Activation of NF-κB by alloferon through down-regulation of antioxidant proteins and IκBα

Alloferon Mitigates LPS-Induced Endometritis by Attenuating the NLRP3/CASP1/IL-1β/IL-18 Signaling Cascade

Endometritis is an inflammatory reaction of the uterine lining that can lead to infertility. Alloferon, a linear non-glycosylated oligopeptide, has been recognized for its potent anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. In light of these attributes, this study aims to explore the potential therapeutic effects of alloferon in alleviating endometrial inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), while elucidating the underlying protective mechanisms. Two conditions representing pre- and post-menopause states were simulated using an ovariectomized (Ovx) murine model. The findings underscore alloferon's remarkable capacity to alleviate cardinal signs of endometritis, including redness, swelling, and congestion, while concurrently restoring the structural integrity of the endometrial tissue. Moreover, alloferon effectively modulates the expression of key inflammatory mediators, such as nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3), cysteine aspartate-specific protease 1 (CASP1), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-18 (IL-18). In vitro experiments were conducted to further corroborate and validate these findings. In conclusion, alloferon shows promising potential in mitigating LPS-induced inflammation by attenuating the NLRP3/CASP1/IL-1β/IL-18 signaling cascade.

Drug Discovery Potential of Insect-derived Compounds: A Review

Insects are the most numerous and diverse collection of organisms on earth. Around the world, human societies have utilised insects and the materials derived from them as medical resources. These arthropods use chemistry, like all other species. According to their survival needs, they make adaptations, including protecting themselves from infection as well as predation, being able to connect with a social life, and carrying out generations with survivability in the environment. The main focus of the study of chemical ecology is the abundance of chemical compounds found in arthropods that are used for these ecological adaptations. This thorough analysis summarises the huge potential for finding new natural compounds with medical benefits from the Arthropods. Insects and their derivatives have a wide range of uses, and their "raw products" have made significant strides in a wide range of industries, including pharmaceuticals, tissue engineering, dentistry, plant and agricultural science, veterinary medicine, cosmetics, and cosmeceuticals, food, and nutraceuticals, among others. Bioactive components derived from insects are emerging as potential therapeutic sources that are beneficial against a variety of disorders. Insects, which have a huge variety of species, are an intriguing and potential source of low molecular biologically active natural compounds that are either produced by the insect itself or by accompanying microbes. The present review work collated the updates of insect-derived compounds, the use of insects worldwide, and drug discovery potential of insect derivatives.

Study of alloferon, a novel immunomodulatory antimicrobial peptide (AMP), and its analogues

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are widely distributed throughout the biosphere and represent a class of conserved peptide molecules with intrinsic antimicrobial properties. Their broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and low risk to induce resistance have led to increased interest in AMPs as potential alternatives to traditional antibiotics. Among the AMPs, alloferon has been addressed due to its immunomodulatory properties that augment both innate and adaptive immune responses against various pathogens. Alloferon and its analogues have demonstrated pharmaceutical potential through their ability to enhance Natural Killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity and stimulate interferon (IFN) synthesis in both mouse and human models. Additionally, they have shown promise in augmenting antiviral and antitumor activities in mice. In this article, we provide a comprehensive review of the biological effects of alloferon and its analogues, incorporating our own research findings as well. These insights may contribute to a deeper understanding of the therapeutic potential of these novel AMPs.

Alloferon-1 ameliorates estrogen deficiency-induced osteoporosis through dampening the NLRP3/caspase-1/IL-1β/IL-18 signaling pathway

Alloferon-1 is an insect polypeptide that has anti-inflammatory, antitumor and antiviral activity. This study aimed to determine the effects of alloferon-1 on estrogen deficiency-induced osteoporosis and explore the associated mechanism using a murine model of ovariectomy (OVX)-induced osteoporosis. Results showed that alloferon-1 prevented ovariectomy‑induced body weight gain, bone loss and bone mineral content reduction, affected biochemical markers of bone turnover, and restored the microstructure of bone trabeculae. Moreover, alloferon-1 suppressed the expression of the ovariectomy‑mediated inflammatory cytokines in the vertebrae bone tissues, including nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like-receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3), cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase-1 (Caspase-1), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and interleukin 18 (IL-18) which were determined by immunofluorescence staining and western blot. Overall, the present study provides evidence for the effectiveness of alloferon-1 against estrogen deficiency-induced osteoporosis, suggesting an alternative drug or an auxiliary modulator for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMOP).

Antimicrobial peptides with anticancer activity: Today status, trends and their computational design

Some antimicrobial peptides have been shown to be able to inhibit the proliferation of cancer cell lines. Various strategies for treating cancers with active peptides have been pursued. According to the reports, anticancer peptides are important therapeutic peptides, which can act through two distinct pathways: they either just create pores in the cell membrane, or they have a vital intracellular target. In this review, publications up to Sep. 2021 had extracted form Scopus and PubMed using "antimicrobial peptide" and "anticancer peptide" as keywords. In second step, "computational design" related publications extracted. Among publications, those have similar scopes were classified and selected based on mechanisms of action and application. In this review, the most recent advances in the field of antimicrobial peptides with anti-cancer activities have been summarized. Freely available webservers such as AntiCP, ACPP, iACP, iACP-GAEnsC, ACPred are discussed here. In conclusion, despite some limitations of ACPs such as production cost and challenges, short half-life and toxicity on normal cells, the beneficial properties of AMPs make some of them good therapeutic agents for cancer therapy. Towards designing novel ACPs, the computational methods have substantial position and have been used progressively, today.

Alloferon and Zanamivir Show Effective Antiviral Activity against Influenza A Virus (H1N1) Infection In Vitro and In Vivo

The use of vaccines is the most effective and reliable method for the prevention of viral infections. However, research on evaluation of effective therapeutic agents for use in treatment after infection is necessary. Zanamivir was administered through inhalation for treatment of pandemic influenza A/H1N1 in 2009. However, the emergence of drug-resistant strains can occur rapidly. Alloferon, an immunomodulatory drug developed as an NK cell activator, exerts antiviral effects against various viruses, particularly influenza viruses. Therefore, alloferon and zanamivir were administered in combination in an effort to improve the antiviral effect of zanamivir by reducing H1N1 resistance. First, we confirmed that administration of combined treatment would result in effective inhibition of viral proliferation in MDCK and A549 cells infected with H1N1. Production of IL-6 and MIP-1α in these cells and the activity of p38 MAPK and c-Jun that are increased by H1N1 were inhibited by combined treatment. Mice were then infected intranasally with H1N1, and examination of the antiviral efficacy of the alloferon/zanamivir combination was performed. The results showed that combined treatment after infection with H1N1 prevented weight loss, increased the survival rate, and improved lung fibrosis. Combined treatment also resulted in reduced infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages into the lungs. Combined treatment effectively inhibited the activity of p38 MAPK and c-Jun in lung tissue, which was increased by infection with H1N1. Therefore, the combination of alloferon/zanamivir effectively prevents the development of H1N1-mediated inflammation in the lungs by inhibiting the production of inflammatory mediators and migration of inflammatory cells into lung tissue.

Alloferon-1 ameliorates acute inflammatory responses in λ-carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice

Alloferon-1 have been proposed as an effective peptide to enhance antitumoral immunity, antiviral defense and anti-inflammatory activity. This work aimed to assess anti-inflammatory effects of alloferon-1 against acute inflammation and histopathological deformations in λ-carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice. Systemic pretreatment with alloferon-1 (22.0 mg/kg) intraperitoneally injected mice showed a significant reduction in paw thickness and vascular permeability. Alloferon-1 prevented λ-carrageenan-evoked exudation and the neutrophil influx to the mouse pleura and the neutrophil migration into carrageenan-stimulated mouse air pouches based on the histopathological changes in the paw tissues. Administration of alloferon-1 also suppressed the expression of the inflammatory cytokines in the inflamed paw tissues such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1), interleukin-5 (IL-5), etc. detected by Luminex liquid chip. Collectively, the present study provides evidences for the marked anti-inflammatory effects of alloferon-1 which might represent new therapeutic options for the treatment of acute inflammatory diseases.

Anti-cancer peptides: their current trends in the development of peptide-based therapy and anti-tumor drugs

Human cancer remains a cause of high mortality throughout the world. The conventional methods and therapies currently employed for treatment are followed by moderate-to-severe side effects. They have not generated curative results due to the ineffectiveness of treatments. Besides, the associated high costs, technical requirements, and cytotoxicity further characterize their limitations. Due to relatively higher presidencies, bioactive peptides with anti-cancer attributes have recently become treatment choices within the therapeutic arsenal. The peptides act as potential anti-cancer agents explicitly targeting tumor cells while being less toxic to normal cells. The anti-cancer peptides are isolated from various natural sources, exhibit high selectivity and high penetration efficiency, and could be quickly restructured. The therapeutic benefits of compatible anti-cancer peptides have contributed to the significant expansion of cancer treatment; albeit, the mechanisms by which bioactive peptides inhibit the proliferation of tumor cells remain unclear. This review will provide a framework for assessing anti-cancer peptides' structural and functional aspects. It shall provide appropriate information on their mode of action to support and strengthen efforts to improve cancer prevention. The article will mention the therapeutic health benefits of anti-cancer peptides. Their importance in clinical studies is elaborated for reducing cancer incidences and developing sustainable treatment models.

Antimicrobial Peptides and Cationic Nanoparticles: A Broad-Spectrum Weapon to Fight Multi-Drug Resistance Not Only in Bacteria

In the last few years, antibiotic resistance and, analogously, anticancer drug resistance have increased considerably, becoming one of the main public health problems. For this reason, it is crucial to find therapeutic strategies able to counteract the onset of multi-drug resistance (MDR). In this review, a critical overview of the innovative tools available today to fight MDR is reported. In this direction, the use of membrane-disruptive peptides/peptidomimetics (MDPs), such as antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), has received particular attention, due to their high selectivity and to their limited side effects. Moreover, similarities between bacteria and cancer cells are herein reported and the hypothesis of the possible use of AMPs also in anticancer therapies is discussed. However, it is important to take into account the limitations that could negatively impact clinical application and, in particular, the need for an efficient delivery system. In this regard, the use of nanoparticles (NPs) is proposed as a potential strategy to improve therapy; moreover, among polymeric NPs, cationic ones are emerging as promising tools able to fight the onset of MDR both in bacteria and in cancer cells.

Clinical Applications and Anticancer Effects of Antimicrobial Peptides: From Bench to Bedside

Cancer is a multifaceted global health issue and one of the leading causes of death worldwide. In recent years, medical science has achieved great advances in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. Despite the numerous advantages of conventional cancer therapies, there are major drawbacks including severe side effects, toxicities, and drug resistance. Therefore, the urgency of developing new drugs with low cytotoxicity and treatment resistance is increasing. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have attracted attention as a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of various cancers, targeting tumor cells with less toxicity to normal tissues. In this review, we present the structure, biological function, and underlying mechanisms of AMPs. The recent experimental studies and clinical trials on anticancer peptides in different cancer types as well as the challenges of their clinical application have also been discussed.

Anti-cancer peptides: classification, mechanism of action, reconstruction and modification

Anti-cancer peptides (ACPs) are a series of short peptides composed of 10-60 amino acids that can inhibit tumour cell proliferation or migration, or suppress the formation of tumour blood vessels, and are less likely to cause drug resistance. The aforementioned merits make ACPs the most promising anti-cancer candidate. However, ACPs may be degraded by proteases, or result in cytotoxicity in many cases. To overcome these drawbacks, a plethora of research has focused on reconstruction or modification of ACPs to improve their anti-cancer activity, while reducing their cytotoxicity. The modification of ACPs mainly includes main chain reconstruction and side chain modification. After summarizing the classification and mechanism of action of ACPs, this paper focuses on recent development and progress about their reconstruction and modification. The information collected here may provide some ideas for further research on ACPs, in particular their modification.

The long-term immunological effects of alloferon and its analogues in the mealworm Tenebrio molitor

The subject of this article is a search for the long-term immunological effects of alloferon and 3 structural analogues of alloferon, which were earlier characterized by the highest pro-apoptotic activity in Tenebrio molitor. The differences in the actions of these peptides on immune response were observed. Alloferon increased nodulation and significantly phenoloxidase activity in the hemolymph of experimentally infected T. molitor. However, [Phe(p-NH₂ )¹ ]- and [Phe(p-OMe)¹ ]-alloferon strongly inhibited cellular and humoral defense of the mealworm against Staphylococcus aureus infection. One day after injection of these peptides, the specific biochemical and morphological hallmarks of apoptosis in bacteria-challenged hemocytes were visible; in contrast, 3 days after peptides injection in all hemocytes, caspase activation was not observed. However, these new, circulating hemocytes differed from the control and the peptide-untreated bacteria-challenged hemocytes. They had an increased adhesion that led to a separation of viable, anucleated fragments of hemocytes that retain the ability to adhere and to form long filopodia. The peptide-induced separation of hemocyte fragments may resemble the formation of platelets in mammals and perhaps play a role in sealing wounds in insects. The results of in vivo studies may suggest a long half-life of studied peptides in the hemolymph of mealworm. Moreover, we showed the importance of the N-terminal histidine residues at position one of the alloferon molecule for its immunological properties in insects. The results obtained here show that alloferon plays pleiotropic functions in insects.

High stability and biological activity of the copper(II) complexes of alloferon 1 analogues containing tryptophan

Copper(II) complex formation processes between the alloferon 1 (Allo1) (HGVSGHGQHGVHG) analogues where the tryptophan residue is introducing in the place His residue H1W, H6W, H9W and H12W have been studied by potentiometric, UV-visible, CD and EPR spectroscopic, and MS methods. For all analogues of alloferon 1 complex speciation have been obtained for a 1:1 metal-to-ligand molar ratio and 2:1 of H1W because of precipitation at higher (2:1, 3:1 and 4:1) ratios. At physiological pH7.4 and a 1:1 metal-to-ligand molar ratio the tryptophan analogues of alloferon 1 form the CuH_-1L and/or CuH_-2L complexes with the 4N binding mode. The introduction of tryptophan in place of histidine residues changes the distribution diagram of the complexes formed with the change of pH and their stability constants compared to the respective substituted alanine analogues of alloferon 1. The CuH_-1L, CuH_-2L and CuH_-3L complexes of the tryptophan analogues are more stable from 1 to 5 log units in comparison to those of the alanine analogues. This stabilization of the complexes may result from cation(Cu(II))-π and indole/imidazole ring interactions. The induction of apoptosis in vivo, in Tenebrio molitor cells by the ligands and their copper(II) complexes at pH7.4 was studied. The biological results show that copper(II) ions in vivo did not cause any apparent apoptotic features. The most active were the H12W peptide and Cu(II)-H12W complex formed at pH7.4.

Alloferon Alleviates Dextran Sulfate Sodium-induced Colitis

Dysfunction of gut immune regulation is involved in mucosal damage in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, there is still no efficacious immune-regulator for the treatment of IBD. Alloferon is a novel immune-modulatory peptide that was originally isolated from infected insects. It shows anti-inflammatory effects by the regulation of cytokine production by immune cells and their activities. Therefore, we investigated the effect of alloferon in a mouse model of colitis using dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). Colitis was induced by administration of DSS in drinking water for 7 consecutive days. It was confirmed by the presence of weight loss, diarrhea, hematochezia, and colon contraction. Alloferon was injected 4 days after DSS administration. We found that alloferon improved the pathogenesis of IBD based on the reduced disease activity index (DAI) and colon contraction. Edema, epithelial erosion, and immune cell infiltration were found in mice administered DSS, but the phenomena were reduced following alloferon treatment. The plasma level of IL-6, a classical pro-inflammatory cytokine in colitis, was also decreased by alloferon. Moreover, alloferon inhibited the TNF-α-induced degradation and phosphorylation of IκB in Colo205 colon cancer cells. Taken together, these results show that alloferon has anti-inflammatory effects and attenuates DSS-induced colitis.

Copper(ii) complexes of terminally free alloferon mutants containing two histidyl binding sites inside peptide chain structure and stability

The characterization of Cu(ii) complexes with alloferon 1 mutants H1A/H12A, H1A/H9A and H1A/H6A by potentiometry, CD, UV-Vis and EPR spectroscopic techniques, and ESI-MS spectrometry is reported.

Recent advances in developing insect natural products as potential modern day medicines

Except for honey as food, and silk for clothing and pollination of plants, people give little thought to the benefits of insects in their lives. This overview briefly describes significant recent advances in developing insect natural products as potential new medicinal drugs. This is an exciting and rapidly expanding new field since insects are hugely variable and have utilised an enormous range of natural products to survive environmental perturbations for 100s of millions of years. There is thus a treasure chest of untapped resources waiting to be discovered. Insects products, such as silk and honey, have already been utilised for thousands of years, and extracts of insects have been produced for use in Folk Medicine around the world, but only with the development of modern molecular and biochemical techniques has it become feasible to manipulate and bioengineer insect natural products into modern medicines. Utilising knowledge gleaned from Insect Folk Medicines, this review describes modern research into bioengineering honey and venom from bees, silk, cantharidin, antimicrobial peptides, and maggot secretions and anticoagulants from blood-sucking insects into medicines. Problems and solutions encountered in these endeavours are described and indicate that the future is bright for new insect derived pharmaceuticals treatments and medicines.

Anti-tumor activity of a peptide combining patterns of insect alloferons and mammalian immunoglobulins in naïve and tumor antigen vaccinated mice

Alloferons are a group of naturally occurring peptides primarily isolated from insects and capable of stimulating mouse and human NK cell cytotoxicity towards cancer cells. In this paper we examined anti-tumor activity of alloferon-1 and its novel structural analog referred to as allostatine. The activity was tested in naïve and preventively tumor antigen vaccinated DBA/2 mice subcutaneously grafted with syngenic P388D1 mouse leukemia cells. In naïve animals allostatine demonstrated tumoristatic activity prevailing over alloferon-1 effect. The preventive vaccination caused only weak tumoristatic effect in 27% of vaccinated animals. The vaccination efficacy was dramatically enhanced by allostatine but not alloferon-1 administration: 65% of allostatine treated animals benefitted from tumoristatic effect and 30% was completely cured so that total number of positive responders grew to 95%. Thus, alloferon-1 and especially allostatine are worthy of further consideration as potential anti-cancer drugs. Allostatine seems to be particularly perspective for adjuvant cancer immunotherapy. Sequence similarity search revealed evolutionary conserved allostatine-like pattern inserted to CDR3 region of human and mouse immunoglobulins. By analogy with allostatine, the pattern may execute some unknown so far function in anti-tumor immune response regulation.

Proteomics and NF-κB: an update

The transcription factor NF-κB was discovered in 1986 and since then has been extensively studied in relation to cancer research and inflammatory or autoimmune diseases due to its important roles in the regulation of apoptosis and inflammation as well as innate and adaptive immunity. Although much is known about NF-κB signaling, novel NF-κB functions in different diseases are still being uncovered, together with its target proteins, interaction partners and regulators of its activation cascade. Proteomic approaches are particularly suited to the discovery of new proteins involved in distinct signal transduction cascades. This review provides an update on and extension of a recent review that summarized a number of proteomic approaches to NF-κB signaling. The studies discussed here utilized innovative techniques and offer several new hypotheses on the role of NF-κB in physiological and pathophysiological processes, which open new avenues for research on NF-κB in the future.

Novel biological effects of alloferon and its selected analogues: structure-activity study

The subject of this paper is a search for new biological properties of alloferon (H-His-Gly-Val-Ser-Gly-His-Gly-Gln-His-Gly-Val-His-Gly-OH) and a series of its analogues. The studies on structure/activity relationship in alloferon, the synthesis of a series of 28 analogues were performed. The analogues were modified at position 1 or 6, and other were oligopeptides with a shortened peptide sequence. Biological effects of the peptides were evaluated by the pro-apoptotic action in vivo on haemocytes of Tenebrio molitor and in the cardiotropic test in vitro on the heart of T. molitor and Zophobas atratus. In the in vivo bioassays, new biological activities of alloferon and its analogues were discovered. In haemocytotoxic bioassay, alloferon strongly induces T. molitor haemocytes to undergo apoptosis at a dose of 10 nM. Moreover, [Phe(p-NH2)(1)]-, [Tyr(6)]- and [1-10]-alloferon exhibit a two-fold increase of caspases activation in comparison with the alloferon. However, alloferon and its analogues show a weak cardiostimulatory activity in Z. atratus but the heart of T. molitor is not sensitive to these peptides. The results obtained here suggest that alloferon plays pleiotropic functions in insects.

New alloferon analogues: synthesis and antiviral properties

We have extended our study on structure/activity relationship studies of insect peptide alloferon (H-His-Gly-Val-Ser-Gly-His-Gly-Gln-His-Gly-Val-His-Gly-OH) by evaluating the antiviral effects of new alloferon analogues. We synthesized 18 alloferon analogues: 12 peptides with sequences shortened from N- or C-terminus and 6 N-terminally modified analogues H-X(1)-Gly-Val-Ser-Gly-His-Gly-Gln-His-Gly-Val-His-Gly-OH, where X(1) = Phe (13), Tyr (14), Trp (15), Phg (16), Phe(p-Cl) (17), and Phe(p-OMe) (18). We found that most of the evaluated peptides inhibit the replication of Human Herpesviruses or Coxsackievirus B2 in Vero, HEp-2 and LLC-MK(2) cells. Our results indicate that the compound [3-13]-alloferon (1) exhibits the strongest antiviral activity (IC(50) = 38 μM) among the analyzed compound. Moreover, no cytotoxic activity against the investigated cell lines was observed for all studied peptides at concentration 165 μM or higher.

The anti-inflammatory effect of alloferon on UVB-induced skin inflammation through the down-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines

UVB irradiation can induce biological changes in the skin, modulate immune responses and activate inflammatory reactions leading to skin damage. Alloferon, which is isolated from the blood of an experimentally infected insect, the blow fly Calliphora vicina, is known for its anti-viral and anti-tumor activities in mice model. However, the effect of alloferon against UVB irradiation and its specific mechanism are still unknown. In this study, we investigated the effect of alloferon on UVB-induced cutaneous inflammation in a human keratinocyte cell line, HaCaT. RPA and ELISA data showed that alloferon decreased the production of UVB-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-18, both on the mRNA and protein level. Western blot analysis was done to determine if alloferon regulates the MAPK signaling pathway since the MAPK signaling pathway is activated by numerous inflammatory mediators and environmental stresses including UVB irradiation. Alloferon inhibited the activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) induced by UVB irradiation. Furthermore, the topical application of alloferon on the UVB exposed skin of hairless mice showed that alloferon treatment significantly inhibited an increase in epithelial thickness in chronic UVB-irradiated mouse skin. These findings suggest that alloferon has significant anti-inflammatory effects not only on UVB-induced inflammation in the human keratinocyte cell line, HaCaT, but also on mouse skin.

Anti-tumor activity of immunomodulatory peptide alloferon-1 in mouse tumor transplantation model

Alloferons are a group of antiviral and anti-tumor peptides primarily isolated from insects and stimulating cytotoxic activity of natural killer cells in mammals including mice and humans. Alloferon-1 is currently used in the treatment of persistent viral infections; however its anti-tumor potential needs further preclinical assessment. Here we evaluate alloferon-1 anti-tumor activity in DBA/2 mice grafted with syngenic P388 murine leukemia cells. Alloferon-1 was applied alone or in combination with conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy (a mixture of cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin and vincristine). Alloferon-1 monotherapy demonstrated moderate tumoristatic and tumoricidal activities comparable with low dose chemotherapy. When alloferon-1 and the cytotoxic drugs were combined in a regime of pulse immunochemotherapy the combination anti-tumor activity evidently exceeded that of the treatments applied individually.

Insect natural products and processes: new treatments for human disease

In this overview, some of the more significant recent developments in bioengineering natural products from insects with use or potential use in modern medicine are described, as well as in utilisation of insects as models for studying essential mammalian processes such as immune responses to pathogens. To date, insects have been relatively neglected as sources of modern drugs although they have provided valuable natural products, including honey and silk, for at least 4-7000 years, and have featured in folklore medicine for thousands of years. Particular examples of Insect Folk Medicines will briefly be described which have subsequently led through the application of molecular and bioengineering techniques to the development of bioactive compounds with great potential as pharmaceuticals in modern medicine. Insect products reviewed have been derived from honey, venom, silk, cantharidin, whole insect extracts, maggots, and blood-sucking arthropods. Drug activities detected include powerful antimicrobials against antibiotic-resistant bacteria and HIV, as well as anti-cancer, anti-angiogenesis and anti-coagulant factors and wound healing agents. Finally, the many problems in developing these insect products as human therapeutic drugs are considered and the possible solutions emerging to these problems are described.

On the selectivity and efficacy of defense peptides with respect to cancer cells

Here, we review potential determinants of the anticancer efficacy of innate immune peptides (ACPs) for cancer cells. These determinants include membrane-based factors, such as receptors, phosphatidylserine, sialic acid residues, and sulfated glycans, and peptide-based factors, such as residue composition, sequence length, net charge, hydrophobic arc size, hydrophobicity, and amphiphilicity. Each of these factors may contribute to the anticancer action of ACPs, but no single factor(s) makes an overriding contribution to their overall selectivity and toxicity. Differences between the anticancer actions of ACPs seem to relate to different levels of interplay between these peptide and membrane-based factors.

Studies of insect peptides alloferon, Any-GS and their analogues. Synthesis and antiherpes activity

The subject of these studies was synthesis and determination of biological properties of a series of insect peptides, such as alloferon, Any-GS and their analogues. The synthesis of 14 peptides was performed by the solid-phase method. Biological effect of these peptides was evaluated by the antiviral test against Human Herpes Virus type 1 (HHV-1) in vitro using a Vero cell line. It was found that the investigated peptides inhibit the replication of HHV-1 in Vero cells.