic acid (DA) levels in wild Mytilus galloprovincialis samples, compared with the Pseudo-nitzschia spp. abundance and particulate DA (pDA) concentrations in relation to the environmental changes in the Golden Horn Estuary, Turkey from October 2018 to September 2019. Biotoxin analysis were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection (HPLC-DAD). DA concentrations in particulate matter (pDA) and mussel samples were found between 0.090-0.685 µg L-1 and 0.905-2.413 µg g-1, respectively. Accumulation of DA in wild mussel samples could be the result of the increasing tendency of P.nitzschia spp. abundances between April and May. Maximum DA levels were detected in particulate matter when the salinity was measured as the lowest in May. Thus, it can be said that the DA production was driven by the significant salinity decrease in the GHE. This is the first attempt regarding the presence of DA in M. galloprovincialis samples collected from Turkish coasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuat Dursun
- Department of Physical Oceanography and Marine Biology, Institute of Marine Sciences and Management, Istanbul University, Vefa, 34134, Istanbul, Turkey.
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Nicolas J, Hoogenboom RL, Hendriksen PJ, Bodero M, Bovee TF, Rietjens IM, Gerssen A. Marine biotoxins and associated outbreaks following seafood consumption: Prevention and surveillance in the 21st century. GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY-AGRICULTURE POLICY ECONOMICS AND ENVIRONMENT 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gfs.2017.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Busch JA, Andree KB, Diogène J, Fernández-Tejedor M, Toebe K, John U, Krock B, Tillmann U, Cembella AD. Toxigenic algae and associated phycotoxins in two coastal embayments in the Ebro Delta (NW Mediterranean). HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 55:191-201. [PMID: 28073532 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB) surveillance is complicated by high diversity of species and associated phycotoxins. Such species-level information on taxonomic affiliations and on cell abundance and toxin content is, however, crucial for effective monitoring, especially of aquaculture and fisheries areas. The aim addressed in this study was to determine putative HAB taxa and related phycotoxins in plankton from aquaculture sites in the Ebro Delta, NW Mediterranean. The comparative geographical distribution of potentially harmful plankton taxa was established by weekly field sampling throughout the water column during late spring-early summer over two years at key stations in Alfacs and Fangar embayments within the Ebro Delta. Core results included not only confirmed identification of HAB taxa that are common for the time period and geographical area, but also provided evidence of potentially new taxa. At least 25 HAB taxa were identified to species level, and an additional six genera were confirmed, by morphological criteria under light microscopy and/or by molecular genetics approaches involving qPCR and next generation DNA pyrosequencing. In particular, new insights were gained by the inclusion of molecular techniques, which focused attention on the HAB genera Alexandrium, Karlodinium, and Pseudo-nitzschia. Noteworthy is the discovery of Azadinium sp., a potentially new HAB species for this area, and Gymnodinium catenatum or Gymnodinium impudicum by means of light microscopy. In addition, significant amounts of the neurotoxin domoic acid (DA) were found for the first time in phytoplankton samples in the Ebro Delta. While the presence of the known DA-producing diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia was confirmed in corresponding samples, the maximal toxin concentration did not coincide with highest cell abundances of the genus and the responsible species could not be identified. Combined findings of microscopic and molecular detection approaches underline the need for a synoptic strategy for HAB monitoring, which integrates the respective advantages and compensates for limitations of individual methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia A Busch
- University of Oldenburg, Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, 26111 Oldenburg, Germany; Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Karl B Andree
- IRTA, Ctra Poble Nou km 5,5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Rapita, Tarragona, Spain.
| | - Jorge Diogène
- IRTA, Ctra Poble Nou km 5,5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Rapita, Tarragona, Spain.
| | | | - Kerstin Toebe
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Uwe John
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Allan D Cembella
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
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