The adrenal and polycystic ovary syndrome

An endocrinological perspective on polycystic ovarian syndrome

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a complex endocrinological disorder that involves dysfunctions across multiple endocrine axes, including the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axes. Our review focuses on understanding the pathophysiology of PCOS through an endocrinological perspective, emphasizing the complex interactions between multiple endocrine axes. We have discussed the roles of the HPG, HPA, and HPT axes in PCOS. Dysregulation of the HPG axis, particularly the altered gonadotropin-releasing hormone pulse frequency resulting in elevated ratio of luteinizing hormone to follicle stimulating hormone, is central to the hyperandrogenism and anovulation, observed in PCOS. We have further highlighted the contributions of the HPA and HPT axes, where elevated adrenal androgen levels and hypothyroidism intensifies the phenotypes of PCOS. Additionally, insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia, commonly associated with PCOS, aggravates hormonal disturbances and heighten the risk of metabolic complications such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Elevated levels of anti-Müllerian hormone have also been emphasized as a key factor in inhibiting follicular growth, leading to impaired ovarian function and hyperandrogenism. This review further supports that PCOS is a multifactorial condition involving complex feedback mechanisms between the endocrine, metabolic, and reproductive systems. Furthermore, there remains a huge scope for deciphering the precise molecular interactions between the HPG, HPA, and HPT axes in PCOS, which could pave the way for targeted therapies for better management of both the endocrine and metabolic aspects of this disorder. This review will benefit researchers to get an endocrine perspective on PCOS.

[Multimorbidity in endocrinological diseases: Clinical implications of PCOS]

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is one of the most common endocrinological disorders in women of reproductive age. It affects up to 15% of this population worldwide and is characterized by a complex hormonal, metabolic and reproductive dysfunction. In this article, the multimorbidity of PCOS is reviewed, with a particular focus on the clinical implications and management of this complex disorder.

Systematic low-grade chronic inflammation and intrinsic mechanisms in polycystic ovary syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a prevalent endocrine and metabolic disorder affecting 6-20% of women of childbearing age worldwide. Immune cell imbalance and dysregulation of inflammatory factors can lead to systematic low-grade chronic inflammation (SLCI), which plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of PCOS. A significant higher infiltration of immune cells such as macrophages and lymphocytes and pro-inflammatory factors IL-6 and TNF-α has been detected in PCOS organ systems, impacting not only the female reproductive system but also other organs such as the cardiovascular, intestine, liver, thyroid, brain and other organs. Obesity, insulin resistance (IR), steroid hormones imbalance and intestinal microecological imbalance, deficiencies in vitamin D and selenium, as well as hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) can induce systematic imbalance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cells and molecules. The pro-inflammatory cells and cytokines also interact with obesity, steroid hormones imbalance and IR, leading to increased metabolic imbalance and reproductive-endocrine dysfunction in PCOS patients. This review aims to summarize the dysregulation of immune response in PCOS organ system and the intrinsic mechanisms affecting SLCI in PCOS to provide new insights for the systemic inflammatory treatment of PCOS in the future.

Role of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Improving Metabolic Dysfunctions in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine disorder that impacts women of reproductive age. In addition to reproductive and psychological complications, women with PCOS are also at a higher risk of developing metabolic diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. While weight reduction can help manage these complications in overweight or obese women, many weight loss interventions have been ineffective due to weight stigma and its psychological impact on women with PCOS. Therefore, exploring alternative dietary strategies which do not focus on weight loss per se is of importance. In this regard, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids of marine origin (n-3 PUFAs), which are known for their hypotriglyceridemic, cardioprotective and anti-inflammatory effects, have emerged as a potential therapy for prevention and reversal of metabolic complications in PCOS. Several clinical trials showed that n-3 PUFAs can improve components of metabolic syndrome in women with PCOS. In this review, we first summarize the available clinical evidence for different dietary patterns in improving PCOS complications. Next, we summarize the clinical evidence for n-3 PUFAs for alleviating metabolic complications in PCOS. Finally, we explore the mechanisms by which n-3 PUFAs improve the metabolic disorders in PCOS in depth.

Is it useful to measure DHEAS levels in PCOS?

INTRODUCTION

A high prevalence of increased DHEAS (dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate) levels (about a third of cases) has been reported in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). This excess of adrenal androgens remains a mystery in this ovarian pathology. It is well known that DHEAS production correlates negatively with age, and study populations of women with PCOS are generally young. To avoid this bias, a study was carried out on a large population of women with PCOS and control women, using normal DHEAS values for each age group, to better assess prevalence and better understand the link between PCOS and DHEAS.

METHODS

A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted at the Lille University Hospital. A total of 1223 patients with PCOS according to the Rotterdam criteria and 517 control women were included. DHEAS elevation was diagnosed according to the standards of the Lille University Hospital Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, based on patient age. The prevalence of increased serum DHEAS levels was calculated in each population and according to PCOS phenotype. Correlations were assessed between serum DHEAS levels and clinical, hormonal, and metabolic markers, with adjustment for age.

RESULTS

Prevalence of increased DHEAS was significantly higher in the PCOS group than in the control group (8.1 vs. 4.3%; OR=1.98 (95%CI: 1.23-3.19), P=0.005, and OR=1.07 (95%CI: 1.05-1.09), P=0.014 without and with adjustment for BMI respectively), and in phenotypes A and C than in controls (OR=2.88 (95%CI: 1.76 to 4.72), P<0.001 and OR=2.81 (95%CI: 1.39 to 5.67), P=0.004 respectively), but not in phenotype D. A correlation was found between DHEAS level and total testosteronemia (r=0.34, P<0.001), androstenedione (r=0.24, P<0.001), 17 hydroxyprogesteronemia (r=0.22, P<0.001) and age (r=0.25, P<0.001). No correlations were found with AMH, LH or FSH, and a very weak positive correlation was found with BMI (r=0.15; P<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Using age-dependent norms, DHEAS elevation was found in only 8.1% of women with PCOS (11% in the case of phenotypes A and C) versus 4.3% in controls and women with phenotype D. DHEAS levels correlated only with other androgens, and not (or only minimally) with other ovarian, pituitary or metabolic markers. DHEAS assay therefore appears to be of no interest for positive diagnosis or understanding of the pathophysiology of PCOS, except in case of very high testosterone levels.

Determination of urinary androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome using LC-QqQ/MS and the application of thin film solid-phase microextraction (TF-SPME)

Hyperandrogenism is one of the most pronounced symptoms of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) and seems to play a key role in the pathogenesis of this complex disorder. Nevertheless, there is still a lack of consistent results regarding common steroid predictors of PCOS. Therefore, a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-QqQ/MS) method was developed and validated to determine the concentrations of four classic androgens: androstenedione (An-dione), testosterone (T), 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and androsterone (An) in urine samples obtained from women with PCOS and healthy controls. The limits of detection were between 0.04 and 0.09 ng/mL, while the limits of quantification ranged from 0.1 to 0.3 ng/mL respectively. As a pre-treatment procedure prior to analysis, hydrolysis using β-glucuronidase and thin film solid-phase microextraction (TF-SPME) was applied. The methodology was employed to perform targeted metabolomics of urinary steroids in women with PCOS and healthy controls. All measured androgens: An-dione (p < 0.0001), T (p = 0.0001), DHT (p < 0.0001) and An (p = 0.0002) showed significantly higher concentrations in the urine of women with PCOS. The largest difference in the mean concentration was found for DHT, which was 2.8 times higher in the PCOS group (13.9 ± 14.1 ng/mg creatinine) in comparison to healthy controls (4.9 ± 3.4 ng/mg creatinine). The results of receiver operating characteristic curve indicated that determination of the panel of three urinary androgens: T+DHT+An-dione with, under the study assumptions, was the best predictor of PCOS diagnosis (AUC of ROC curve = 0.91 (95 % CI: 0.8212-0.9905). The application of an LC-MS/MS-based analysis, together with highly sensitive extraction techniques like TF-SPME, is a suitable approach to perform fast assays and obtain reliable results - crucial in the search for valuable and significant steroids predictors of PCOS.

Hepatokines: the missing link in the development of insulin resistance and hyperandrogenism in PCOS?

The liver plays a critical role in several metabolic pathways, including the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), the most common chronic liver disease worldwide, is closely associated with insulin resistance (IR) and metabolic syndrome (MetS). Hepatokines, newly discovered proteins secreted by hepatocytes, have been linked to the induction of these metabolic dysregulations. Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age, has been associated with NAFLD and IR, while hyperandrogenism additionally appears to be implicated in the pathogenesis of the latter. However, the potential role of hepatokines in the development of metabolic disorders in PCOS has not been fully investigated. Therefore, the aim of this review is to critically appraise the current evidence regarding the interplay of hepatokines with NAFLD, hyperandrogenism, and IR in PCOS.

Neuroendocrine, neurotransmitter, and gut microbiota imbalance contributing to potential psychiatric disorder prevalence in polycystic ovarian syndrome

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is the most common endocrine disorder in women, affecting up to 15% of reproductive-aged women. Polycystic ovarian syndrome is a heterogeneous disorder, both in the sense that many different factors may play a role in its manifestation and that multiple systems throughout the body can be affected. Polycystic ovarian syndrome has been linked to an increased prevalence of various psychiatric disorders, including depression and anxiety. Despite the socioeconomic effect that these disorders may have on patients with PCOS and society as a whole, this association is largely lacking in research. There are currently several theories regarding the link between PCOS and mental health. Some suggest that the overactive hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes in PCOS patients may alter the hormonal profile and contribute to the development of psychiatric disorders. Other studies speculate that abnormal levels of neurotransmitters and neuronal signaling may play a role. Recently, more research has begun to focus on the gut-brain axis, addressing the nutritional needs of PCOS patients. Studies show that dietary factors such as probiotics and micronutrient supplementation may significantly improve psychiatric symptoms in PCOS patients while helping regulate neurotransmitter levels in the body. In this review, we examine different theories regarding the association between PCOS and psychiatric disorders and point out different areas of research that are needed to broaden our understanding of this association.

Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities

Polycystic ovary syndrome is characterised by excessive levels of androgens and ovulatory dysfunction, and is a common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. Polycystic ovary syndrome arises as a result of polygenic susceptibility in combination with environmental influences that might include epigenetic alterations and in utero programming. In addition to the well recognised clinical manifestations of hyperandrogenism and ovulatory dysfunction, women with polycystic ovary syndrome have an increased risk of adverse mental health outcomes, pregnancy complications, and cardiometabolic disease. Unlicensed treatments have limited efficacy, mostly because drug development has been hampered by an incomplete understanding of the underlying pathophysiological processes. Advances in genetics, metabolomics, and adipocyte biology have improved our understanding of key changes in neuroendocrine, enteroendocrine, and steroidogenic pathways, including increased gonadotrophin releasing hormone pulsatility, androgen excess, insulin resistance, and changes in the gut microbiome. Many patients with polycystic ovary syndrome have high levels of 11-oxygenated androgens, with high androgenic potency, that might mediate metabolic risk. These advances have prompted the development of new treatments, including those that target the neurokinin-kisspeptin axis upstream of gonadotrophin releasing hormone, with the potential to lessen adverse clinical sequelae and improve patient outcomes.

Prevalence of Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome and Its Link to Obesity in Adolescent Girls

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), also referred to as Stein-Leventhal syndrome, happens to be one of most common hormonal disorders found in females, causing large-sized ovaries with small cysts of non-ovulated oocytes in the outer medulla part of the ovary. Women suffering from PCOS often exhibit symptoms like oligomenorrhoea, elevated testosterone levels, acne, alopecia, hirsutism, sudden weight gain and many more. It can predispose a woman to developing infertility in future, and thus, difficulties in conceiving; due to the cystic changes in the ovaries, it results in anovulation and amenorrhea. The early symptoms of PCOS are being commonly observed nowadays in young women who are in their early 20s and those who are overweight or obese. The metabolic expression of PCOS increases with obesity. Obesity is a factor that is considered to contribute the most in the occurrence of various long-standing and non-transmissible illnesses apart from PCOS such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes, high blood cholesterol and even certain types of cancers. In obesity, there is an increase in the size and number of fat cells in the body. Obese and overweight young girls have a heightened likelihood of developing PCOS and its corresponding metabolic and reproductive health complications.

Potentials of curcumin against polycystic ovary syndrome: Pharmacological insights and therapeutic promises

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common hormonal disorder among women (4%-20%) when the ovaries create abnormally high levels of androgens, the male sex hormones that are typically present in women in trace amounts. The primary characteristics of PCOS include oxidative stress, inflammation, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, hyperandrogenism, and insulin resistance. Generally, metformin, spironolactone, eflornithine and oral contraceptives are used to treat PCOS, despite their several side effects. Therefore, finding a potential candidate for treating PCOS is necessary. Curcumin is a major active natural polyphenolic compound derived from turmeric (Curcuma longa). A substantial number of studies have shown that curcumin has anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative stress, antibacterial, and anti-apoptotic activities. In addition, curcumin reduces hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, hyperandrogenism, and insulin resistance in various conditions, including PCOS. The review highlighted the therapeutic aspects of curcumin against the pathophysiology of PCOS. We also offer a hypothesis to improve the development of medicines based on curcumin against PCOS.

Dysregulation of immune response in PCOS organ system

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common reproductive endocrine disorder affecting women, which can lead to infertility. Infertility, obesity, hirsutism, acne, and irregular menstruation are just a few of the issues that PCOS can be linked to. PCOS has a complicated pathophysiology and a range of clinical symptoms. Chronic low-grade inflammation is one of the features of PCOS. The inflammatory environment involves immune and metabolic disturbances. Numerous organ systems across the body, in addition to the female reproductive system, have been affected by the pathogenic role of immunological dysregulation in PCOS in recent years. Insulin resistance and hyperandrogenism are associated with immune cell dysfunction and cytokine imbalance. More importantly, obesity is also involved in immune dysfunction in PCOS, leading to an inflammatory environment in women with PCOS. Hormone, obesity, and metabolic interactions contribute to the pathogenesis of PCOS. Hormone imbalance may also contribute to the development of autoimmune diseases. The aim of this review is to summarize the pathophysiological role of immune dysregulation in various organ systems of PCOS patients and provide new ideas for systemic treatment of PCOS in the future.

History of Adrenal Research: From Ancient Anatomy to Contemporary Molecular Biology

The adrenal is a small, anatomically unimposing structure that escaped scientific notice until 1564 and whose existence was doubted by many until the 18th century. Adrenal functions were inferred from the adrenal insufficiency syndrome described by Addison and from the obesity and virilization that accompanied many adrenal malignancies, but early physiologists sometimes confused the roles of the cortex and medulla. Medullary epinephrine was the first hormone to be isolated (in 1901), and numerous cortical steroids were isolated between 1930 and 1949. The treatment of arthritis, Addison's disease, and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) with cortisone in the 1950s revolutionized clinical endocrinology and steroid research. Cases of CAH had been reported in the 19th century, but a defect in 21-hydroxylation in CAH was not identified until 1957. Other forms of CAH, including deficiencies of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 11β-hydroxylase, and 17α-hydroxylase were defined hormonally in the 1960s. Cytochrome P450 enzymes were described in 1962-1964, and steroid 21-hydroxylation was the first biosynthetic activity associated with a P450. Understanding of the genetic and biochemical bases of these disorders advanced rapidly from 1984 to 2004. The cloning of genes for steroidogenic enzymes and related factors revealed many mutations causing known diseases and facilitated the discovery of new disorders. Genetics and cell biology have replaced steroid chemistry as the key disciplines for understanding and teaching steroidogenesis and its disorders.

Sensitive HPLC-DMS/MS/MS method coupled with dispersive magnetic solid phase extraction followed by in situ derivatization for the simultaneous determination of multiplexing androgens and 17-hydroxyprogesterone in human serum and its application to patients with polycystic ovarian syndrome

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Androgens play important roles in polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). However, measures of androgens based on mass spectrometry (MS) remain complex due to endogenous inferences of isomers or compounds with similar structures. Lack of sensitivity can also affect the accurate quantification of androgens, especially for very low level of 11-oxygenated androgens.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We developed a fast and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography-differential mobility spectrometry tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-DMS/MS/MS) method for the simultaneous determination of seven androgens and 17-hydroxyprogesterone. Dispersive magnetic solid phase extraction (DMSPE) was conducted with core-shell structured nanoparticles of magnetic graphene oxide (Fe₃O₄@GO). In situ derivatization was performed using Girard's Reagent P.

RESULTS

Linear ranges of the eight analytes were set in terms of clinical use. Intra- and inter-run precisions were < 16.7 % and 12.9 % for all the analytes and relative error was - 14.7-13.3 % and - 9.3-11.0 %, respectively. Extraction recoveries were 54.0-92.7 % for different analytes. The method was validated and was applied to assay 432 clinical samples.

CONCLUSION

The developed method is green, fast, sensitive and accurate for the determination of endogenous androgens. It can be readily implemented in medical laboratories to provide superior analytical performance over the traditional electrochemiluminescence immunoassay method.

11-Oxygenated androgens are not secreted by the human ovary: in-vivo data from four different cases of hyperandrogenism

OBJECTIVE

Differentiation of an adrenal from an ovarian source of hyperandrogenemia can be challenging. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids to the androgen pool in humans. The aim of this study was to confirm the origin of 11-oxygenated androgens in females and to explore their potential use in the diagnostics of hyperandrogenic disorders.

METHODS

We measured testosterone and its precursors (dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate and androstenedione) and 11-oxygenated androgens (11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11-OHA4) and 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT)) in the periphery, adrenal and ovarian veins in four different cases of hyperandrogenism in females (polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), primary bilateral macronodular adrenal hyperplasia, Sertoli-Leydig cell tumor and ovarian steroid cell tumor).

RESULTS

Two patients demonstrate excessive testosterone secretion in neoplastic ovarian tumors which was not paralleled by a significant secretion of 11-oxygenated androgens as determined by adrenal and ovarian vein sampling. In androgen-secreting bilateral adrenal macronodular hyperplasia, steroid profiles were characterized by elevated 11-KT and 11-OHA4 concentrations in adrenal veins and the periphery. In the patient with PCOS, peripheral 11-KT concentrations were slightly elevated in comparison to the other patients, but the 11-KT and 11-OHA4 concentrations were comparable in ovarian veins and in the periphery.

CONCLUSION

This study confirms that 11-OHA4 and 11-KT are not biosynthesized by the ovary. We propose that the testosterone/11-KT ratio as well as 11-OHA4 could help identify predominant adrenal androgen excess and distinguish neoplastic and non-neoplastic ovarian androgen source.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

This study confirms that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11-OHA4) and 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT) are not biosynthesized by the human ovary. We propose that the testosterone/11-KT ratio as well as 11-OHA4 could help to identify predominant adrenal androgen excess and distinguish neoplastic and non-neoplastic ovarian androgen source.

Sheep as a model for neuroendocrinology research

Animal models remain essential to understand the fundamental mechanisms of physiology and pathology. Particularly, the complex and dynamic nature of neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus make them difficult to study. The neuroendocrine systems of the hypothalamus are critical for survival and reproduction, and are highly conserved throughout vertebrate evolution. Their roles in controlling body metabolism, growth and body composition, stress, electrolyte balance, and reproduction, have been intensively studied, and have yielded groundbreaking discoveries. Many of these discoveries would not have been feasible without the use of the domestic sheep (Ovis aries). The sheep has been used for decades to study the neuroendocrine systems of the hypothalamus and has become a model for human neuroendocrinology. The aim of this chapter is to review some of the profound biomedical discoveries made possible by the use of sheep. The advantages and limitations of sheep as a neuroendocrine model will be discussed. While no animal model can perfectly recapitulate a human disease or condition, sheep are invaluable for enabling manipulations not possible in human subjects and isolating physiologic variables to garner insight into neuroendocrinology and associated pathologies.

Shared postulations between bipolar disorder and polycystic ovary syndrome pathologies

INTRODUCTION

Women with bipolar disorder (BD) present a high prevalence of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and other reproductive disorders even before diagnosis or treatment of the disease. Postulations on the potential molecular mechanisms of comorbid PCOS in women with BD remain limited to influence of medications and need further extension.

OBJECTIVES

This review focuses on evidence suggesting that common metabolic and immune disorders may play an important role in the development of BD and PCOS.

RESULTS

The literature covered in this review suggests that metabolic and immune disorders, including the dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, chronic inflammatory state, gut microbial alterations, adipokine alterations and circadian rhythm disturbance, are observed in patients with BD and PCOS. Such disorders may be responsible for the increased prevalence of PCOS in the BD population and indicate a susceptibility gene overlap between the two diseases. Current evidence supports postulations of common metabolic and immune disorders as endophenotype in BD as well as in PCOS.

CONCLUSIONS

Metabolic and immune disorders may be responsible for the comorbid PCOS in the BD population. The identification of hallmark metabolic and immune features common to these two diseases will contribute to the clarification of the effect of BD on the reproductive endocrine function and development of symptomatic treatments targeting the biomarkers of the two diseases.

Estrogen Biosynthesis and Signal Transduction in Ovarian Disease

Estrogen mainly binds to estrogen receptors (ERs) to regulate menstrual cycles and reproduction. The expression of ERalpha (ERα), ERbeta (ERβ), and G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) mRNA could be detected in ovary, suggesting that they play an important role in estrogen signal transduction in ovary. And many studies have revealed that abnormal expression of estrogen and its receptors is closely related to ovarian disease or malignant tumors. With the continuous development and research of animal models, tissue-specific roles of both ERα and ERβ have been demonstrated in animals, which enable people to have a deeper understanding of the potential role of ER in regulating female reproductive diseases. Nevertheless, our current understanding of ERs expression and function in ovarian disease is, however, incomplete. To elucidate the biological mechanism behind ERs in the ovary, this review will focus on the role of ERα and ERβ in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), ovarian cancer and premature ovarian failure (POF) and discuss the major challenges of existing therapies to provide a reference for the treatment of estrogen target tissue ovarian diseases.

Cortisol and polycystic ovarian syndrome - a systematic search and meta-analysis of case-control studies

BACKGROUND

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) has become an emerging disorder affecting women of reproductive age group. Its intricate presentation of signs and symptoms makes it a disease of interest to research. While there are varied hypotheses related to its cause and pathogenesis, role of stress in this disease is yet to be grounded. There is emerging body of evidence on cortisol and PCOS, although it is currently equivocal.

METHODS

Medline, Embase, Pubmed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Scopus were searched from March 1985 to March 2020 using MeSH terms. After dual quality assessments and data abstraction, the final articles were included for meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Forty-one studies qualified for the analysis. Pooled meta-analysis showed that the level of cortisol was significantly higher in PCOS when compared to healthy controls (standard mean difference [SMD] = 0.83, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.42-1.23) with highly significant heterogeneity (I² = 94%). Subgroup analysis done based on type of sample stated high effect size for blood cortisol levels (SMD = 0.9, 95%CI = 0.32; 1.51) compared to overall effect.

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review and meta-analysis on cortisol and PCOS have helped in generating evidence regarding the role of cortisol in the pathogenesis of PCOS and the use of cortisol estimation as a potential stress marker in PCOS.

Comparison of the efficacy of different androgens measured by LC-MS/MS in representing hyperandrogenemia and an evaluation of adrenal-origin androgens with a dexamethasone suppression test in patients with PCOS

BACKGROUND

The aims of this study were to compare the efficacy of different androgens measured by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in representing hyperandrogenemia and to evaluate adrenal-origin androgens with a dexamethasone suppression test in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

METHODS

One hundred and two patients with PCOS and 41 healthy volunteers were recruited and total serum testosterone (TT), androstenedione (AD), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) were measured by LC-MS/MS. ROC analysis was performed to compare the efficacy of different androgens in representing hyperandrogenemia. Dexamethasone suppression test was performed in 51 patients with PCOS and above indicators were measured after dexamethasone administration. The prediction efficacy of DHEA and DHEA-S at baseline in the dexamethasone suppression test was evaluated with ROC analysis.

RESULTS

The AUCs of TT, AD, free androgen index (FAI) and DHEA-S in ROC analysis for representing hyperandrogenemia were 0.816, 0.842, 0.937 and 0.678, respectively. The optimal cutoff value of TT was 0.337 ng/ml, with a sensitivity of 72.0% and specificity of 82.93%. The optimal cutoff value for AD was 1.309 ng/ml, with a sensitivity of 81.0% and specificity of 73.17%. The optimal cutoff value of the FAI was 2.50, with a sensitivity of 87.0% and specificity of 92.68%. Alternatively, AD or FAI more than the optimal cutoff values as evidence of hyperandrogenemia had the highest sensitivity of 91.18%. The levels of cortisol, DHEA and DHEA-S were all suppressed to narrow ranges after dexamethasone administration. Nine and 8 of 51 patients with PCOS had significant decreases in TT and AD, respectively. DHEA can be used as a indicator for predicting significant decrease of TT in dexamethasone suppression test with cutoff value of 13.28 ng/ml. A total of 27.5% (14/51) of patients had DHEA-S excess, but only 1 of 9 patients who had a significant decrease in TT had elevated level of DHEA-S at baseline.

CONCLUSIONS

AD measured by LC-MS/MS can represent hyperandrogenemia in PCOS patients and, combined with TT or FAI, can improve the screening efficiency of hyperandrogenemia. Seventeen percent of PCOS patients had adrenal-origin androgen dominance, with TT significantly decreasing after 2 days of dexamethasone administration. Adrenal-origin androgen dominance was not parallel with DHEA-S excess in patients with PCOS.

Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS

BACKGROUND

We recently identified 35 women with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) who exhibited features of micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. Steroid hormone analysis can be more accurate using state-of-the-art ultra-performance convergence chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPC²-MS/MS). We hypothesized that UPC²-MS/MS may be used to better define hormonally this distinct subgroup of patients with PCOS.

METHODS

Plasma from PCOS patients (n = 35) and healthy volunteers (HVs, n = 19) who all received dexamethasone testing was analyzed. Samples were grouped per dexamethasone responses and followed by UPC²-MS/MS analysis. When insufficient, samples were pooled from patients with similar responses to allow quantification over the low end of the assay.

RESULTS

The C11-oxy C₁₉ (11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, 11keto-androstenedione, 11β-hydroxytestosterone, 11keto-testosterone):C₁₉ (androstenedione, testosterone) steroid ratio was decreased by 1.75-fold in PCOS patients compared to HVs. Downstream steroid metabolites 11β-hydroxyandrosterone and 11keto-androsterone were also measurable. The C11-oxy C₂₁ steroids, 11-hydroxyprogesterone and 11keto-dihydroprogesterone levels, were 1.2- and 1.7-fold higher in PCOS patients compared to HVs, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

We hypothesized that UPC²-MS/MS may accurately quantify steroids, in vivo, and identify novel metabolites in a subgroup of patients with PCOS and adrenal abnormalities. Indeed, it appears that adrenal C11-oxy steroids have the potential of being used diagnostically to identify younger women and adolescents with PCOS who also have some evidence of micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia.

IMPACT

Adrenal C11-oxy steroids may be clinically important in identifying young patients with PCOS and adrenal abnormalities. The steroids presented in our manuscript have not yet been considered in the clinical setting so far, and we believe that this study could represent a first focused step towards the characterization of a distinct subgroup of women with PCOS who may in fact be treated differently than the average patient with PCOS. This paper can change the understanding of PCOS as one disorder: it is in fact a heterogeneous condition. In addition, for the subgroup of patients with PCOS associated with adrenocortical dysfunction, our paper provides novel hormonal markers that can be used diagnostically. Finally, the paper also adds to the basic pathophysiological understanding of adrenocortical-ovarian interactions in steroidogenesis of young women and adolescent girls with PCOS.

Menstrual Disorders and Androgen-Related Traits in Young Women with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: a Clinical Study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate possible causes of menstrual disorders and androgen-related traits in young women with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM).

METHODS

Fifty-three women with T1DM (duration 8.0±5.6 years), 41 women with (polycystic ovary syndrome) PCOS, and 51 controls matched for age (19.4±4.3 years vs. 21.2±2.7 years vs. 20.8±3.1 years; P>.05) and body mass index (BMI) (22.2±2.7 kg/m2 vs. 21.9±2.0 kg/m2 vs. 21.4±1.9 kg/m2; P>.05) were prospectively recruited.

RESULTS

Two women (3.8%) in the T1DM group had not experienced menarche (at 15.5 and 16.6 years); of the rest, 23.5% had oligomenorrhea, 32.1% hirsutism, and 45.3% had acne. The age at menarche was delayed in the T1DM group compared to controls (12.7±1.3 vs. 12.0±1.0 years; P = .004), while no difference was observed with the polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) group (12.4±1.2 years). There were no differences in total testosterone (0.43±0.14 ng/mL vs. 0.39±0.14 ng/mL; P>.05), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) (269 ± 112 μg/dL vs. 238 ± 106 μg/dL; P>.05) or Δ4-androstenedione (2.4±1.3 ng/mL vs. 1.9±0.5 ng/mL; P>.05) concentrations between T1DM and controls. However, patients with T1DM had lower sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) concentrations than controls (61 ± 17 nmol/L vs. 83 ± 18.1 nmol/L; P = .001), which were even lower in the PCOS group (39.5±12.9 nmol/L; P = .001 compared with T1DM). The free androgen index (FAI) was higher in the PCOS group compared with both other groups (T1DM vs. PCOS vs. controls: 2.53±0.54 vs. 7.88±1.21 vs. 1.6 ± 0.68; P<.001). FAI was higher in patients with T1DM compared to controls as well (P = .038). There was no difference in DHEA-S concentrations between T1DM and PCOS patients (269 ± 112 μg/dL vs. 297 ± 100 μg/dL; P>.05).

CONCLUSION

Menstrual disorders and androgen-related traits in young women with T1DM may be attributed to an increase in androgen bioavailability due to decreased SHBG concentrations.

A sensitive HPLC-DMS/MS/MS method for multiplex analysis of androgens in human serum without derivatization and its application to PCOS patients

Both classical androgens and 11-oxygenated androgens play important roles in polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). Therefore, high-quality measurements of androgens are very important. In the present study, a highly sensitive and specific method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of three classical androgens and five 11-oxygenated androgens in human serum, using a high- performance liquid chromatography-differential mobility spectrometry tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-DMS/MS/MS). Serum samples were extracted with the mixture of ethyl acetate/tert-butyl methyl ether (1/1, v/v) prior to analysis with the HPLC-DMS/MS/MS system. Stable isotopes were used as the internal standards. Separation was performed on a Poroshell SB C18 column (150 × 2.1 mm, 2.7 μm), with a differential mobility spectrometry (DMS) component, which was used to enhance the resolution. The gradient mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile and ammonium formate buffer with 0.1 % formic acid in both solvents. The sensitivity of the majority of the androgens was improved following addition of the DMS component. Under the optimal conditions, the trace amount of the target androgens in the serum was quantified accurately. The lower limit of quantification of the different analytes ranged from 0.05 to 0.2 ng/mL. The method was validated prior to its application to the assay of the clinical samples.

Role of Androgen in Liver Fat Content in Women: Metabolically Advantageous or Disadvantageous?

OBJECTIVE

Androgens have a controversial effect on liver fat content (LFC) in androgen-excess females and androgen-deficient males. Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is often associated with hyperandrogenism and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. The aim of this study was to explore the association between hyperandrogenemia and increased liver fat content in women with PCOS, independent of other metabolic parameters.

METHODS

This case series study included 501 women with PCOS and 112 aged-matched controls in the outpatient department of a tertiary hospital. Anthropometric measurements, hepatic and renal function, glucose and lipid metabolism parameters, and sex hormones were examined in these women. LFC was measured by quantitative ultrasonography.

RESULTS

Women with hyperandrogenism (P<.001), an oligomenorrhoea/anovulation phenotype (P = .0064), and a diagnosis of PCOS (P<.001) had higher LFC. Androgen level is an important factor among the 9 independent risk factors of LFC (P = .0239) and may have a dimorphic impact on LFC. In all women, when the free androgen index (FAI) was less than 41.94, LFC increased with the elevated FAI; when the FAI was greater than 41.94, LFC decreased with the elevated FAI (P<.001). In women with PCOS, receiver operating characteristic curve analysis demonstrated that LFC could at least partially predict impaired glucose regulation, impaired lipid metabolism, and insulin resistance (P<.0001 for all).

CONCLUSION

Androgen level is associated with LFC in dimorphic directions. LFC may be a predictive factor of insulin resistance, impaired glucose regulation, and impaired lipid metabolism in women with PCOS.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in women with polycystic ovary syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects 6-15% of women of reproductive age. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) affects 25-30% of the general population and its prevalence increases in parallel with the epidemics of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. A growing body of evidence suggests that NAFLD and PCOS quite often co-exist. The aim of this article is to summarize and critically appraise the literature regarding: (1) the rates of co-existence of the two entities, (2) the possible pathophysiological links, (3) the proper diagnostic assessment and (4) the appropriate management of women with NAFLD and PCOS. Data from clinical studies and meta-analyses indicate a higher prevalence of NAFLD in women with PCOS ranging from 34% to 70% compared with 14% to 34% in healthy women. Inversely, women with NAFLD are more often diagnosed with PCOS. Insulin resistance (IR) and hyperandrogenism are two main potential pathophysiological links between the two entities. In this regard, IR seems to interplay with obesity and hyperandrogenism, thus affecting NAFLD and PCOS and being affected by them. Women with PCOS, particularly those with IR and/or hyperandrogenism, are suggested to be screened for NAFLD, while premenopausal women with NAFLD is suggested to be screened for PCOS. Lifestyle recommendations with a change in dietary habits, weight loss and exercise, constitute currently the cornerstone of the management of both NAFLD and PCOS. Insulin sensitizers maybe used for the treatment of these women, while there are limited promising data for the use of liraglutide.

Steroid Mass Spectrometry for the Diagnosis of PCOS

The most appropriate steroids to measure for the diagnosis of hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) are still open to debate but should preferably be measured using a high-quality method such as liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Measurement of testosterone is recommended in all of the current clinical guidelines but other steroids, such as androstenedione and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), have also been shown to be useful in diagnosing PCOS and may give additional information on metabolic risk. The 11-oxygenated steroids, and in particular 11KT derived mainly from the adrenal gland, are also increasing in prominence and have been shown to be the dominant androgens in this condition. Polycystic ovary syndrome is a complex syndrome and it is not surprising that each of the clinical phenotypes are associated with different patterns of steroid hormones; it is likely that steroid profiling with LC-MS/MS may be better at identifying hyperandrogensim in each of these phenotypes. Research into PCOS has been hampered by the small sample size of clinical studies previously undertaken and larger studies, preferably using LC-MS/MS profiling of steroids, are needed

Evolutionary origins of polycystic ovary syndrome: An environmental mismatch disorder

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common female endocrine disorder and has important evolutionary implications for female reproduction and health. PCOS presents an interesting paradox, as it results in significant anovulation and potential sub-fecundity in industrialized populations, yet it has a surprisingly high prevalence and has a high heritability. In this review, we discuss an overview of PCOS, current diagnostic criteria, associated hormonal pathways and a review of proposed evolutionary hypotheses for the disorder. With a multifactorial etiology that includes ovarian function, metabolism, insulin signaling and multiple genetic risk alleles, PCOS is a complex disorder. We propose that PCOS is a mismatch between previously neutral genetic variants that evolved in physically active subsistence settings that have the potential to become harmful in sedentary industrialized environments. Sedentary obesogenic environments did not exist in ancestral times and exacerbate many of these pathways, resulting in the high prevalence and severity of PCOS today. Overall, the negative impacts of PCOS on reproductive success would likely have been minimal during most of human evolution and unlikely to generate strong selection. Future research and preventative measures should focus on these gene-environment interactions as a form of evolutionary mismatch, particularly in populations that are disproportionately affected by obesity and metabolic disorders.

LAY SUMMARY

The most severe form of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is likely a result of interactions between genetic predispositions for PCOS and modern obesogenic environments. PCOS would likely have been less severe ancestrally and the fitness reducing effects of PCOS seen today are likely a novel product of sedentary, urban environments.

Rodent models of mental illness in polycystic ovary syndrome: the potential role of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal dysregulation and lessons for behavioral researchers

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most commonly diagnosed endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age, with phenotypes including ovarian and metabolic dysfunctions. Women with PCOS also show increased rates of mental illness, dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, and altered responsiveness to stressors that may contribute to the higher rates of mental illness, specifically depression and anxiety. Animal models of PCOS have provided insight into the ovarian and metabolic mechanisms that underlie the syndrome, and several models have been used to study the behavioral consequences associated with PCOS in the laboratory. Several studies in rodent models of PCOS demonstrate changes in anxiety-like behavior, but researchers often neglect to report procedural details or behavioral data crucial to interpreting the differences observed in those studies. Additionally, the impact of potential HPA dysregulation in animal models of PCOS may influence behavioral findings, although only three studies to date have examined this. As such, researchers should consider and report stress-associated variables (e.g., time of day, light/dark cycle, light intensity, housing, and procedures to control experimenter and litter effects) that may influence depression- and anxiety-like behaviors in rodents. This review will summarize the behavioral and HPA-related studies in women with PCOS and rodent models of the disease, and provide considerations for future studies.

Functional and endocrine-metabolic oligomenorrhea: proposal of a new diagnostic assessment tool for differential diagnosis in adolescence

Background To develop a diagnostic assessment tool, using clinical, biochemical and sonographic markers, to help clinicians in the differential diagnosis of functional oligomenorrhea (FO) and endocrine-metabolic oligomenorrhea (EMO). Methods Sixty-two adolescents with oligomenorrhea without evident hormonal imbalances or severe energy deficit were selected. They were divided into two groups (EMO and FO) and they all underwent the following assessment: physical examination (height, weight, presence of hirsutism or acne), blood exams and transabdominal ultrasonography. The biochemical markers included: hemoglobin, thyrotropin stimulating hormone (TSH), prolactin (PRL), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), free (FT) and total testosterone (TT), androstenedione (A), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG). Uterine and ovarian volume, ovarian morphology, endometrial thickness and pulsatility index (PI) of uterine arteries were evaluated with ultrasound. Results Body mass index (BMI), hemoglobin, LH levels and LH/FSH ratio were significantly higher in women with EMO than in those with FO. Increased androgens values were found in the EMO group, but only A and FT were significantly different (p=0.04). Ovarian volume and uterine artery PI were the only ultrasound features significantly different, with higher values in the EMO population (p<0.05). Considering these variables, with a receiving characteristic operating curve, new cut-offs were calculated, and a diagnostic assessment tool elaborated (area under curve [AUC] 0.88, specificity 99%, sensibility 59%, p<0.001]. Conclusions This diagnostic tool, specific for adolescents, could be useful in the management of oligomenorrhea. Recognizing and distinguishing EMO and FO is very important in order to establish an appropriate treatment and a correct follow-up.

Adrenal hyperandrogenism does not deteriorate insulin resistance and lipid profile in women with PCOS

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of adrenal hyperandrogenism on insulin resistance and lipid profile in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We studied 372 women with PCOS according to the NIH criteria. 232 age- and BMI-matched women served as controls in order to define adrenal hyperandrogenism (DHEA-S >95th percentile). Then, patients with PCOS were classified into two groups: with adrenal hyperandrogenism (PCOS-AH, n = 108) and without adrenal hyperandrogenism (PCOS-NAH, n = 264). Anthropometric measurements were recorded. Fasting plasma glucose, insulin, lipid profile, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) and androgen (TT, Δ4A, DHEA-S) concentrations were assessed. Free androgen index (FAI) and homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) index were calculated.

RESULTS

Women with PCOS-AH were younger than PCOS-NAH (P < 0.001), but did not differ in the degree and type of obesity. No differences were found in HOMA-IR, total cholesterol, HDL-c, LDL-c and triglyceride concentrations (in all comparisons, P > 0.05). These metabolic parameters did not differ between the two groups even after correction for age. Women with PCOS-AH had lower SHBG (29.2 ± 13.8 vs 32.4 ± 11.8 nmol/L, P = 0.025) and higher TT (1.0 ± 0.2 vs 0.8 ± 0.4 ng/mL, P = 0.05) and Δ4A (3.9 ± 1.2 vs 3.4 ± 1.0 ng/mL, P = 0.007) concentrations, as well as FAI (14.1 ± 8.0 vs 10.2 ± 5.0, P < 0.001). These results were confirmed by a multiple regression analysis model in which adrenal hyperandrogenism was negatively associated with age (P < 0.001) and SHBG concentrations (P = 0.02), but not with any metabolic parameter.

CONCLUSIONS

Women with PCOS and adrenal hyperandrogenism do not exhibit any deterioration in insulin resistance and lipid profile despite the higher degree of total androgens.

Steroid hormone profiling in obese and nonobese women with polycystic ovary syndrome

The study explored differences in the steroidogenic pathway between obese and nonobese women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). 1044 women with PCOS (including 350 lean, 312 overweight and 382 obese) and 366 control women without PCOS (including 203 lean, 32 overweight and 131 obese) were enrolled. The differences in steroid hormones were amplified in lean PCOS versus lean controls compared with obese PCOS versus obese controls. Compared with obese PCOS, lean PCOS demonstrated increased dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (P = 0.015), 17-hydropregnenolone (P = 0.003), 17-hydroprogesterone (17-OHP) (P < 0.001), progesterone (P < 0.001) and estrone (P < 0.001) levels. Enzyme activity evaluation showed that lean PCOS had increased activity of P450c17 (17-hydropregnenolone/pregnenolone, P < 0.001), P450aro (P < 0.001), 3βHSD2 (progesterone/ pregnenolone and 17-OHP/17-hydropregnenolone, both P < 0.001) and decreased activity of P450c21(11-deoxycorticorsterone/progesterone and 11-deoxycortisol/17-OHP, P < 0.001). Moreover, we found higher frequencies of CYP21A2- (encoding P450c21) c.552 C > G (p. D184E) in lean PCOS compared with obese PCOS patients (P = 0.006). In conclusion, this study demonstrated for the first time that the adrenal-specific enzyme P450c21 showed decreased activity in lean PCOS patients, and that the adrenal androgen excess may play different roles in lean and obese PCOS patients, which represents as different enzyme activity in the steroidogenic pathway.

Metabolic and endocrine connections of 17-hydroxypregnenolone in polycystic ovary syndrome women

OBJECTIVE

To examine the anthropometric, and metabolic connections of 17-hydroxypregnenolone in the normo- and hyperandrogenemic polycystic ovary syndrome phenotypes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This cohort study was conducted at the Julio Muller University Hospital, Cuiabá, Brazil, between January 2014 and July 2016, and 91 normal cycling healthy women, 46 normoandrogenemic and 147 hyperandrogenemic, patients with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) were enrolled according to the Rotterdam criteria. Several anthropometric, biochemical and hormonal parameters were properly verified and correlated with 17-hydroxypregnenolone (17-OHPE) concentrations.

RESULTS

17-OHPE was higher in hyperandrogenemic PCOS than in normoandrogenemic PCOS and in control groups (P = 0.032 and P < 0.001, respectively). In healthy controls, 17-OHPE was positively associated with glucose, free estrogen index, DHEAS and negatively associated with compounds S. In normoandrogenemic PCOS patients, 17-OHPE presented positive correlations with VAI, LAP, cortisol, insulin and HOMA-IR. In the hyperandrogenemic group, 17-OHPE presented significant negative correlations with most anthropometric parameters, HOMA-IR, HOMA %B, estradiol, free estrogen index (FEI), C-peptide, and TG levels and positive correlations with HOMA-S and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG), androstenedione (A4) and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Regarding hyperandrogenemic PCOS, and using a stepwise multiple regression, only HOMA-S and WHR were retained in the model (R² = 0.294, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

17-OHPE exhibited different relationships with anthropometric, and biochemical parameters in PCOS patients, depending on the androgen levels. In PCOS subjects with high androgen concentrations, 17-OHPE was negatively associated with most anthropometric parameters, particularly with those used as markers of adipose tissue dysfunction and frequently employed as predictors of cardiovascular disease risk; otherwise, 17-OHPE was positively associated with HDL-C and HOMA-S in this patients. Future studies are required to evaluate the clinical implications of these novel findings.

A comprehensive review of regulatory test methods for endocrine adverse health effects

Development of new endocrine disruption-relevant test methods has been the subject of intensive research efforts for the past several decades, prompted in part by mandates in the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA). While scientific understanding and test methods have advanced, questions remain on whether current scientific methods are capable of adequately addressing the complexities of the endocrine system for regulatory health and ecological risk assessments. The specific objective of this article is to perform a comprehensive, detailed evaluation of the adequacy of current test methods to inform regulatory risk assessments of whether a substance has the potential to perturb endocrine-related pathways resulting in human adverse effects. To that end,  approximately 42 existing test guidelines (TGs) were considered in the evaluation of coverage for endocrine-related adverse effects. In addition to evaluations of whether test methods are adequate to capture endocrine-related effects, considerations of further enhancements to current test methods, along with the need to develop novel test methods to address existing test method gaps are described. From this specific evaluation, up to 35 test methods are capable of informing whether a chemical substance perturbs known endocrine related biological pathways. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that current validated test methods are adequate to discern substances that may perturb the endocrine system, resulting in an adverse health effect. Together, these test methods predominantly form the core data requirements of a typical food-use pesticide registration submission. It is recognized, however, that the current state of science is rapidly advancing and there is a need to update current test methods to include added enhancements to ensure continued coverage and public health and environmental protection.

The role of stress in PCOS

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a complex endocrinopathy affecting a remarkable proportion of premenopausal women. Different studies have shown that stress is widely encountered in women with PCOS. Areas covered: As PCOS is a multifaceted disorder, 'stress' incorporates different translations. We performed a literature review, focusing on the most recent data, regarding the multipotent role of stress in the syndrome. Expert commentary: Stress is believed to be an important component of PCOS. It encompasses different definitions that are all equivalent, like metabolic, inflammatory, oxidative and emotional stress. However, the type of stress that distinguishes PCOS is metabolic stress. It becomes evident early in life and constitutes the pathophysiological heart of the syndrome. Metabolic stress along with the other types of stress are the progenitors of severe long-term health implications, which exacerbate further the reproductive, metabolic and psychological derangements of the syndrome, leading to an endless cycle of chronic illness.

Relationship between Advanced Glycation End Products and Steroidogenesis in PCOS

BACKGROUND

Women with PCOS have elevated levels of the harmful Advanced Glycation End Products (AGEs), which are highly reactive molecules formed after glycation of lipids and proteins. Additionally, AGEs accumulate in the ovaries of women with PCOS potentially contributing to the well-documented abnormal steroidogenesis and folliculogenesis.

MAIN BODY

A systematic review of articles and abstracts available in PubMed was conducted and presented in a systemic manner. This article reports changes in steroidogenic enzyme activity in granulosa and theca cells in PCOS and PCOS-models. It also described the changes in AGEs and their receptors in the ovaries of women with PCOS and presents the underlying mechanism(s) whereby AGEs could be responsible for the PCOS-related changes in granulosa and theca cell function thus adversely impacting steroidogenesis and follicular development. AGEs are associated with hyperandrogenism in PCOS possibly by altering the activity of various enzymes such as cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme cytochrome P450, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, 17α-hydroxylase, and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. AGEs also affect luteinizing hormone receptor and anti-Mullerian hormone receptor expression as well as their signaling pathways in granulosa cells.

CONCLUSIONS

A better understanding of how AGEs alter granulosa and theca cell function is likely to contribute meaningfully to a conceptual framework whereby new interventions to prevent and/or treat ovarian dysfunction in PCOS can ultimately be developed.

Alternative splicing of DENND1A, a PCOS candidate gene, generates variant 2

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrinopathy characterized by hyperandrogenism and metabolic disorders. The excess androgens may be of both ovarian and adrenal origin. PCOS has a strong genetic component, and genome-wide association studies have identified several candidate genes, notably DENND1A, which encodes connecdenn 1, involved in trafficking of endosomes. DENND1A encodes two principal variants, V1 (1009 amino acids) and V2 (559 amino acids). The androgen-producing ovarian theca cells of PCOS women over-express V2. Knockdown of V2 in these cells reduces androgen production, and overexpression of V2 in normal theca cells confers upon them a PCOS phenotype of increased androgen synthesis. We report that human adrenal NCI-H295A cells express V1 and V2 mRNA and that the V2 isoform is produced by exonization of sequences in intron 20, which generates a unique exon 20A, encoding the C-terminus of V2. As in human theca cells from normal women, forced expression of V2 in NCI-H295A cells resulted in increased abundance of CYP17A1 and CYP11A1 mRNAs. We also found genetic variation in the intronic region 330 bp upstream from exon 20A, which could have the potential to drive the selective expression of V2. There was no clear association with these variants with PCOS when we analyzed genomc DNA from normal women and women with PCOS. Using minigene expression vectors in NCI-H295A cells, this variable region did not consistently favor splicing of the V2 transcript. These findings suggest increased V2 expression in PCOS theca cells is not the result of genomic sequence variation in intron 20.

Polycystic ovary syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects 5-20% of women of reproductive age worldwide. The condition is characterized by hyperandrogenism, ovulatory dysfunction and polycystic ovarian morphology (PCOM) - with excessive androgen production by the ovaries being a key feature of PCOS. Metabolic dysfunction characterized by insulin resistance and compensatory hyperinsulinaemia is evident in the vast majority of affected individuals. PCOS increases the risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus, gestational diabetes and other pregnancy-related complications, venous thromboembolism, cerebrovascular and cardiovascular events and endometrial cancer. PCOS is a diagnosis of exclusion, based primarily on the presence of hyperandrogenism, ovulatory dysfunction and PCOM. Treatment should be tailored to the complaints and needs of the patient and involves targeting metabolic abnormalities through lifestyle changes, medication and potentially surgery for the prevention and management of excess weight, androgen suppression and/or blockade, endometrial protection, reproductive therapy and the detection and treatment of psychological features. This Primer summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding the epidemiology, mechanisms and pathophysiology, diagnosis, screening and prevention, management and future investigational directions of the disorder.

Cortisol-Metabolizing Enzymes in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to assess the activity of cortisol-metabolizing enzymes in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), using a fully quantitative gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GCMS) method.

DESIGN

We investigated the glucocorticoid degradation pathways that include 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD) type 1, 5α-reductase (5α-R) and 5β-reductase (5β-R), 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, and 20α- and 20β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (20α-HSD and 20β-HSD, respectively) in young nonobese women with PCOS, using a fully quantitative GCMS method.

SETTING

This study was conducted in a tertiary referral hospital in Israel.

PATIENTS

This study group consisted of 13 young women, aged 20.1 ± 2.8 years (mean ± SD), with the body mass index (BMI) of 22.6 ± 3.7 kg/m², diagnosed with PCOS according to the Rotterdam criteria. The control group consisted of 14 healthy young women matched for weight, height, and BMI.

INTERVENTIONS

Urine samples were analyzed using GCMS. We measured urinary steroid metabolites that represent the products and substrates of the study enzymes and calculated the product/substrate ratios to represent enzyme activity.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The calculation of enzymatic activity, based on glucocorticoid degradation metabolites, was done by GCMS in PCOS vs. controls.

RESULTS

All glucocorticoid degradation metabolites were higher in the PCOS group than in controls. Of the adrenal enzymes, the activities of 21-hydroxylase and 17α-hydroxylase were reduced, whereas the activity of 17,20-lyase was enhanced in PCOS. Of the degradation enzymes, the activity of 11β-HSD type 1 was reduced in women with PCOS only when calculated from cortoles and cortolones ratios. The activities of 5α-R/5β-R were increased only when calculating the 11-hydroxy metabolites of androgens. The activity of 20α-HSD was elevated in the patients with PCOS and its relation with the substrate levels was lost.

CONCLUSIONS

We confirm PCOS association with low 21-hydroxylase activity. PCOS is associated with dysregulation in glucocorticoid degradation. The activity of 5α-R is enhanced only through the backdoor pathway. Marked increase in the activity of 20α-HSD suggests a hitherto unknown derangement in PCOS.

Hypothalamic-pituitary, ovarian and adrenal contributions to polycystic ovary syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a prevalent heterogeneous disorder linked with disturbances of reproductive, endocrine and metabolic function. The definition and aetiological hypotheses of PCOS are continually developing to incorporate evolving evidence of the syndrome, which appears to be both multifactorial and polygenic. The pathophysiology of PCOS encompasses inherent ovarian dysfunction that is strongly influenced by external factors including the hypothalamic-pituitary axis and hyperinsulinaemia. Neuroendocrine abnormalities including increased gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulse frequency with consequent hypersecretion of luteinising hormone (LH) affects ovarian androgen synthesis, folliculogenesis and oocyte development. Disturbed ovarian-pituitary and hypothalamic feedback accentuates the gonadotrophin abnormalities, and there is emerging evidence putatively implicating dysfunction of the Kiss 1 system. Within the follicle subunit itself, there are intra-ovarian paracrine modulators, cytokines and growth factors, which appear to play a role. Adrenally derived androgens may also contribute to the pathogenesis of PCOS, but their role is less defined.

Functional genomics of PCOS: from GWAS to molecular mechanisms

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrinopathy characterized by increased ovarian androgen biosynthesis, anovulation, and infertility. PCOS has a strong heritable component based on familial clustering and twin studies. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) identified several PCOS candidate loci including LHCGR, FSHR, ZNF217, YAP1, INSR, RAB5B, and C9orf3. We review the functional roles of strong PCOS candidate loci focusing on FSHR, LHCGR, INSR, and DENND1A. We propose that these candidates comprise a hierarchical signaling network by which DENND1A, LHCGR, INSR, RAB5B, adapter proteins, and associated downstream signaling cascades converge to regulate theca cell androgen biosynthesis. Future elucidation of the functional gene networks predicted by the PCOS GWAS will result in new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for women with PCOS.

Visceral adiposity index and DHEAS are useful markers of diabetes risk in women with polycystic ovary syndrome

OBJECTIVE

On the basis of the known diabetes risk in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), recent guidelines of the Endocrine Society recommend the use of an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) to screen for impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and type 2 diabetes (T2DM) in all women with PCOS. However, given the high prevalence of PCOS, OGTT would have a high cost-benefit ratio. In this study, we identified, through a receiver operating characteristic analysis, simple predictive markers of the composite endpoint (impaired fasting glucose (IFG) or IGT or IFG+IGT or T2DM) in women with PCOS according to the Rotterdam criteria.

DESIGN

We conducted a cross-sectional study of 241 women with PCOS in a university hospital setting.

METHODS

Clinical, anthropometric, and metabolic (including OGTT) parameters were evaluated. The homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA2-IR), the Matsuda index of insulin sensitivity, and the oral dispositional index and visceral adiposity index (VAI) were determined.

RESULTS

Out of 241 women included in this study, 28 (11.6%) had an IFG, 13 (5.4%) had IGT, four (1.7%) had IFG+IGT, and four (1.7%) had T2DM. Among the anthropometric variables examined, the VAI had a significantly higher C-statistic compared with BMI (0.760 (95% CI: 0.70-0.81) vs 0.613 (95% CI: 0.54-0.67); P=0.014) and waist circumference (0.760 (95% CI: 0.70-0.81) vs 0.619 (95% CI: 0.55-0.68); P=0.028). Among all the hormonal and metabolic serum variables examined, DHEAS showed the highest C-statistic (0.720 (95% CI: 0.65-0.77); P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to fasting glucose, the VAI and DHEAS may be considered useful tools for prescreening in all women with PCOS without the classical risk factors for diabetes.

Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions

The human adrenal produces more 19 carbon (C19) steroids, by mass, than either glucocorticoids or mineralocorticoids. However, the mechanisms regulating adrenal C19 steroid biosynthesis continue to represent one of the most intriguing mysteries of endocrine physiology. This review will discuss the C19 steroids synthesized by the human adrenal and the features within the adrenal that allow production of these steroids. Finally, we consider the effects of these steroids in normal physiology and disorders of adrenal C19 steroid excess.

Comparison of adrenocortical steroidogenesis in women with post-adolescent severe acne and polycystic ovary syndrome

BACKGROUND

Increased adrenocortical production appears to be associated with acne and hirsutism in acne and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). However, the aetiological role of androgens in the pathogenesis of acne per se is far from being clear.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to evaluate adrenocortical function in women with post-adolescent severe acne in comparison with patients with PCOS and healthy women.

METHODS

The study included 32 women with post-adolescent severe acne, 32 women with PCOS and 32 age and body mass index (BMI)-matched healthy controls (age 17-34 years, BMI: 20.8 ± 1.9 kg/m²). Women with acne did not have hirsutism or ovulatory dysfunction whereas all PCOS patients had androgen excess and ovulatory dysfunction. Measurements included basal testosterone (T), sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) and dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS) levels and serum 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP), androstenedione (A4), DHEA and cortisol levels in response to corticotropin (ACTH) stimulation.

RESULTS

T, free androgen index, DHEAS levels, basal and AUC (area under the curve) values for A4 were significantly higher in PCOS than women with acne and controls (P < 0.05 for all), whereas three groups did not differ for basal or AUC values of DHEA and cortisol. Women with PCOS and those with severe acne had significantly and similarly higher AUC values of 17-OHP compared to controls (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Women with isolated post-adolescent severe acne do not have increased levels of adrenal androgens basally or in response to ACTH. However, these women have similar secretion pattern of 17-OHP with PCOS patients suggesting increased enzymatic activity in this pathway.

Childhood obesity and its impact on the development of adolescent PCOS

Obesity exacerbates the reproductive and metabolic manifestations of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). The symptoms of PCOS often begin in adolescence, and the rising prevalence of peripubertal obesity has prompted concern that the prevalence and severity of adolescent PCOS is increasing in parallel. Recent data have disclosed a high prevalence of hyperandrogenemia among peripubertal adolescents with obesity, suggesting that such girls are indeed at risk for developing PCOS. Obesity may impact the risk of PCOS via insulin resistance and compensatory hyperinsulinemia, which augments ovarian/adrenal androgen production and suppresses sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), thereby increasing androgen bioavailability. Altered luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion plays an important role in the pathophysiology of PCOS, and although obesity is generally associated with relative reductions of LH, higher LH appears to be the best predictor of increased free testosterone among peripubertal girls with obesity. Other potential mechanisms of obesity-associated hyperandrogenemia include enhanced androgen production in an expanded fat mass and potential effects of abnormal adipokine/cytokine levels. Adolescents with PCOS are at risk for comorbidities such as metabolic syndrome and impaired glucose tolerance, and concomitant obesity compounds these risks. For all of these reasons, weight loss represents an important therapeutic target in obese adolescents with PCOS.