Organochlorine pesticide levels in maternal blood and placental tissue with reference to preterm birth: a recent trend in North Indian population

Exposure to pesticides during pregnancy and the risk of neural tube defects: A systematic review

Exposure to pesticides during pregnancy has been associated with several serious congenital malformations, such as neural tube defects, therefore, is a cause for concern in terms of human health. This review aims to gather information related to maternal exposure during pregnancy and the risk of triggering neural tube defects in the offspring. The search strategy for the studies followed the PRISMA guidelines. We conducted a systematic search in the Science Direct, PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science databases for all epidemiological studies that sought to associate exposure to pesticides during embryonic development with the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs). The keywords used were "pesticide", "herbicide", "congenital" and "neural". Of the 229 articles, 8 eligible ones (7 case-control and 1 cross-sectional) evaluated pesticide exposure in pregnancy. Different methods were used, including analysis of biological samples and questionnaires. The pesticides studied included insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and nematicides. Insecticides were the most studied, with variations in concentrations between tissues and studies. Distinct levels of pesticides have been detected in maternal serum, placenta, and umbilical cord. Models were statistically adjusted for confounding factors, such as smoking and dietary supplement intakes. Concentrations were measured in different exposure windows (periconception and prenatal), related to NTDs such as anencephaly and spina bifida. Different data collection techniques, types of biological samples, and exposure windows were used, which made comparison difficult. The main pesticides studied included DDT, DDE, HCH, and endosulfan. Maternal serum showed the highest concentrations of pesticides, but detection in placental tissue and umbilical cord confirms embryonic exposure. Confounding variables were adjusted for in the analysis of the articles, but they may still contribute to the risk of NTDs. All the studies analyzed pesticide exposure and the relationship with NTDs. However, a more standardized survey would be ideal for better comparisons.

Placental concentrations of xenoestrogenic organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls and assessment of their xenoestrogenicity in the PA-MAMI mother-child cohort

BACKGROUND

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), they have contributed to the exposure of women to persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These compounds can cross the placental barrier and interfere with the hormonal system of newborns.

AIM

To determine concentrations of OCPs and PCBs and their xenoestrogenic activity in placentas of women from the PA-MAMI cohort of Panama.

METHODS

Thirty-nine placenta samples from women in the Azuero peninsula (Panama) were analyzed. Five OCPs [p-p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p-p'-DDE), beta-hexachlorohexane (β-HCH), γ-hexachlorohexane (lindane), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and mirex] and three PCB congeners (PCB-138, PCB-153 and PCB-180) were quantified in placenta extracts. The xenoestrogenic activity of extracts was assessed with the E-Screen bioassay to estimate the total effective xenoestrogen burden (TEXB).

RESULTS

All placental samples were positive for at least three POP residues and >70% for at least six. The frequencies of quantified OCPs ranged from 100% for p,p'-DDE and HCB to 30.8% for β-HCH. The highest median concentration was for lindane (380.0 pg/g placenta), followed by p,p'-DDE (280.0 pg/g placenta), and HCB (90.0 pg/g placenta). Exposure to p,p'-DDE was associated with greater meat consumption, suggesting that animal fat is a major source of exposure to DDT metabolites. The frequency of detected PCBs ranged between 70 and 90%; the highest median concentration was for PCB 138 (17.0 pg/g placenta), followed by PCB 153 (16.0 pg/g placenta). All placentas were positive in the estrogenicity bioassay with a median TEXB-α of 0.91 pM Eeq/g of placenta. Exposure to lindane was positively associated with the xenoestrogenicity of TEXB- α, whereas this association was negative in the case of exposure to PCB 153.

CONCLUSIONS

To our best knowledge, this study contributes the first evidence on the presence of POPs and xenoestrogenic burden in placentas from Latin-American women. Given concerns about the consequences of prenatal exposure to these compounds on children's health, preventive measures are highly recommended to eliminate or minimize the risk of OCP exposure during pregnancy.

Effects of Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane on the Female Reproductive Tract Leading to Infertility and Cancer: Systematic Search and Review

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) such as dichlorodimethyltrichloroethane (DDT) are present and ubiquitous in the environment due to their resilient nature. DDT is a prevalent endocrine disruptor still found in detectable amounts in organisms and the environment even after its use was banned in the 1970s. Medline and Google Scholar were systematically searched to detect all relevant animal and human studies published in the last 20 years (January 2003 to February 2023) in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. In total, 38 studies were included for qualitative synthesis. This systematic search and review indicated that exposure to DDT is associated with female reproductive health issues, such as reduced fecundability; increased risk of preterm/premature deliveries; increased periods of gestation; alterations in the synthesis of crucial reproductive hormones (Progesterone and Oxytocin) through ion imbalances and changes in prostaglandin synthesis, myometrial and stromal hypertrophy, and edema; and variations in uterine contractions through increased uterine wet weight. There was also limited evidence indicating DDT as a carcinogen sufficient to instigate reproductive cancers. However, this review only takes into account the in vitro studies that have established a possible pathway to understand how DDT impacts female infertility and leads to reproductive cancers. Links between the pathways described in various studies have been developed in this review to produce a summarized picture of how one event might lead to another. Additionally, epidemiological studies that specifically targeted the exposure to DDT of females belonging to various ethnicities have been reviewed to develop an overall picture of prevailing female reproductive health concerns in different nations.

Nutrition paves the way to environmental toxicants and influences fetal development during pregnancy

Nutrition plays a major role in the healthy pregnancy and development of the fetus. In addition, nutrition can expose humans to a wide range of potentially hazardous environmental constituents, such as organic pollutants and heavy metals from marine or agricultural food products while processing, producing, and packaging. Humans constantly face these constituents through air, water, soil, food, and domestic products. During pregnancy, the rate of cellular division and differentiation is higher; exposure to any of these environmental toxicants can lead to developmental defects as they cross the placental barrier and, in some cases, can harm the successive generation too, as some contaminants can act on the reproductive cells of the fetus (Diethylstilbestrol). Pregnant women are considered a vulnerable population to food contaminant exposure and require a proper dietary chart and conscious food choices. Food is a source of both essential nutrients and environmental toxicants. Here, we have researched the possible toxicants of the food industry and their influence on the fetus's in-utero development, along with the importance of dietary interventions and the need to balance a healthy diet to overcome the harms. The cumulative exposure to environmental toxicants can influence the mother's prenatal environment and affect the fetus's development.

Pesticides at brain borders: Impact on the blood-brain barrier, neuroinflammation, and neurological risk trajectories

Pesticides are omnipresent, and they pose significant environmental and health risks. Translational studies indicate that acute exposure to high pesticide levels is detrimental, and prolonged contact with low concentrations of pesticides, as single and cocktail, could represent a risk factor for multi-organ pathophysiology, including the brain. Within this research template, we focus on pesticides' impact on the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and neuroinflammation, physical and immunological borders for the homeostatic control of the central nervous system (CNS) neuronal networks. We examine the evidence supporting a link between pre- and postnatal pesticide exposure, neuroinflammatory responses, and time-depend vulnerability footprints in the brain. Because of the pathological influence of BBB damage and inflammation on neuronal transmission from early development, varying exposures to pesticides could represent a danger, perhaps accelerating adverse neurological trajectories during aging. Refining our understanding of how pesticides influence brain barriers and borders could enable the implementation of pesticide-specific regulatory measures directly relevant to environmental neuroethics, the exposome, and one-health frameworks.

Assessment of endocrine disrupting chemicals in breast milk: Association with dietary habits and duration of lactation

The present study was aimed to assess infant safety associated with the presence of persistent organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in breast milk, a possible route of transfer of endocrine-disrupting chemicals to newborns in North India. Colostrum and breast milk samples (n = 130) were collected at different stages of lactation. Pesticides analysis was performed using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). We observed that of all the samples analysed, OCPs concentration was higher in breast milk than in colostrum, suggesting pesticides contamination increases over lactation period. As far as OCPs are concerned, dieldrin [1196.64 ± 673.75 ng/g lipid weight (lw)], and β-HCH [1107.78 ± 1301.72 ng/g lw], were the predominant OCPs, followed by aldrin [977.09 ± 707.69 ng/g lw], α-HCH [948.04 ± 476.65 ng/g lw] and 1,1'-(2,2-Dichloroethene-1,1-diyl)bis(4-chlorobenzene) (p,p'DDE) [790.11 ± 399.35 ng/g lw]. The association between OCPs levels and women dietary habits were also explored, and all the OCPs were grouped and compared to each other by consumption level of fish, meat, sea foods, eggs, and dairy products. We found that women consuming non vegetarian food, like fish and meat, were exposed 3.5 times more to OCPs than women consuming vegetarian food. In addition, we also observed that factors like mother's age was positively (<0.005 - <0.001) correlated while gestational age and infant birth weight were negatively (<0.005) associated with the levels of OCPs in colostrum and breast milk, respectively. Unfortunately, neither any standards nor guidelines are available for the use of pesticides, therefore, it is suggested that careless use of OCPs should be checked and suitable remedial measures be taken to decrease human contamination. Moreover, further studies are warranted to elucidate relationship between pesticide residues in breast milk and the maternal and child health.

Environmental contaminants, endocrine disruption, and transgender: Can "born that way" in some cases be toxicologically real?

Gender is viewed by many as strictly binary based on a collection of body traits typical of a female or male phenotype, presence of a genotype that includes at least one copy of a Y chromosome, or ability to produce either egg or sperm cells. A growing non-binary view is that these descriptors, while compelling, may nonetheless fail to accurately capture an individual's true gender. The position of the American Psychological Association (APA) agrees with this view and is that transgender people are a defendable and real part of the human population. The considerable diversity of transgender expression then argues against any unitary or simple explanations, however, prenatal hormone levels, genetic influences, and early and later life experiences have been suggested as playing roles in development of transgender identities. The present review considers existing and emerging toxicologic data that may also support an environmental chemical contribution to some transgender identities, and suggest the possibility of a growing nonbinary brain gender continuum in the human population.

The effect of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on placental development

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) or endocrine disruptors are substances that are either naturally occurring or artificial and are released into the natural environment. Humans are exposed to EDCs through ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact. Many everyday household items, such as plastic bottles and containers, the liners of metal food cans, detergents, flame retardants, food, gadgets, cosmetics, and pesticides, contain endocrine disruptors. Each hormone has a unique chemical makeup and structural attributes. The way that endocrine hormones connect to receptors is described as a "lock and key" mechanism, with each hormone serving as the key (lock). This mechanism is enabled by the complementary shape of receptors to their hormone, which allows the hormone to activate the receptors. EDCs are described as exogenous chemicals or compounds that have a negative impact on organisms' health by interacting with the functioning of the endocrine system. EDCs are associated with cancer, cardiovascular risk, behavioural disorders, autoimmune abnormalities, and reproductive disorders. EDCs exposure in humans is highly harmful during critical life stages. Nonetheless, the effect of EDCs on the placenta is often underestimated. The placenta is especially sensitive to EDCs due to its abundance of hormone receptors. In this review, we evaluated the most recent data on the effects of EDCs on placental development and function, including heavy metals, plasticizers, pesticides, flame retardants, UV filters and preservatives. The EDCs under evaluation have evidence from human biomonitoring and are found in nature. Additionally, this study indicates important knowledge gaps that will direct future research on the topic.

Pesticides analysis in alternative biological matrices

This review aims to bring together the works on pesticide analysis in alternative biological matrices, such as hair, breast milk, meconium, and placenta. Much is known about the harmful effects of the use and indirect consumption of pesticides; however, the assessment of long-term contamination is still unclear. In this sense, the use of hair as an alternative biological matrix has some advantages, such as segmentation, which makes it possible to assess the presence of xenobiotics to which individuals have been exposed over the years, and possibly relate this exposure to symptoms or diseases that may affect them. Complementarily, the other matrices discussed are able to provide information about the exposure of mothers and newborn children, who may have been indistinctly exposed to pesticides while in the womb. Through the analysis of studies already performed, it can be observed that organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are the most likely to be found within the biological matrices discussed here, due to the lipophilic characteristics of these compounds. For the other classes, biotransformation products are more easily detected.

In utero exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals, maternal factors and alterations in the epigenetic landscape underlying later-life health effects

Widespread persistence of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the environment has mandated the need to study their potential effects on an individual's long-term health after both acute and chronic exposure periods. In this review article a particular focus is given on in utero exposure to EDCs in rodent models which resulted in altered epigenetic programming and transgenerational effects in the offspring causing disrupted reproductive and metabolic phenotypes. The literature to date establishes the impact of transgenerational effects of EDCs potentially associated with epigenetic mediated mechanisms. Therefore, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of epigenetic programming and it's regulation in mammals, primarily focusing on the epigenetic plasticity and susceptibility to exogenous hormone active chemicals during the early developmental period. Further, we have also in depth discussed the epigenetic alterations associated with the exposure to selected EDCs such as Bisphenol A (BPA), di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and vinclozlin upon in utero exposure especially in rodent models.

Fetoplacental vasculature as a model to study human cardiovascular endocrine disruption

Increasing evidence has associated the exposure of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) with the cardiovascular (CV) system. This exposure is particularly problematic in a sensitive window of development, pregnancy. Pregnancy exposome can affect the overall health of the pregnancy by dramatic changes in vascular physiology and endocrine activity, increasing maternal susceptibility. Moreover, fetoplacental vascular function is generally altered, increasing the risk of developing pregnancy complications (including cardiovascular diseases, CVD) and predisposing the foetus to adverse health risks later in life. Thus, our review summarizes the existing literature on exposures to EDCs during pregnancy and adverse maternal health outcomes, focusing on the human placenta, vein, and umbilical artery associated with pregnancy complications. The purpose of this review is to highlight the role of fetoplacental vasculature as a model for the study of human cardiovascular endocrine disruption. Therefore, we emphasize that the placenta, together with the umbilical arteries and veins, allows a better characterization of the pregnant woman's exposome. Consequently, it contributes to the protection of the mother and foetus against CV disorders in life.

Praegnatio Perturbatio-Impact of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals

The burden of adverse pregnancy outcomes such as preterm birth and low birth weight is considerable across the world. Several risk factors for adverse pregnancy outcomes have been identified. One risk factor for adverse pregnancy outcomes receiving considerable attention in recent years is gestational exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Humans are exposed to a multitude of environmental chemicals with known endocrine-disrupting properties, and evidence suggests exposure to these EDCs have the potential to disrupt the maternal-fetal environment culminating in adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes. This review addresses the impact of maternal and fetal exposure to environmental EDCs of natural and man-made chemicals in disrupting the maternal-fetal milieu in human leading to adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes-a risk factor for adult-onset noncommunicable diseases, the role lifestyle and environmental factors play in mitigating or amplifying the effects of EDCs, the underlying mechanisms and mediators involved, and the research directions on which to focus future investigations to help alleviate the adverse effects of EDC exposure.

Impact of gestational exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals on pregnancy and birth outcomes

With the advent of industrialization, humans are exposed to a wide range of environmental chemicals, many with endocrine disrupting potential. As successful maintenance of pregnancy and fetal development are under tight hormonal control, the gestational exposure to environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC) have the potential to adversely affect the maternal milieu and support to the fetus, fetal developmental trajectory and birth outcomes. This chapter summarizes the impact of exposure to EDCs both individually and as mixtures during pregnancy, the immediate and long-term consequences of such exposures on the mother and fetus, the direct and indirect mechanisms through which they elicit their effects, factors that modify their action, and the research directions to focus future investigations.

Environmental Exposure during Pregnancy: Influence on Prenatal Development and Early Life: A Comprehensive Review

Preconception and prenatal exposure to environmental contaminants may affect future health. Pregnancy and early life are critical sensitive windows of susceptibility. The aim of this review was to summarize current evidence on the toxic effects of environment exposure during pregnancy, the neonatal period, and childhood. Alcohol use is related to foetal alcohol spectrum disorders, foetal alcohol syndrome being its most extreme form. Smoking is associated with placental abnormalities, preterm birth, stillbirth, or impaired growth and development, as well as with intellectual impairment, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases later in life. Negative birth outcomes have been linked to the use of drugs of abuse. Pregnant and lactating women are exposed to endocrine-disrupting chemicals and heavy metals present in foodstuffs, which may alter hormones in the body. Prenatal exposure to these compounds has been associated with pre-eclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction, preterm birth, and thyroid function. Metals can accumulate in the placenta, causing foetal growth restriction. Evidence on the effects of air pollutants on pregnancy is constantly growing, for example, preterm birth, foetal growth restriction, increased uterine vascular resistance, impaired placental vascularization, increased gestational diabetes, and reduced telomere length. The advantages of breastfeeding outweigh any risks from contaminants. However, it is important to assess health outcomes of toxic exposures via breastfeeding. Initial studies suggest an association between pre-eclampsia and environmental noise, particularly with early-onset pre-eclampsia. There is rising evidence of the negative effects of environmental contaminants following exposure during pregnancy and breastfeeding, which should be considered a major public health issue.

High levels of organochlorine pesticides in drinking water as a risk factor for type 2 diabetes: A study in north India

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are well known synthetic pesticides widely used in agricultural practices and public health program. Higher toxicity, slow degradation, and bioaccumulation are the significant challenges of OCPs. Due to its uses in agricultural and public health, contamination of drinking water and water table also increases day by day. Contaminated drinking water has become a significant issue and alarming signal for public health globally. The purpose of this study was to assess the recent trend of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) level in drinking water and blood samples of the North Indian population and also to find out its association with glucose intolerance, lipid metabolism, and insulin resistance, which are known risk factors of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). A case-control study was conducted on 130 Non-Glucose intolerance (NGT), 130 pre-diabetes and 130 recently diagnosed T2DM subjects of the age group of 30-70 years. Patients consuming drinking water from the same source for at least ten years were included in this study for blood and water samples collection. Significantly higher levels of α-HCH, β-HCH, γ-HCH, p,p'-DDE, and o,p'-DDT were found in groundwater samples. However, in tap water samples, the level of α-HCH was found to be slightly higher than the permissible limit of 0.001. Among all recruited subjects consuming contaminated groundwater, 42% had T2DM, 38% pre-diabetes, and the remaining 20% were found normal. We also observed that OCP contamination in groundwater is higher than tap and filter water. The levels of β-HCH, p,p'-DDE, and o,p'-DDT were higher in the pre-diabetes and T2DM group than the NGT group. With an increase of OCPs level in groundwater, the blood OCPs level tends to increase T2DM risk. It depicts that the elevated OCPs level in consumed groundwater may contribute to increased risk for the development of T2DM after a certain period of exposure.

Endocrine disrupting mechanisms and effects of pesticides

Pesticides are important agents that are intentionally introduced into the environment to control various pests and disease carriers, often by killing them. Although pesticides have many important objectives, including protection against crop loss and vector-borne diseases, there are significant concerns over the potential toxicity of pesticides on various organisms, including humans. The frequent use of pesticides in agriculture has led to the long-term exposure of humans to different pesticide residues. Exposure to pesticides has been linked to disturbances in the endocrine system of animals and humans. There are increasing data on the relation between lipophilic pesticides with low biodegradability and changes in reproductive functions and parameters of male and female animals. But more epidemiological and detailed information is necessary on the probability and strength of pesticide exposure-outcome relations regarding endocrine-disrupting effects.

A mixed-methods study of pesticide exposures in Breastmilk and Community & Lactating Women's perspectives from Haryana, India

BACKGROUND

Population growth which has resulted in a need for increased crop yields to sustain food security, in addition to the effects of climate change, have led to the widespread use of chemical pesticides. The indiscriminate use of pesticides has in turn led to contamination of the environment, food commodities and bioaccumulation in human tissues, particularly in agrarian regions of India including the northern state of Haryana.

METHODS

We conducted a pilot screening study to investigate the presence of organochlorine, organophosphate, and pyrethroid pesticides in breastmilk samples (n = 75) from Haryana, India. Pesticide analyses were conducted using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for OC and OP pesticides and GC-electron capture detector for pyrethroids. The study was complemented by a qualitative evaluation of maternal and community perceptions, knowledge, attitudes and practices associated with pesticide use and risk of exposure (n = 30 in-depth interviews; n = 9 focus group discussions).

RESULTS

Analysis of breastmilk showed the presence of p,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) in 4% (range:

CONCLUSIONS

In our small sample, breastmilk pesticide concentrations were low and did not pose a risk to infants. Based on the persistent nature of many organic pollutants and reported widespread use, we recommend more comprehensive and longitudinal investigation of upstream pesticide contamination in the food supply and exposures among mothers and children.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

CTRI/2017/01/007636 , Date Registered: 06/01/2017. CTRI website: http://ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pdf_generate.php?trialid=17249&EncHid=&modid=&compid=%27,%2717249det%27.

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Key Words

• Focus groups
• In-depth interviews
• Organochlorines
• Organophosphates
• Pyrethroids, Pesticides, Breastmilk

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MESH Headings

• Child, Preschool
• Female
• Humans
• Hydrocarbons, Chlorinated/analysis
• India
• Infant
• Infant, Newborn
• Lactation
• Male
• Milk, Human/chemistry
• Pesticide Residues/analysis
• Pesticides/analysis
• Pregnancy

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Grants

• R21 HD080107 NICHD NIH HHS
• National Institutes of Health (US)
• International Society for Research in Human Milk and Lactation
• Emory Institute for Developing Nations
• Emory University Research Committee

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Affiliation(s) Collapse

Concentrations of organochlorine pesticides in placental tissue are not associated with risk for fetal orofacial clefts

Previous epidemiological studies have shown that prenatal exposure to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) entails a variety of adverse impacts on fetal health, but it is not yet known whether it is associated with risk for orofacial clefts (OFCs). This study of 103 fetuses or newborns with a diagnosis of OFCs (cases) and 103 healthy newborns without malformations (controls) examined whether prenatal exposure to OCPs, as indicated by their concentrations in placental tissue, is a risk factor for OFCs. No differences were found in the median concentrations of OCPs between cases and controls, with exception of o,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, o,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane, and total o,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDTs), whose concentrations were higher in controls than in cases (Ps < 0.05). Although higher concentrations of placental δhexachlorocyclohexane and isodrin were found to be associated with decreased risk for OFCs in logistic regression, no association was observed in the Bayesian kernel machine regression, a novel statistical model in analyzing exposure mixtures. Women who reported periconceptional folic acid supplementation had lower placental concentrations of DDTs than women who did not. In conclusion, no association between levels of OCPs in placental tissue and risk for OFCs was observed in this population. Supplementation with folic acid may help decrease the levels of DDTs in placental tissue, but further studies are needed to confirm this unexpected finding.

In utero exposure to organochlorine pesticide residues and their potential impact on birth outcomes and fetal gender

Being the largest agriculture country in the Arab world, Egypt was one of the major consumer of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in this area, continued to have a heavy burden of OCPs in the environment. There is growing concern that OCPs could pass from the maternal circulation through the placenta to the fetal circulation and pose several health risks to their fetuses. The current study was intended to identify OCPs residue exposure in healthy pregnant women and to justify the potential impacts of these residues on their fetuses. In this study, the prevalence of 18 OCPs was estimated in 81 maternal and cord blood samples, using Agilent 7890, gas chromatograph equipped with micro-electron capture detector (GC-μECD). Our data signposted that the heptachlor epoxide has the highest detection rate among all residues in both maternal (32%) and cord blood serum (27.16%). DDTs were still quantifiable, but with the lowest quantifiable percentage. More than 85% of mothers' serum with detectable residues transfer OCPs residue to their fetuses in a statistically significant manner (x = 42.9, p value < 0.001). The present findings showed no significant growth retardation, or preterm delivery induced by in utero exposure to the most abundant residues. There is growing evidence that exposure to OCPs residue has profound impact on sex ratio. Methoxychlor, in this study be deemed as testosterone triggers which yields high boys ratio (x = 4.37, p < 0.05). In conclusion, Egypt continued to have a heavy burden of OCPs residues, and fetuses and infants are especially the most vulnerable groups to their adverse health effects. Exposure to OCPs may disrupt the maternal hormones, which regulate the offspring gender, but these results need to be validated in larger sample sizes.

Interactions of Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) With Skeletal Muscle Ryanodine Receptor Type 1

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolite dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) are ubiquitous in the environment and detected in tissues of living organisms. Although DDT owes its insecticidal activity to impeding closure of voltage-gated sodium channels, it mediates toxicity in mammals by acting as an endocrine disruptor (ED). Numerous studies demonstrate DDT/DDE to be EDs, but studies examining muscle-specific effects mediated by nonhormonal receptors in mammals are lacking. Therefore, we investigated whether o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDT, o,p'-DDE, and p,p'-DDE (DDx, collectively) alter the function of ryanodine receptor type 1 (RyR1), a protein critical for skeletal muscle excitation-contraction coupling and muscle health. DDx (0.01-10 µM) elicited concentration-dependent increases in [3H]ryanodine ([3H]Ry) binding to RyR1 with o,p'-DDE showing highest potency and efficacy. DDx also showed sex differences in [3H]Ry-binding efficacy toward RyR1, where [3H]Ry-binding in female muscle preparations was greater than male counterparts. Measurements of Ca2+ transport across sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) membrane vesicles further confirmed DDx can selectively engage with RyR1 to cause Ca2+ efflux from SR stores. DDx also disrupts RyR1-signaling in HEK293T cells stably expressing RyR1 (HEK-RyR1). Pretreatment with DDx (0.1-10 µM) for 100 s, 12 h, or 24 h significantly sensitized Ca2+-efflux triggered by RyR agonist caffeine in a concentration-dependent manner. o,p'-DDE (24 h; 1 µM) significantly increased Ca2+-transient amplitude from electrically stimulated mouse myotubes compared with control and displayed abnormal fatigability. In conclusion, our study demonstrates DDx can directly interact and modulate RyR1 conformation, thereby altering SR Ca2+-dynamics and sensitize RyR1-expressing cells to RyR1 activators, which may ultimately contribute to long-term impairments in muscle health.

Postnatal exposure to endosulfan affects uterine development and fertility

Endosulfan is an organochlorine pesticide (OCP) used in large-scale agriculture for controlling a variety of insects and mites that attack food and non-food crops. Although endosulfan has been listed in the Stockholm Convention as a persistent organic pollutant to be worldwide banned, it is still in use in some countries. Like other OCPs, endosulfan is bioaccumulative, toxic and persistent in the environment. Human unintentional exposure may occur through air inhalation, dietary, skin contact, as well as, via transplacental route and breast feeding. Due to its lipophilic nature, endosulfan is rapidly absorbed into the gastrointestinal tract and bioaccumulates in the fatty tissues. Similar to other OCPs, endosulfan has been classified as an endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC). Endocrine action of endosulfan on development and reproductive function of males has been extensively discussed; however, endosulfan effects on the female reproductive tract have received less attention. This review provides an overview of: i) the fate and levels of endosulfan in the environment and human population, ii) the potential estrogenic properties of endosulfan in vitro and in vivo, iii) its effects on uterine development, and iv) the long-term effects on female fertility and uterine functional differentiation during early gestation.

Organochlorine pesticides residue in placenta and their influence on anthropometric measures of infants

The objective of this study is to evaluate the influence of placental concentrations of some organochlorine pesticides on newborn's anthropometric measurements (height, weight, head circumference & ponderal index). For this study, we have collected 90 placental tissue samples for the measurement of Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) & Hexachlocyclohexane (HCH) by Gas Chromatography equipped with Electron Capture Detector (GC-ECD). Regression analysis were performed between outcome variables such as birth weight, birth height, head circumference, ponderal index and independent variable i.e., organochlorine pesticide concentrations. In case of birth weight, there was a substantial decrease of 5.81, 1.94, 4.71, and 2.64 g for 1 ppb (μg/L) increase in placental α-HCH, β-HCH, γ-HCH, and total HCH concentrations respectively. Significant decrease of 2.02 and 0.43 kg/m³ in ponderal index was found with 1 μg/L increase of total-HCH and total DDT concentrations in placenta. The results of this study support an association between environmental exposure to organochlorine pesticides and anthropometric development of the fetus leading to a significant reduction in its birth weight and ponderal index, slight and non-significant reduction in birth height and head circumference. Efforts should be made to reduce exposure of women of reproductive age in relation to long-term impact on health.

Prenatal β-Hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH) Exposure and 7-Year Child IQ in the CHAMACOS Birth Cohort

Fetal and infant exposures to β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH) occur through placental and breastmilk transfers. No studies have examined the relationship between β-HCH and child intelligence quotient (IQ). This study examined associations between in utero β-HCH exposure and cognitive development in 7-year-old children. Data from women and children (n = 256) participating in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) birth cohort study were evaluated. We assessed exposure to β-HCH by measuring maternal serum concentration during pregnancy. We administered the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), Fourth Edition, to children at age 7. Analyses were adjusted for maternal age, country of birth, work status, parity, and other pesticide exposures, language used for child cognitive assessment, and duration of breastfeeding. Higher serum β-HCH concentrations were associated with higher cognitive scores across all unadjusted models for the full-scale and sub-scale cognitive tests. In the adjusted models, a 10-fold increase in serum β-HCH concentration was associated with a 4.5-point increase in Working Memory IQ score (95% CI, 0.6 to 8.3; p = 0.02). We observed no significant interaction by length of breastfeeding or sex on associations. Our findings suggest that prenatal exposure to β-HCH is not adversely related to IQ at age 7 in a cohort of Mexican American children with fairly high exposure in utero as measured by maternal serum levels. Future research must replicate these findings in other study cohorts of women and children.

A mechanism for the effect of endocrine disrupting chemicals on placentation

Numerous recent studies have shown that endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the body of pregnant women can pass through the placenta and be exposed to the fetus, leading to fetal development and cognitive impairment. Placentation through invasion of trophoblast cells and vascular remodeling is essential to maintaining maternal and fetal health throughout the pregnancy. Abnormal placentation can lead to pregnancy disorders such as preeclampsia (PE) and intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR). However, many studies have not been conducted on whether EDCs can inhibit the development and function of the placenta. Isolating placental tissues to analyze the effect of EDCs on placentation has several limitations. In this review, we discussed the types of EDCs that can pass through the placental barrier and accumulate in the placenta with relative outcome. EDCs can be released from a variety of products including plasticizers, pesticides, and retardant. We also discussed the development and dysfunction of the placenta when EDCs were treated on trophoblast cells or pregnant rodent models. The effects of EDCs on the placenta of livestock are also discussed, together with the molecular mechanism of EDCs acting in trophoblast cells. We describe how EDCs cross the membrane of trophoblasts to regulate signaling pathways, causing genetic and epigenetic changes that lead to changes in cell viability and invasiveness. Further studies on the effects of EDCs on placenta may draw attention to the correct use of products containing EDCs during pregnancy.

The risk of endometriosis after exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals: a meta-analysis of 30 epidemiology studies

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are suspected to be associated with endometriosis (EMs). This study aimed to synthesize published data and evaluate the relationship between four classic EDCs exposure and the risk of EMs. A systematic literature search for original peer reviewed papers was performed in the databases PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science based on inclusion criteria up to January 2018. Subsequently, a total of 20 papers conducting 30 studies fulfilled the eligibility criteria and were included in this meta-analysis (four studies for bisphenol A (BPA), 12 studies for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), eight studies for organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), and six studies for phthalate esters (PAEs)). The overall odds ratio (OR) across all exposures and EMs was 1.41 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.23-1.60). When assessing four specific chemicals, respectively, consistent increases in the risk of EMs were found in PCBs group (OR = 1.58; 95% CI: 1.18-2.12), OCPs group (OR = 1.40; 95% CI: 1.02-1.92) and PAEs group (OR = 1.27; 95% CI: 1.00-1.60), while BPA showed no significant association with EMs. Besides, in the di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (DEHP) group - the most commonly used PAEs, significant risk was also found (OR = 1.42; 95% CI: 1.19-1.70). The current meta-analysis strengthens the evidence that specific EDCs or their metabolites may promote the occurrence of EMs.

Effect of neonatal exposure to endosulfan on myometrial adaptation during early pregnancy and labor in rats

Proper myometrial adaptation during gestation is crucial for embryo implantation, pregnancy maintenance and parturition. Previously, we reported that neonatal exposure to endosulfan alters uterine development and induces implantation failures. The present work investigates the effects of endosulfan exposure on myometrial differentiation at the pre-implantation period, and myometrial activation during labor. Newborn female rats were s.c. injected with corn oil (vehicle) or 600 μg/kg/day of endosulfan (Endo600) on postnatal days (PND) 1, 3, 5 and 7. On PND90, the rats were mated to evaluate: i) the myometrial differentiation on gestational day 5 (GD5, pre-implantation period), by assessment myometrial histomorphology, smooth muscle cells (SMCs) proliferation, and expression of proteins involved in myometrial adaptation for embryo implantation (steroid receptors, Wnt7a and Hoxa10); ii) the timing of parturition and myometrial activation during labor by determining the uterine expression of contraction-associated genes (oxytocin receptor, OTXR; prostaglandin F₂α receptor, PTGFR and connexin-43, Cx-43). Endosulfan decreased the thickness of both myometrial layers, with a concomitant decrease in the collagen remodeling. Blood vessels relative area in the interstitial connective tissue between muscle layers was also decreased. Endo600 group showed lower myometrial proliferation in association with a downregulation of Wnt7a and Hoxa10. Although in all females labor occurred on GD23, the exposure to endosulfan altered the timing of parturition, by inducing advancement in the initiation of labor. This alteration was associated with an increased uterine expression of OTXR, PTGFR and Cx-43. In conclusion, neonatal exposure to endosulfan produced long-term effects affecting myometrial adaptation during early pregnancy and labor. These alterations could be associated with the aberrant effects of endosulfan on the implantation process and the timing of parturition.

A case study on the application of an expert-driven read-across approach in support of quantitative risk assessment of p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane

Deriving human health risk estimates for environmental chemicals has traditionally relied on in vivo toxicity databases to characterize potential adverse health effects and associated dose-response relationships. In the absence of in vivo toxicity information, new approach methods (NAMs) such as read-across have the potential to fill the required data gaps. This case study applied an expert-driven read-across approach to identify and evaluate analogues to fill non-cancer oral toxicity data gaps for p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (p,p'-DDD), an organochlorine contaminant known to occur at contaminated sites in the U.S. The source analogue p,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its no-observed-adverse-effect level of 0.05 mg/kg-day were proposed for the derivation of screening-level health reference values for the target chemical, p,p'-DDD. Among the primary similarity contexts (structure, toxicokinetics, and toxicodynamics), toxicokinetic considerations were instrumental in separating p,p'-DDT as the best source analogue from other potential candidates (p,p'-DDE and methoxychlor). In vitro high-throughput screening (HTS) assays from ToxCast were used to evaluate similarity in bioactivity profiles and make inferences toward plausible mechanisms of toxicity to build confidence in the read-across approach. This work demonstrated the value of NAMs such as read-across and in vitro HTS in human health risk assessment of environmental contaminants with the potential to inform regulatory decision-making.

Associations of Maternal Exposure to Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and Pyrethroids With Birth Outcomes Among Participants in the Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and Their Environment Residing in an Area Sprayed for Malaria Control

Although effective in controlling malaria, indoor residual spraying results in elevated exposure to insecticides such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and pyrethroids. These chemicals cross the placenta, but no studies have examined their associations with birth outcomes in populations residing in indoor residual spraying areas. We investigated this question in the Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and Their Environment (VHEMBE), a birth cohort study of 751 South African children born between 2012 and 2013. We measured maternal peripartum serum DDT and urine pyrethroid metabolite concentrations and collected data on birth weight, length, head circumference, and duration of gestation. We analyzed the data using marginal structural models with inverse-probability-of-treatment weights, generalized propensity scores, and standard conditional linear regression. Using all 3 analytical methods, p,p'-DDT, o,p'-DDT, and to a lesser extent p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene were related to elevated birth weight, birth length, and head circumference among girls. Changes in gestational duration did not mediate this relationship, suggesting that these exposures accelerate fetal growth, which is consistent with the known estrogenic properties of o,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDT. No associations with pyrethroid metabolites were found. Results suggest that prenatal exposure to DDT is related to elevated birth size. Further studies are needed to elucidate the implications of these findings.

Do chlorinated insecticides (aldrin and DDT) or products of their transformations (dieldrin and DDE) impair signal transfer from regulators (oxytocin and relaxin) of bovine myometrium motility in vitro?

Aldrin, dieldrin, and DDT are chlorinated insecticides that are unintentionally widespread in the environment. It was previously shown that all of the aforementioned compounds increased secretion of ovarian oxytocin (OT), which is a potent uterotonic agent. However, only DDT and its metabolite (DDE) promoted, while aldrin and dieldrin inhibited basal and OT-stimulated myometrial contractions in cows. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of these treatments on the reception and further transmission of the OT-signal for myometrial contractions and on the levels of contractile-associated integral proteins (caveolin; CAV) and gap junction proteins (GAPs). Moreover, their effect on reception of signal for the relaxation of myometrium was also studied. Myometrial strips or cells from non-pregnant (8-12 days of oestrous cycle) or late pregnant (5-8 months) cows were incubated with the studied compounds at environmentally relevant dose (10 ng/ml), which was chosen according to the previous studies. DDT and DDE increased the CAV protein level, while dieldrin decreased the GAPs level. None of the studied compounds affected mRNA expression of the OT receptor and expression of the second messengers (DAG, IP3, PKC, MLCK). Oppositely, DDE and dieldrin decreased mRNA expression of the relaxin (RLX) receptor. Changes in the amount of contractile-associated integral proteins may be involved in the molecular mechanism underlying the adverse effects of the studied insecticides on myometrial motility. Admittedly, none of the studied compounds impaired the reception or further intracellular transmission of the OT signal to promote contractions during the oestrous cycle, while they showed potential to impair the transmission the signal between cells as well as to diminish the effects of one of the primary inhibitor (RLX) of myometrial contractions during gestation.

Organochlorine pesticides in placenta in Kyrgyzstan and the effect on pregnancy, childbirth, and newborn health

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were determined by gas chromatography in 241 placentas from cotton-growing regions, 121 placentas from an urban area (city of Osh), and 146 placentas from unpolluted mountain regions of Kyrgyzstan. Manifestations of disease were recorded in the mothers during pregnancy and parturition and in their newborns during the first 6 days of life. OCPs were detected in 240 out of 508 placentas (47.2%), with increased incidence in the two polluted regions (65%), particularly in placentas from women living near former pesticide storehouses and agro air-strips (99%), but only in 2.7% of placentas from the unpolluted region. α-, β-, and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH); DDT; DDE; aldrin; and heptachlor were detected. The sum of concentrations of all OCPs (total OCPs) was calculated for each of the 240 placentas with detectable OCPs (median 9.5 μg/kg placenta, mean 88.3 μg/kg, range 0.1-3070 μg/kg). The incidence of health problems in four subgroups of this data set, with increasing levels of total OCPs, was compared with the incidence of health problems in the group of 268 placentas, where OCPs were undetectable. Relative risk of health problems in both, mothers and newborns, increased significantly, in a concentration-dependent manner, with increasing levels of total OCPs (p < 0.0001). Health complications with increased incidence in OCP-exposed newborns included, i.a., low birth weight, congenital malformations, infections, and stillbirths, in OCP-exposed mothers preterm delivery, (pre-)eclampsia/gestosis, and frequency of hospitalizations after delivery (infections). Women living near former pesticide storehouses and agro airstrips should be considered as being at risk. Reduction of exposure is urgently needed.

Risks and benefits related to alimentary exposure to xenoestrogens

Xenoestrogens are widely diffused in the environment and in food, thus a large portion of human population worldwide is exposed to them. Among alimentary xenoestrogens, phytoestrogens (PhyEs) are increasingly being consumed because of their potential health benefits, although there are also important risks associated to their ingestion. Furthermore, other xenoestrogens that may be present in food are represented by other chemicals possessing estrogenic activities, that are commonly defined as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). EDCs pose a serious health concern since they may cause a wide range of health problems, starting from pre-birth till adult lifelong exposure. We herein provide an overview of the main classes of xenoestrogens, which are classified on the basis of their origin, their structures and their occurrence in the food chain. Furthermore, their either beneficial or toxic effects on human health are discussed in this review.

Toxicological profile of organochlorines aldrin and dieldrin: an Indian perspective

Several epidemiological studies have suggested various environmental factors as a possible cause for increased incidence of various abnormalities. Of the various environmental contaminants, the most prevalent and the most discussed are the endocrine disrupting chemicals. Contact of such disruptors with humans has become inevitable today. They are cosmopolitan and present from agriculture to industrial sectors, even in day-to-day consumer products. Aldrin and dieldrin belong to one such class of substances which are known to have a toxic effect on various physiological systems of the human body. Despite an imposed ban on their manufacture and commercial use, these pesticides could still be detected in probable areas of consumption like agriculture. The present review discusses the known possible toxic effects of aldrin and dieldrin and their current existence in the ecosystem across India.

Neonatal exposure to environmental pollutants and placental mitochondrial DNA content: A multi-pollutant approach

BACKGROUND

Placental mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) content can be indicative of oxidative damage to the placenta during fetal development and is responsive to external stressors. In utero exposure to environmental pollutants that may influence placental mtDNA needs further exploration.

OBJECTIVES

We evaluated if placental mtDNA content is altered by environmental pollution in newborns and identified pollutants independently associated to alterations in placental mtDNA content.

METHODS

mtDNA content was measured in placental tissue of 233 newborns. Four perfluoroalkyl compounds and nine organochlorine compounds were quantified in cord blood plasma samples and six toxic metals in whole cord blood. We first applied a LASSO (least absolute shrinkage and selection operator) penalized regression model to identify independent associations between environmental pollutants and placental mtDNA content, without penalization of several covariates. Then adjusted estimates were obtained using an ordinary least squares (OLS) regression model evaluating the pollutants' association with placental mtDNA content, adjusted for several covariates.

RESULTS

Based on LASSO penalized regression, oxychlordane, p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, β-hexachlorocyclohexane, perfluorononanoic acid, arsenic, cadmium and thallium were identified to be independently associated with placental mtDNA content. The OLS model showed a higher placental mtDNA content of 2.71% (95% CI: 0.3 to 5.2%; p=0.03) and 1.41% (0.1 to 2.8%, p=0.04) for a 25% concentration increase of respectively cord blood β-hexachlorocyclohexane and arsenic. For a 25% concentration increase of cord blood thallium, a 4.88% lower placental mtDNA content (95% CI: -9.1 to -0.5%, p=0.03) was observed.

CONCLUSION

In a multi-pollutant approach, low fetal exposure levels of environmental organic and inorganic pollutants might compromise placental mitochondrial function as exemplified in this study by alterations in mtDNA content.

Synergistic effect of DDT and its metabolites in lipopolysaccharide-mediated TNF-α production is inhibited by progesterone in peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Increased TNF-α levels have been associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT), 1,1-bis-(chlorophenyl)-2,2-dichloroethene (DDE), and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(chlorophenyl)ethane (DDD) induce TNF-α release in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Conversely, progesterone (P4) inhibits TNF-α secretion. Pregnant women in malaria endemic areas may be co-exposure to these compounds. Thus, this study was to investigate the synergistic effect of LPS and these pesticides in PBMC and to assess P4 influence on this synergy. Cultured PBMC were exposed to each pesticide in the presence of LPS, P4, or their combination. TNF-α was measured by ELISA. All pesticides enhanced TNF-α synthesis in PBMC. Co-exposure with LPS synergizes TNF-α production, which is blocked by progesterone. These results indicate that these organochlorines act synergistically with LPS to induce TNF-α secretion in PBMC. This effect is blocked by P4.

Associations of maternal o,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE levels with birth outcomes in a Bolivian cohort

This study examined the potential association of maternal serum levels of o,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE with gestation time and with anthropometric measurements and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels of newborns in a Bolivian birth cohort. Two hundred mothers were consecutively recruited between January and March 2013 at the "Hospital de la Mujer Dr. Percy Boland" in Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Potential confounders were derived from an ad hoc questionnaire. o,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE were quantified in cord serum by high-resolution gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Multivariable linear regression analyses were performed, with POP concentrations as independent variables and log-transformed newborn birth outcomes (newborn weight, gestational age, head circumference, birth height, ponderal index, and TSH levels) as dependent variables. o,p'-DDT was detected in 82.5% of samples at median concentration of 0.22ng/mL and p,p'-DDE in 86.5% of samples at median concentration of 1.01ng/mL. Opposite associations with birth weight were found for p,p'-DDE (β=0.012, p=0.006) and o,p'-DDT (β=-0.014, p=0.039), and these associations were stronger when both chemicals were entered in the same model. p,p'-DDE was negatively associated with gestation time (β=-0.004, p=0.012), and o,p'-DDT was borderline negatively associated with newborn head circumference (β=-0.004, p=0.054). We observed no relevant changes in the magnitude of the coefficients or in statistical significance after adjustment for newborn TSH levels. This study indicates a possible impact of prenatal exposure to o,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE on newborn anthropometric measurements in a population showing evidence of recent exposure to the pesticide DDT.

Environmental influences on reproductive health: the importance of chemical exposures

Chemical exposures during pregnancy can have a profound and life-long impact on human health. Because of the omnipresence of chemicals in our daily life, there is continuous contact with chemicals in food, water, air, and consumer products. Consequently, human biomonitoring studies show that pregnant women around the globe are exposed to a variety of chemicals. In this review we provide a summary of current data on maternal and fetal exposure, as well as health consequences from these exposures. We review several chemical classes, including polychlorinated biphenyls, perfluoroalkyl substances, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, phenols, phthalates, pesticides, and metals. Additionally, we discuss environmental disparities and vulnerable populations, and future research directions. We conclude by providing some recommendations for prevention of chemical exposure and its adverse reproductive health consequences.