The large-leaved Kudingcha (Ilex latifolia Thunb and Ilex kudingcha C.J. Tseng): a traditional Chinese tea with plentiful secondary metabolites and potential biological activities

Chemical components, health-promoting effects and industrial application of a Chinese bitter tea (Kuding tea): A comprehensive review

Kuding tea (KT), a traditional Chinese bitter tea, has long been recognized as Food & Medicine Homology product, known for its various active components and health benefits. However, research on KT is fragmented, lacking a comprehensive review of its key chemical constituents, health-promoting effects, and potential future applications. This review outlines the development history and nutritional components of KT while examining its functional benefits and industrial applications. KT is a promising and cost-effective product, containing numerous bioactive constituents, including polyphenols, triterpenoids, phenylethanoids, and polysaccharides, which exhibit strong antioxidant, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anti-cancer activities. We summarized the researches on the health-promoting effects of KT and emphasized its practical applications in the food, agricultural, and pharmaceutical industries. Overall, this review presents a forward-looking viewpoint on creative KT applications and offers insights into KT's potential for future sustainable growth.

Ilex latifolia Improves the Anti-Tumor Effectiveness of Rapamycin Against Breast Cancer In Vitro and In Vivo

Breast cancer remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related mortality among women worldwide. Although the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin exhibits notable anti-tumor activity, its clinical application is limited by metabolic side effects, particularly dyslipidemia. This study aimed to investigate the potential of Ilex latifolia (I. latifolia, large-leaf kudingcha), a traditional Chinese tea known for its lipid-lowering properties, to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of rapamycin in breast cancer. The combined effects of I. latifolia and low-dose rapamycin on tumor cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, apoptosis, and inflammation were assessed in four breast cancer cell lines and a murine breast cancer model. While low-dose I. latifolia alone exhibited limited anti-tumor activity, its combination with low-dose rapamycin synergistically inhibited tumor proliferation, induced cell cycle arrest, promoted apoptosis, and reduced inflammation in vitro. In vivo, dietary supplementation with I. latifolia mitigated rapamycin-induced lipid disturbances, reduced tumor growth, enhanced apoptosis, and alleviated inflammation in tumor tissues. These findings highlight I. latifolia as a promising dietary adjunct to rapamycin, providing a safer and more effective combinatorial strategy for breast cancer treatment.

Mechanistic studies on protective effects of total flavonoids from Ilex latifolia Thunb. on UVB-radiated human keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT cells) based on network pharmacology and molecular docking technique

The aim of the present research is to investigate anti-UVB radiation activity of total flavonoids from Ilex latifolia Thunb. (namely large-leaved Kuding tea) on human keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT cells) based on network pharmacology and molecular docking technique. Network pharmacology was used to screen target genes of active ingredients from Ilex latifolia Thunb. associated with UVB irradiation. The possible signaling pathways were analyzed by KEGG enrichment and verified by cellular experiments. Molecular docking was used to assess the affinity between the active ingredients and the core targets. The prediction of network pharmacology and molecular docking was identified by series experiment in UVB-irradiated HaCaT cells. Network pharmacology results showed that the active ingredients of Ilex latifolia Thunb. for anti-UVB irradiation were mainly flavonoids, and the possible signaling pathways were involved in PI3K-AKT, apoptosis, MAPKs, NF-κB, and JAK-STAT3. Molecular docking indicated key binding activity between AKT1-Glycitein, STAT3-Formononetin, CASP3-Formononetin, TNF-Kaempferol, CASP3-Luteolin, and AKT1-Quercetin. The total flavonoid pretreatment (0.25-1.0 mg/mL) down-regulated the expression of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α in the cells determined by ELISA. The expression of phosphor PI3K, phosphor AKT, phosphor JAK, phosphor STAT3, phosphor JNK, and phosphor p38 MAPKs and COX-2 proteins in cytosolic and NF-κB p65 protein in nucleus were down-regulated and determined by western blot. It also protected UVB-irradiated cells from apoptosis by reducing apoptosis rate and down-regulating active-caspase 3. In a word, the total flavonoid treatment protected HaCaT cells from UVB injuries effectively, and the potential mechanism involves PI3K-AKT, JAK-STAT3, MAPK, and NF-κB pathway by anti-inflammatory and apoptosis action in cells. The mechanism in vivo experiment needs to be further confirmed in future.

Comparative analysis of chloroplast genomes in ten holly (Ilex) species: insights into phylogenetics and genome evolution

In order to clarify the chloroplast genomes and structural features of ten Ilex species and provide insights into the phylogeny and genome evolution of the genus Ilex, we conducted a comparative analysis of chloroplast genomes using bioinformatics methods. The chloroplast genomes of ten Ilex species were obtained, and their structural features and variations were compared. The results indicated that all chloroplast genomes in the genus Ilex exhibit a double-stranded circular structure, with sizes ranging from 157,356 to 158,018 bp, showing minimal differences in size. The chloroplast genomes of the ten Ilex species have a relatively conservative gene count, with a total of 134 to 135 genes, including 88 or 89 protein-coding genes, and a conserved number of 8 rRNA genes. Each chloroplast genome contains 3 to 123 SSR (Simple Sequence Repeat) sites, predominantly composed of mononucleotide and trinucleotide repeats, with no detection of pentanucleotide or hexanucleotide repeats. The variation in dispersed repeat sequences among Ilex species is minimal, with a total repeat sequence number ranging from 1 to 14, concentrated in the length range of 30 to 42 base pairs. The expansion and contraction of chloroplast genome boundaries among Ilex species are relatively stable, with only minor variations observed in individual species. Variations in non-coding regions are more pronounced than those in coding regions, with the variability in the Large Single Copy region (LSC) being the highest, while the variability in the Inverted Repeat region A (IRa) is the lowest. The divergence time among Ilex species was estimated using the MCMC-tree module, revealing the evolutionary relationships among these species, their common ancestors, and their differentiation throughout the evolutionary process. The research findings provide a valuable reference for the systematic study and molecular marker development of Ilex plants.

Effect of Gut Microbiota on Blood Cholesterol: A Review on Mechanisms

The gut microbiota serves as a pivotal mediator between diet and human health. Emerging evidence has shown that the gut microbiota may play an important role in cholesterol metabolism. In this review, we delve into five possible mechanisms by which the gut microbiota may influence cholesterol metabolism: (1) the gut microbiota changes the ratio of free bile acids to conjugated bile acids, with the former being eliminated into feces and the latter being reabsorbed back into the liver; (2) the gut microbiota can ferment dietary fiber to produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) which are absorbed and reach the liver where SCFAs inhibit cholesterol synthesis; (3) the gut microbiota can regulate the expression of some genes related to cholesterol metabolism through their metabolites; (4) the gut microbiota can convert cholesterol to coprostanol, with the latter having a very low absorption rate; and (5) the gut microbiota could reduce blood cholesterol by inhibiting the production of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which increases cholesterol synthesis and raises blood cholesterol. In addition, this review will explore the natural constituents in foods with potential roles in cholesterol regulation, mainly through their interactions with the gut microbiota. These include polysaccharides, polyphenolic entities, polyunsaturated fatty acids, phytosterols, and dicaffeoylquinic acid. These findings will provide a scientific foundation for targeting hypercholesterolemia and cardiovascular diseases through the modulation of the gut microbiota.

Flavor perception and health benefits of tea

As one of the most consumed non-alcoholic beverages in the world, tea is acclaimed for its pleasant flavor and various health benefits. Different types of tea present a distinctive flavor and bioactivity due to the changes in the composition and proportion of respective compounds. This article aimed to provide a more comprehensive understanding of tea flavor (including aroma and taste) and the character of tea in preventing and alleviating diseases. The recent advanced modern analytical techniques for revealing flavor components in tea, including enrichment, identification, quantitation, statistics, and sensory evaluation methodologies, were summarized in the following content. Besides, the role of tea in anti-cancer, preventing cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome, anti-aging and neuroprotection, and regulating gut microbiota was also listed in this article. Moreover, questions and outlooks were mentioned to objectify tea products' flavor quality and health benefits on a molecular level and significantly promote our understanding of the comprehensive value of tea as a satisfactory health beverage in the future.

Deep Eutectic Solvents-Based Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Antioxidants from Kudingcha (llex kudingcha C.J. Tseng): Process Optimization and Comparison with Other Methods

Kudingcha (KDC) is an important tea substitute containing abundant antioxidants. Herein, a ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) technique based on deep eutectic solvents (DESs) was applied to optimize the total phenolic/total flavonoid content (TPC/TFC) from the KDC extracts. Results indicated that DES composed of L-proline and glycerol (Pro-Gly) had excellent extraction performance for TPC, TFC, ABTS•+ and FRAP, which were significantly better than other solvents. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to obtain optimal extraction parameters for simultaneously maximizing the TPC, TFC and antioxidant activity. Results revealed that water content in Pro-Gly, liquid to solid ratio (L/S), ultrasonic temperature and extraction time were the major influence factors of the TPC, TFC, ABTS•+ and FRAP of the KDC extracts. The optimal conditions included water content in Pro-Gly of 46.4%, L/S of 25:1 (mL/g), ultrasonic temperature of 55 °C and extraction time of 50 min. Meanwhile, HPLC-MS/MS was adopted to identify the KDC extracts, which revealed the presence of major phytochemicals, including 5-chlorogenic acid, 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid, kaempferol 3-rutinoside, myricetin and isorhamnetin. Moreover, UAE-Pro-Gly achieved further higher individual phenolics contents, TPC, TFC, ABTS•+ and FRAP than other methods. In conclusion, UAE-Pro-Gly is a highly efficient method for extraction of phenolic antioxidants from KDC.

Ethnobotanical study on herbal tea drinks in Guangxi, China

BACKGROUND

Herbal tea drinks, different from classical Camellia beverages, are a wide variety of herbal drinks consumed for therapeutic purposes or health promotion. Herbal tea is widely consumed in Guangxi. However, the documentation on the plants for herbal tea and their related health benefits is still limited.

METHODS

An ethnobotanical survey was conducted in 52 villages and 21 traditional markets in Guangxi from 2016 to 2021. Semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, and structured questionnaires were applied to obtain ethnobotanical information of herbal tea, in which 463 informants had participated. Relative frequency of citation (RFC) and cultural food significance index (CFSI) were used to evaluate the most culturally significant herbal tea plants, and informant consensus factor (ICF) was applied to assess the agreement among informants.

RESULTS

This study recorded 155 herbal tea species belonging to 49 families. The most commonly used parts included leaf (27.61%), whole plant (22.09%), branch and leaf (19.02%), and flower (13.50%). The most frequent preparation method of herbal tea was decoction. Herbal tea was very popular in Guangxi, attributing to its therapeutic value, special odor, and good taste. There are 41 health benefits classified into eight categories. Among them, clearing heat was the most medicinal effects. Local people had high consistency in tonic, removing cold and cough, improving blood circulation, and clearing heat away. Based on CFSI values of each species, the most culturally significant herbal tea species were Siraitia grosvenorii (Swingle) C. Jeffrey ex A. M. Lu & Zhi Y. Zhang, Plantago asiatica L., Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino, Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Pholidota chinensis Lindl., and Morus alba L.

CONCLUSION

Herbal tea is a valuable heritage that carries the local people's traditional knowledge, like health care and religious belief. The recorded herbal tea species in this study possess tremendous potential for local economic development in the future. Further research on efficacy evaluation and product development of herbal tea species is necessary.

Triterpenoids from the genus Ilex attenuate free fatty acid-induced lipid accumulation in HepG2 cells by regulating lipid metabolism disorder and the AMPK signalling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Various traditional Chinese medicines from the genus Ilex (Aquifoliaceae) have been reported to have excellent hypolipidaemic effects. Although triterpenoids have been found to be the main active components, the underlying mechanisms have not been clarified.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the lipid-lowering effect, structure-activity relationship and action mechanism of triterpenoids from the genus Ilex.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

FFA was used to induce HepG2 cells to establish a classical lipid-lowering activity screening model for the activities of 31 triterpenoids, and the contents of intracellular lipids, TC, and TG were measured. Furthermore, the structure-activity relationship was discussed. Mechanistically, UPLC-Q/TOF-MS-based metabolomics and lipidomics studies were performed, and metabolic pathways were analysed to investigate the lipid-lowering mechanism. Moreover, western blotting was performed to analyse the expression of key proteins of lipid metabolism and predict the targets of action.

RESULTS

Thirteen triterpenoids significantly reduced intracellular lipid accumulation and decreased the levels of TG and TC. Among them, rotundic acid (RA) showed stronger lipid-lowering activity than the simvastatin-positive group, and structure-activity relationship analysis indicated that the hydroxyl groups at C-3 and C-19, hydroxymethyl groups at C-23, and carboxyl groups at C-28 may be the key groups for biological activity. Twenty-two metabolites in the metabolomics study and 19 metabolites in the lipidomics study were identified. The identified biomarkers were primarily glycerophosphocholine, LysoPCs, PCs, TAGs, LysoPEs, LysoPIs and sphingolipids, which are involved in glycerophospholipid and sphingolipid metabolism. Moreover, western blotting analysis showed that the expression of SREBP-1 and HMGCR decreased, while AMPK and ACC phosphorylation and the expression of CPT1A and CYP7A1 increased in the RA-treated group.

CONCLUSION

The results suggested that triterpenoids from the genus Ilex showed significant lipid-lowering effects and that RA may be a novel hypolipidaemic drug candidate. Moreover, the underlying mechanism indicated that RA showed a lipid-lowering effect by regulating glycerophospholipid and sphingolipid metabolism and activating the AMPK pathway.

A systematic review: Botany, phytochemistry, traditional uses, pharmacology, toxicology, quality control and pharmacokinetics of Ilex rotunda Thunb

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ilex rotunda Thunb. (I. rotunda) is an Ilex species of Aquifoliaceae, widely distributed in East Asia. Its dried bark is commonly used as a medicinal part in the field of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), named Ilicis Rotundae Cortex. This medicinal plant is commonly used for clearing heat and removing toxin, draining dampness and relieving pain in TCM to treat tonsillitis, acute gastroenteritis, gastric and duodenal ulcer, rheumatism, traumatic injury, and so on. It also has significant development value on lipid-lowering, hepatoprotection and anti-inflammation, but the potential mechanism needs to be further explored.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

More and more medicinal substances are being discovered in I. rotunda with multiple biological activities, which help to advance the ethno-pharmacological research in I. rotunda. However, to date there is a lack of a systematic summary of research progress on I. rotunda. This review aims to provide a critical summary of the current studies on I. rotunda. The progress in research on botany, phytochemistry, traditional uses, pharmacology, toxicology, quality control and pharmacokinetics of the plant is discussed. It hopes to provide useful references and guidance for the future directions of research on I. rotunda.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Studies of I. rotunda were collected via Google Scholar and Baidu Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), WANFANG DATA and libraries. Some local books, official websites, PhD or MS's dissertations were also included. The literature cited in this review covered the period from 1956 to January 2022.

RESULTS

Analysis of the literature indicates that I. rotunda is a potentially valuable herbal medicine for the therapeutic of various diseases. To date, 120 compounds were found and identified in I. rotunda, mainly including triterpenoids, phenylpropanoids, etc. Modern pharmacological studies also found that the plant has the activities of protecting the cardiovascular system, lowering lipids and protecting the liver, as well as being an anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor and antibacterial.

CONCLUSIONS

This review summarizes the results from current studies of I. rotunda. However, the current explanation seems insufficient and unsatisfactory, in terms of the relationships between the traditional uses and the modern pharmacological activities, the mechanisms and the material basis. Thus, a critical and comprehensive evaluation is necessary to explore its future research prospects and development direction.

The chromosome-level holly (Ilex latifolia) genome reveals key enzymes in triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis and fruit color change

The Ilex L. (hollies) genus of Aquifoliaceae shows high species diversity in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and South America. Throughout the range of the genus, Ilex species have been widely used in beverage and medicine production and as ornamentals. Here, we assembled a high-quality, chromosome-level genome of Ilex latifolia, which has extremely high economic value because of its useful secondary metabolite production and the high ornamental value of its decorative red berries. The 99.8% genome sequence was anchored to 20 pseudochromosomes, with a total length of 766.02 Mb and a scaffold N50 of 33.45 Mb. Based on the comparative genomic analysis of 14 angiosperm species, we recovered I. latifolia as the sister group to all other campanulids. Two whole-genome duplication (WGD) events were identified in hollies: one shared ancient WGD in the ancestor of all eudicots and a recent and independent WGD in hollies. We performed a genome-wide search to screen candidate genes involved in the biosynthesis of pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins in I. latifolia. Three subfamilies of CYP450 (CYP71A, CYP72A, and CYP716A) appear to have expanded. The transcriptomic analysis of I. latifolia leaves at five developmental stages revealed that two CYP716A genes and one CYP72A gene probably play important roles in this biosynthetic pathway. In addition, we totally identified 12 genes in the biosynthesis pathways of pelargonidin and cyanidin and observed their differential expression in green and red fruit pericarps, suggesting an association between pelargonidin and cyanidin biosynthesis and fruit pericarp color change. The accumulation of pelargonidin and cyanidin is expected to play an important role in the ornamental value of I. latifolia. Altogether, this study elucidated the molecular basis of the medicinal and ornamental value of I. latifolia, providing a data basis and promising clues for further applications.

Polyphenols in Ilex latifolia Thunb. inhibit human lung cancer cell line A549 by regulation of the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway

Background

The leaves of the plant Ilex latifolia Thunb. can be made into Kuding tea, which is a drink rich in polyphenols. This study aimed to observe the effect of Ilex latifolia Thunb. polyphenols (ILTPs) on human lung cancer cell line A549 (A549 cells) by regulating the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) signaling pathway.

Methods

In vitro cultured cells were treated with ILTPs; the proliferation of A549 cells and BEAS-2B human normal lung epithelial cells (Beas-2B cells) was observed using the 3-(4,5-dimethylazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, and the survival status of A549 cells was observed by fluorescence staining. The expression of A549 cells was observed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay and Western blot analysis, while the compound composition of ILTPs was detected using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

Results

The experimental results showed that the proliferation of Beas-2B cells was unaffected by treatment with 0–500 μg/mL of ILTPs, whereas the decreased proliferation of A549 cells was observed with the increasing concentrations of ILTPs. Additionally, ILTPs elevated the levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) and promoted apoptosis in A549 cells. The results of qPCR experiments showed that ILTPs upregulated caspase-9 mRNA expression and downregulated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (Akt), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression in A549 cells. The Western blot analysis results also showed that ILTPs could reduce the protein expression of PI3K and Akt. The HPLC results showed that the main compounds present in the ILTPs were rutin, kaempferol, isochlorogenic acid A, isochlorogenic acid B, and isochlorogenic acid C.

Conclusions

Thus, this study indicated that the polyphenols of I. latifolia act as a class of natural functional food materials that potently suppress cancer by exerting their inhibitory effects on A549 cell proliferation through five key polyphenolic compounds.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12906-022-03568-3.

Utilization of the Hollies (Ilex L. spp.): A Review

The hollies (Ilex L., Aquifoliaceae) form a large (>669 spp.) genus of forest trees and shrubs, which is almost cosmopolitan in mesic environments but most diverse in subtropical China and montane South America. Throughout the range of the genus, Ilex species have been utilized as beverages, medicines, ornamentals, honey plants, timber, and for various other minor uses. Recent studies on the genomics, evolution, and biogeography of Ilex now make it possible to take a systematic approach to understanding and expanding the economic importance of the genus, but information on existing uses is scattered among numerous published and unpublished sources. We therefore review the existing literature on utilization of Ilex species, supplementing this with information from the grey literature and product websites. We show that, despite the number and diversity of known uses, most Ilex species are not known to be utilized at present, suggesting considerable unrealized potential. We highlight gaps in our knowledge and opportunities for expanded usage. Finally, we discuss how the availability of a new phylogeny and whole genome can assist screening of additional wild species for economic potential and facilitate breeding programs for species already under cultivation.

New benzoic acid and caffeoyl derivatives with anti-inflammatory activities isolated from leaves of Ilex kaushue

A new benzoic acid, 3-[2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)acetoxy]benzoic acid (1), and two new caffeoyl derivatives, methyl (3E,5Z)-di-O-caffeoylquinate (2) and dhurrin 6'-O-caffeate (3), along with 20 known compounds were isolated from the leaves of Ilex kaushue collected in Vietnam. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of 1 D and 2 D NMR spectroscopy, and high-resolution MS spectrometry. The absolute configuration of 2 and 3 was unambiguously established by comparison of experimental and calculated ECD spectra and/or chemical reactivity. In addition, new compounds were evaluated for inhibitory effects of their tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production and cell cytotoxicity on lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264 macrophage cells. All of those moderately suppressed TNF-α production in ratios of approximately 50% or higher at 25-100 µM, without cell cytotoxicity.

Randialic acid B and tomentosolic acid block formyl peptide receptor 1 in human neutrophils and attenuate psoriasis-like inflammation in vivo

Psoriasis is a long-lasting inflammatory skin disease lacking proper cure. Dysregulated activation of neutrophils is a major pathogenic factor in psoriasis. Formyl peptide receptor 1 (FPR1) triggers neutrophil activation in response to bacteria- or mitochondria-derived N-formyl peptides, but its significance in neutrophilic psoriasis remains unknown. In this study, we discovered two derivatives of ursolic acid, 3β-hydroxyurs-12,18-dien-28-oic acid (randialic acid B, RAB) and 3β-hydroxyurs-12,19-dien-28-oic acid (tomentosolic acid, TA), as FPR1 inhibitors in human neutrophils with ability to suppress psoriatic symptoms in mice. Both RAB and TA, triterpenoids of traditional medicinal plant Ilex kaushue, selectively inhibited reactive oxygen species production, elastase release, and CD11b expression in human neutrophils activated by FPR1, but not non-FPR1 agonists. Importantly, RAB and TA inhibited the binding of N-formyl peptide to FPR1 in human neutrophils, neutrophil-like THP-1 cells, and hFPR1-transfected HEK293 cells, indicating FPR1 antagonism. Moreover, in assays induced by various concentrations of FPR1 agonist, both RAB and TA acted competitively for its binding to the FPR1 receptor. The FPR1-downstream signaling such as Ca2+ mobilisation and activation of Akt and MAPKs was also competitively inhibited. In addition, imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like symptoms, including epidermal hyperplasia, desquamation with scaling, neutrophil skin infiltration, and transepidermal water loss were significantly reduced by both RAB and TA. The results illustrate a possible role of human neutrophils FPR1 receptor in psoriasis-like inflammation. Accordingly, triterpenoids RAB and TA represent novel FPR1 antagonists and exhibit therapeutic potential for treating neutrophilic inflammatory skin diseases.

Ilex kudingcha C.J. Tseng Mitigates Phenotypic Characteristics of Human Autism Spectrum Disorders in a Drosophila Melanogaster Rugose Mutant

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have heterogeneous etiologies involving dysfunction of central nervous systems, for which no effective pan-specific treatments are available. Ilex kudingcha (IK) C.J. Tseng is a nootropic botanical used in Asia for neuroprotection and improvement of cognition. This study establishes that a chemically characterized extract from IK (IKE) mitigates behavioral traits in the Drosophila melanogaster rugose mutant, whose traits resemble human ASD, and examines possible mechanisms. IKE treatment significantly ameliorated deficits in social interaction, short-term memory, and locomotor activity in Drosophila rugose, and significantly increased synaptic bouton number of size more than 2 μm² in the neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) of Drosophila rugose. To clarify mechanism(s) of IKE action, methylphenidate (MPH), a dopamine transporter inhibitor, was included as a reference drug in the behavioral assays: MPH significantly improved social interaction and short-term memory deficit in Drosophila rugose; administration of the dopamine D1 receptor antagonist SCH23390 and dopamine D2 receptor antagonist sulpiride reversed the ameliorative effects of both MPH and IKE on the social interaction deficits of Drosophila rugose. To extend analysis of IKE treatment to the vertebrate central nervous system, ASD-associated gene expression in mouse hippocampus was studied by RNA-seq: IKE treatment altered the expression of genes coding phosphoinositide 3-kinases/protein kinase B (PI3K-Akt), proteins in glutamatergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic, and GABAergic synapses, cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and RNA transporter proteins. These results provide a foundation for further analysis of IKE as a candidate for treatment of some forms of ASD.

Purification, characterization and molecular cloning of a dicaffeoylquinic acid-hydrolyzing esterase from human-derived Lactobacillus fermentum LF-12

Dicaffeoylquinic acids (DiCQAs), the main components of kudingcha made from the leaves of Ilex kudingcha, could be transformed by gut microbiota. However, the information about the related microorganisms and enzymes involved in the biotransformation of DiCQAs in the human gut is limited. Therefore, a strain of bacteria that could hydrolyze DiCQAs, belonging to Lactobacillus fermentum named L. fermentum LF-12, was isolated from human feces in the present study. Furthermore, an esterase for the hydrolysis of DiCQAs was purified from L. fermentum LF-12 and heterogeneously expressed in Escherichia coli. The esterase could be induced to exert superior hydrolytic activity in the presence of lactose as the carbon source. The molecular weight of the purified esterase was determined to be 31.9 kDa, and the isoelectric point, optimal pH and temperature for the esterase were 4.71, 6.5 and 45 °C, respectively. The enzyme activity was improved by Mg2+ and Ca2+, and reduced by Co2+, Cu2+, EDTA and some kinds of organic solvents. The present results provide new insights into the metabolism of DiCQAs by the human gut.

Isolation and Purification of Kudinosides from Kuding Tea by Semi-Preparative HPLC Combined with MCI-GEL Resin

Background:

Kuding tea, a Traditional Chinese drink, has a history of thousands of years in China. Triterpenoid saponins in Kuding tea are regarded as one of the major functional ingredients.

Objective:

The aim of this paper was to establish separation progress for the isolation and purification of five triterpenoid saponins (kudinoside A, C, D, F, G) from Kuding tea.

Methods:

Nine types of resins, including seven macroporous resins and two MCI-GEL resins, were firstly used for purifying triterpenoid saponins by the adsorption and desorption tests. Further dynamic adsorption/desorption experiments were carried out to obtain the optimal parameters for the five targeted saponins. Then the purification of five triterpenoid saponins (kudinoside A, C, D, F, G) was completed by semi-preparative high-performance liquid chromatography (semi-pHPLC).

Results:

As of optimized results, the HP20SS MCI-GEL was selected as the optimal one. The data also showed that 65.24 mg of refined extract including 7.04 mg kudinoside A, 3.52 mg kudinoside C, 4.04 mg kudinoside D, 4.13 mg kudinoside F, and 34.45 mg kudinoside G, could be isolated and purified from 645.90 mg of crude extract in which the content of five saponins was 81.51% and the average recovery reached 69.76%. The final contents of five saponins increased 6.91-fold as compared to the crude extract.

Conclusion:

The established separation progress was highly efficient, making it a potential approach for the large-scale production in the laboratory and providing several markers of triterpenoid saponins for quality control of Kuding tea or its processing products.

Chemical Composition, Bioactivity and Safety Aspects of Kuding Tea-From Beverage to Herbal Extract

Kuding tea (KT) is a bitter-tasting herbal tea that has been commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). The large-leaved Ku-Ding-Cha (Aquifoliaceae) is composed of its representative species Ilex latifolia Thunb and Ilex kudingcha C.J. Tseng. Because of its potential lipid-lowering, body weight-reducing and blood-glucose-lowering properties, KT has increasingly been recognised for its importance over the past several decades. KT is no longer used only as a beverage, and various extraction methods have been applied to obtain aqueous and ethanolic KT extracts (KTE) or their fractions, which could potentially be used as dietary supplements. The major bioactive components of KT are triterpene saponins and polyphenols, but the composition of KT differs substantially between and among the different KT species. This in turn might affect the physiological effects of KT. KT exhibits antiobesity properties, possibly partly by affecting the intestinal microbiota. In addition, KT may mediate putative antioxidative, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities. However, there is evidence that high KTE supplementation can adversely affect liver metabolism. The physiological relevance of KT in humans remains rather unclear since the potential health benefits of KT and its constituents reviewed here are mainly derived on the basis of in vitro and animal studies.

Preventive effect of small-leaved Kuding tea (Ligustrum robustum) on high-diet-induced obesity in C57BL/6J mice

Small-leaved Kuding tea (SLKDT; Ligustrum robustum) is a traditional Chinese tea. We systematically investigated the effect of SLKDT extract on obesity. SLKDT-controlled weight gain in mice fed a high-fat diet. Tissue specimen results showed that the SLKDT extract alleviated liver damage and fat accumulation. Meanwhile, SLKDT extract improved dyslipidemia by decreasing total cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. Furthermore, SLKDT extract reduced alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, and aspartate transaminase levels in the serum and liver tissues; decreased inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, and IL-6; and increased the anti-inflammatory cytokines, IL-4 and IL-10. The quantitative PCR results showed that SLKDT extract upregulated the mRNA expressions of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-α, lipoprotein lipase, carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1, and cholesterol 7 alpha hydroxylase and downregulated PPAR-γ and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-alpha mRNA expressions in the obese mouse livers to reduce adipocyte differentiation and fat accumulation, promote fat oxidation, and improve dyslipidemia, thereby inhibiting the immune response and alleviating liver injury. SLKDT shows a potential for preventing obesity and regulating obesity-related syndrome, so it is possible to be further developed as a novel treatment for fighting obesity.

Identification of herbal categories active in pain disorder subtypes by machine learning help reveal novel molecular mechanisms of algesia

Chronic pain is highly prevalent and poorly controlled, of which the accurate underlying mechanisms need be further elucidated. Herbal drugs have been widely used for controlling various pain disorders. The systematic integration of pain herbal data resources might be promising to help investigate the molecular mechanisms of pain phenotypes. Here, we integrated large-scale bibliographic literatures and well-established data sources to obtain high-quality pain relevant herbal data (i.e. 426 pain related herbs with their targets). We used machine learning method to identify three distinct herb categories with their specific indications of symptoms, targets and enriched pathways, which were characterized by the efficacy of treatment to the chronic cough related neuropathic pain, the reproduction and autoimmune related pain, and the cancer pain, respectively. We further detected the novel pathophysiological mechanisms of the pain subtypes by network medicine approach to evaluate the interactions between herb targets and the pain disease modules. This work increased the understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms of pain subtypes that herbal drugs are participating and with the ultimate aim of developing novel personalized drugs for pain disorders.

Antioxidative stress of oral administration of tea extract granule in chickens

The present study was to evaluate antioxidative effect of tea extract granule (TEG) on oxidative stress induced by cyclophosphamide (Cy) in chickens. In experiment 1, chickens were randomly divided into 5 groups with 10 birds in each. Groups 3 to 5 were orally administered TEG in drinking water for 7 D at doses of 20, 40, and 80 mg/kg body weight, respectively. After that, groups 2 to 5 received intramuscular injection of Cy (100 mg/kg BW) for 3 D. Group 1 was not treated as a control. In experiment 2, chickens were grouped in the same way as in experiment 1. Groups 2 to 5 received intramuscular injection of Cy (100 mg/kg BW) for 3 D. After that, groups 3 to 5 were orally administered TEG in drinking water for 7 D at doses of 20, 40, and 80 mg/kg BW, respectively. Results showed that Cy injection induced significantly decreased body weight and oxidative stress. Oral administration of TEG before or after Cy injection increased body weight, the thymus, bursa, and spleen indices, total antioxidant capacity, and the levels of glutathione; elevated the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase; as well as decreased the protein carbonyl content, lipid peroxide, and malondialdehyde. In addition, TEG administration reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species. Therefore, TEG could be a promising agent against oxidative stress in the poultry industry.

Complete chloroplast genome sequence and phylogenetic analysis of Ilex viridis Champ. ex Benth

Ilex viridis Champ. ex Benth. is domestic to southern China. In the present work, the complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequence of Ilex viridis was assembled and characterized by high-throughput sequencing analyses. The chloroplast genome was 157,701 bp in length, consisting of large single-copy (LSC) and small single-copy (SSC) regions of 87,177 bp and 18,394 bp, respectively, which were separated by a pair of 26,065 bp inverted repeat (IR) regions. The genome was predicted to contain 134 genes, including 89 protein-coding genes, 37 tRNA genes, and 8 rRNA genes. The overall GC content of the genome is 37.7%. The phylogenetic tree reconstructed using 13 chloroplast genomes reveals that I. viridis is mostly related to Ilex szechwanensis.

The complete plastid genome sequence of Ilex micrococca Maxim

Ilex micrococca Maxim. is a widely distributed species of Aquifoliaceae in Eastern Asia. In this study, the complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequence of I. micrococca was assembled and characterized by high-throughput sequencing data. The entire cp genome was 157,782 bp in length, containing a large single-copy region (LSC) of 87,200 bp, and a small single-copy region (SSC) of 18,434 bp, which were separated by a pair of 26,074 bp inverted repeat (IR) regions. The cp genome contained 134 genes, including 89 protein-coding genes, 37 tRNA genes, and 8 ribosomal RNA genes. Eighteen genes occur in double copies. The overall GC content is 37.6%. The phylogenetic tree reconstructed by 13 chloroplast genomes reveals that I. micrococca is most related with Ilex wilsonii. The complete cp genome provides valuable information for further phylogenetic and cp genetic engineering studies of this important Ilex species I. micrococca.

High Dietary Kuding Tea Extract Supplementation Induces Hepatic Xenobiotic-Metabolizing Enzymes-A 6-Week Feeding Study in Mice

Kuding tea (KT) is a traditional Chinese beverage rich in plant bioactives that may exhibit various health benefits. However, little is known about the safety of KT extract (KTE) when consumed long term at high doses as a dietary supplement. Therefore, in this study, we investigated aspects of the safety of KTE. Male C57BL/6 mice were fed a high-fat, high-fructose, Western-type diet (control) supplemented with either 12.88% γ-cyclodextrin (γCD), 7.12% KTE (comprising 0.15% ursolic acid, UA) encapsulated in 12.88% γCD (KTE-γCD), or 0.15% UA over a 6-week experimental period. The dietary treatments did not affect food intake, body weight or body composition. However, treatment with KTE-γCD, but not γCD and UA, increased liver weight and hepatic fat accumulation, which was accompanied by increased hepatic PPARγ and CD36 mRNA levels. KTE-γCD treatment elevated plasma cholesterol and CYP7A1 mRNA and protein levels compared to those in control mice. KTE-γCD substantially increased the mRNA and protein levels of hepatic CYP3A and GSTA1, which are central to the detoxification of drugs and xenobiotics. Furthermore, we observed a moderate elevation in hepatic CYP3A (5-fold change) and GSTA1 (1.7-fold change) mRNA levels in UA-fed mice. In vitro data collected in HepG2 cells indicated a dose-dependent increase in hepatic cytotoxicity in response to KTE treatment, which may have been partly mediated by UA. Overall, the present data may contribute to the safety assessment of KTE and suggest that KTE encapsulated in γCD affects liver fat storage and the hepatic phase I and phase II responses in mice.

Anti-inflammatory effects of dicaffeoylquinic acids from Ilex kudingcha on lipopolysaccharide-treated RAW264.7 macrophages and potential mechanisms

Increasing evidence has shown that dicaffeoylquinic acids (DiCQAs) have anti-inflammatory activity. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory effects of DiCQAs are still unclear. In the present study, the anti-inflammatory effects of DiCQAs from the leaves of Ilex kudingcha and the potential molecular mechanisms on LPS-induced inflammatory responses in RAW264.7 macrophage cells were investigated. The results showed that pretreatment with DiCQAs could suppress the production of NO, PGE₂ and also pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, and the mRNA expression of two major inflammatory mediators of COX-2 and iNOS. The phosphorylated IκBα, ERK, JNK and p38 proteins in LPS-treated cells were significantly increased, which could be reversed by pretreatment with DiCQAs in a concentration-dependent manner. Taken together, the results suggest that DiCQAs from I. kudingcha have potent anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-induced inflammatory responses by inhibiting the NF-κB and MAPKs pathways and may be a prophylactic for inflammation.

Effects of Dicaffeoylquinic Acids from Ilex kudingcha on Lipid Metabolism and Intestinal Microbiota in High-Fat-Diet-Fed Mice

Kudingcha made from the leaves of Ilex kudingcha and chlorogenic acid have antiobesity and intestinal microbiota modulating effects. However, the effects of kudingcha dicaffeoylquinic acids (diCQAs) on obesity and intestinal microbiota are still poorly understood. In the present study, the effects of kudingcha diCQAs on adipose accumulation and intestinal microbiota were investigated in high-fat-diet-fed mice. As a result, kudingcha diCQAs decreased the liver and adipose tissue masses, concentrations of serum inflammatory factors, and hepatic expressions of lipid synthesis related genes and increased the expressions of genes involved in lipid degradation in the liver. Kudingcha diCQAs also exhibited considerable effects on intestinal microbiota. They increased the relative abundances of Bifidobacterium and Akkermansia and affected the function of the microbial community including bile acid biosynthesis. Kudingcha diCQAs had antiobesity potential, possibly acting through affecting intestinal microbiota. Furthermore, the effects of kudingcha diCQAs on fat accumulation and intestinal microbiota had a dose-dependent manner.

Electrostatic field-induced tip-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry for direct analysis of raw food materials

Rapid characterization of metabolites and risk compounds such as chemical residues and natural toxins in raw food materials such as vegetables, meats, and edible living plants and animals plays an important part in ensuing food quality and safety. To rapidly characterize the analytes in raw food materials, it is essential to develop in situ method for directly analyzing raw food materials. In this work, raw food materials including biological tissues and living samples were placed between an electrode and mass spectrometric (MS) inlet under a strong electrostatic field; analytes were rapidly induced to generate electrospray ionization (ESI) from the sample tip by adding a drop of solvent onto the sample. Therefore, the electrostatic field-induced tip-ESI-MS allows raw samples to avoid contacting high voltage, and thus this method has the advantage for in vivo analysis of food living plants and animals. Metabolite profiling, residues of pesticides and veterinary drugs, and natural toxins from raw food materials have been successfully detected. The analytical performances, including the linear ranges, sensitivity, and reproducibility, were investigated for direct sample analysis. The ionization mechanism of electrostatic field-induced tip-ESI was also discussed in this work.

Health Benefits of Bioactive Compounds from the Genus Ilex, a Source of Traditional Caffeinated Beverages

Tea and coffee are caffeinated beverages commonly consumed around the world in daily life. Tea from Camellia sinensis is widely available and is a good source of caffeine and other bioactive compounds (e.g., polyphenols and carotenoids). Other tea-like beverages, such as those from the genus Ilex, the large-leaved Kudingcha (Ilex latifolia Thunb and Ilex kudingcha C.J. Tseng), Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil), Yaupon Holly (Ilex vomitoria), and Guayusa (Ilex guayusa Loes) are also traditional drinks, with lesser overall usage, but have attracted much recent attention and have been subjected to further study. This review summarizes the distribution, composition, and health benefits of caffeinated beverages from the genus Ilex. Plants of this genus mainly contain polyphenols and alkaloids, and show diverse health benefits, which, as well as supporting their further popularization as beverages, may also lead to potential applications in the pharmaceutical or nutraceutical industries.

Composition Analysis by UPLC-PDA-ESI (-)-HRMS and Antioxidant Activity Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae Model of Herbal Teas and Green Teas from Hainan

Different teas from everywhere are very useful and have been extensively studied. We studied the antioxidant activity of herbal teas and green teas from Hainan, Mallotus oblongifolius Muell. Arg. (MO), Ilex kudingcha C.J. Tseng (KD), Camellia sinensis var. assamica (J. W. Mast.) Kitam. Hainan Dayezhong (DY), and Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Ktze. (produced from Hainan Baisha (BS)). The total phenol content and total flavonoid content from water extracts, resin extracts and fractions of herbal teas and green teas were compared. Later, eight fractions of herbal teas and green teas were subjected to UPLC-PDA-ESI-(-)-HRMS. We determined 1-diphenyl -2-picryl-hydrazyl radical and hydroxyl free radical scavenging activity by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. We subjected Saccharomyces cerevisiae to hydrogen peroxide, stress and evaluated antioxidant activity of herbal teas and green teas in cellulo. The experiment identified more than 14 potential antioxidant compounds from herbal teas and green teas. The herbal teas and green teas had a clearance rate higher than ferulic acid at the same concentrations. MO best reduced intracellular oxidation levels and increased catalase, glutathione reductase activities, glutathione reduced and glutathione oxidized content. KD had the highest cell survival rate and reduced cell lipid peroxidation. DY best improved superoxide dismutase activity and BS was the most active in the halo test. Therefore, we concluded that MO had stronger antioxidant activity than other herbal teas and green teas from Hainan, especially, which reduce S. cerevisiae oxidative stress under H₂O₂ stress.

A billion cups: The diversity, traditional uses, safety issues and potential of Chinese herbal teas

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Herbal teas have long been consumed by Chinese people for preventive and/or therapeutic healthcare. Although herbal teas are widely consumed by many cultural groups in different regions of China, no thorough review has been undertaken to assess the diversity of the country's herbal tea usage. This literature review, complemented by a quantitative survey in an important tea market in Kunming, begins to fill this knowledge gap.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

The study aims to summarize the current knowledge of plant species used as herbal teas by different cultural groups in different regions of China, with a focus on the teas' perceived traditional healthcare functions, related phytochemical/pharmaceutical research, and safety issues.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study involved a comprehensive literature review and a market survey. The literature review was based on published ethnobotanical studies of herbal teas in China. We searched the Web of Science™, ELSEVIER, the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and the China Science and Technology Journal Database to locate relevant studies (including journal articles, Masters/PhD dissertations and books) that were published before March 2017. A species list was compiled based on the review and supplemented with information retrieved from the Scifinder database (https://scifinder.cas.org) and the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2010). A Use Value Index was employed for ranking the most cited species. Based on the 29 most cited species, we discussed the current research status in relation to healthcare benefits and safety concerns of herbal teas in China. To better understand the current status of the herbal tea market in China, we also surveyed 136 tea vendors at the Xiongda Tea Market in Kunming. Information gathered from the survey included the species sold, the sale prices and the form of the herbal tea product.

RESULTS

The literature identified 759 plant species used as herbal tea in China and the market survey identified an additional 23 species. Most of the species used were from the Leguminosae, Compositae and Lamiaceae families. Twenty two provinces and fourteen ethnic minority groups have records on the consumption of herbal teas. Southern China uses up to 82% of the total species, and 211 out of 759 species are used by minority groups. Thirty categories of traditional healthcare functions are linked with herbal teas, with clearing away heat, relieving toxicity and suppressing cough being the most important functions. There is phytochemical/pharmaceutical evidence to support the claimed healthcare benefits of some Chinese herbal teas. Although Chinese herbal teas are generally safe to consume, overdoses of some herbal teas and some unapproved mixtures of species may cause health risks. Based on our market survey, the prices of most herbal teas range between 100 and 200 RMB (US$15-30) per kg.

CONCLUSIONS

A rich array of herbal tea species with various traditional healthcare functions have long been used in China, and as such there is a huge market potential for Chinese herbal teas. More pharmaceutical/phytochemical research is needed to assess a wide range of perceived healthcare benefits of Chinese herbal teas. Our research highlights the need to study herbal teas through an ethnopharmacological perspective and by employing a holistic approach, which requires greater consideration of traditional knowledge in the pharmacological research design. Product safety and sustainability issues should also be considered, so the traditional applications of herbal teas can be transformed to efficient health boosting functional products.

Chlorogenic Acid-Enriched Extract of Ilex kudingcha C.J. Tseng Inhibits Angiogenesis in Zebrafish

Kudingcha is a particularly bitter tasting tea that has been widely used in China to eliminate fever and itching eyes, and to clear blood toxins. Kudingcha is considered of value for its potential anticancer effects that are attributed to the presence of characteristic bioactive ingredients. The chlorogenic acid (CGA) derivatives 3-0-caffeoylquinic acid, 5-0-caffeoylquinic acid, 3,5-0-dicaffeoylquinic acid, and 4,5-0-dicaffeoylquinic acid were separated from Ilex kudingcha C.J. Tseng extract by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-photodiode array detector (PDA) and HPLC-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). In Tg(flk1:EGFP) zebrafish embryos at 52 hours postfertilization (hpf), angiogenesis was significantly inhibited by kudingcha extract (KDCE) at concentrations of 400 and 500 μg/mL and CGA also showed significant inhibition in embryos treated with 80, 100, and 130 μg/mL. Endothelial cell apoptosis showed a dose-dependent increase in response to KDCE and CGA. CGA derivatives from KDCE could have potential as anticancer agents against tumor angiogenesis.

Bioactivity-guided isolation of neuritogenic triterpenoids from the leaves of Ilex latifolia Thunb

Ilex latifolia Thunb is a traditional Chinese tea and herbal medicine. In this study, one new triterpene saponin (1) and six known triterpenoids (2-7) were isolated from the methanol extract of I. latifolia using a PC12 cell bioassay system. The structures and stereochemistry of these compounds were elucidated using spectroscopic methods and chemical derivatization. This new triterpene saponin (1) was characterized as an ursolic type acid with a 19α-hydroxyl and a trisaccharide moiety at C-3. Compound 1 significantly promoted the neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells by 52% at 10 μM, whereas compounds 2-7 showed less neuritogenic activity. Structure activity relationship studies indicated that introducing a trisaccharide moiety at C-3 is important for the neuritogenic activity, but the sugar group at C-28 decreased this activity. In addition, compound 1 increased the neurite outgrowth length in primary cortical neuron cells of mice and also exhibited a neuronal protection effect on H₂O₂-damaged PC12 cells at optimum concentrations.

Simultaneous qualitative and quantitative evaluation of Ilex kudingcha C. J. tseng by using UPLC and UHPLC-qTOF-MS/MS

In this study, a systematic method was established for the holistic quality control of Ilex kudingcha C. J. Tseng, a popular functional drink for adjuvant treatment of diabetes, hypertension, obesity and hyperlipidemia. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses were conducted. For qualitative analysis, an ultra high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled with an electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ESI-qTOF-MS) method was established for rapid separation and structural identification of the constituents in Ilex kudingcha. Samples were separated on an ACQUITY UPLC HSS T3C₁₈ column (2.1 mm × 100 mm, 1.8 μm) by gradient elution using 0.1% (v/v) formic acid (solvent A) and acetonitrile (solvent B) as mobile phases at a flow rate of 0.25 mL min^-1. The chromatographic profiling of Ilex kudingcha by UHPLC-qTOF-MS/MS resulted in the characterization of 53 compounds, comprising 18 compounds that were unambiguously identified by comparison with reference standards. For quantitative analysis, 18 major compounds from 15 batches of Ilex kudingcha samples were simultaneously detected by UPLC-DAD at wavelengths of 210 nm, 260 nm, and 326 nm. The method was validated with respect to precision, linearity, repeatability, stability, accuracy, and so on. The contents of the 18 target compounds were applied for hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA) to differentiate between the samples. The results of HCA and PCA were consistent with each other. Sample No. 1 differed significantly based on HCA and PCA, and the differentiating components were confirmed to originate from different batches of samples. Phenolic acids and triterpenes were found to be the main ingredients in Ilex kudingcha. This strategy was effective and straightforward, and provided a potential approach for holistic quality control of Ilex kudingcha.

Modulating Effects of Dicaffeoylquinic Acids from Ilex kudingcha on Intestinal Microecology in Vitro

Dietary polyphenols have been considered as novel prebiotics, and polyphenols could exert their functions through modulating intestinal microbiota. The diverse bioactivities of kudingcha could derive from its phenolic compounds, but the effects of dicaffeoylquinic acids (diCQAs) from Ilex kudingcha on intestinal microbiota have not been investigated. In the present study, high-throughput sequencing and anaerobic fermentation in vitro were utilized to investigate the microecology-modulating function of I. kudingcha diCQAs. As a result, diCQAs raised the diversity and exhibited a more considerable impact than a carbon source on the microbial profile. DiCQAs increased the relative abundances of Alistipes, Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Butyricimonas, Clostridium sensu stricto, Escherichia/Shigella, Parasutterella, Romboutsia, Oscillibacter, Veillonella, Phascolarctobacterium, Lachnospiracea incertae sedis, Gemmiger, Streptococcus, and Haemophilus and decreased the relative abundances of Ruminococcus, Anaerostipes, Dialister, Megasphaera, Megamonas, and Prevotella. DiCQAs also affected the generation of short-chain fatty acids through microbiota. The contents of acetic and lactic acids were raised, while the production of propionic and butyric acids was reduced. Conclusively, diCQAs from I. kudingcha had significant modulating effects on intestinal microbiota in vitro, which might be the fundamental of diCQAs exerting their bioactivities.

Integral Phylogenomic Approach over Ilex L. Species from Southern South America

The use of molecular markers with inadequate variation levels has resulted in poorly resolved phylogenetic relationships within Ilex. Focusing on southern South American and Asian species, we aimed at contributing informative plastid markers. Also, we intended to gain insights into the nature of morphological and physiological characters used to identify species. We obtained the chloroplast genomes of I.paraguariensis and I. dumosa, and combined these with all the congeneric plastomes currently available to accomplish interspecific comparisons and multilocus analyses. We selected seven introns and nine IGSs as variable non-coding markers that were used in phylogenomic analyses. Eight extra IGSs were proposed as candidate markers. Southern South American species formed one lineage, except for I. paraguariensis, I. dumosa and I. argentina, which occupied intermediate positions among sampled taxa; Euroasiatic species formed two lineages. Some concordant relationships were retrieved from nuclear sequence data. We also conducted integral analyses, involving a supernetwork of molecular data, and a simultaneous analysis of quantitative and qualitative morphological and phytochemical characters, together with molecular data. The total evidence tree was used to study the evolution of non-molecular data, evidencing fifteen non-ambiguous synapomorphic character states and consolidating the relationships among southern South American species. More South American representatives should be incorporated to elucidate their origin.

Kudinoside-D, a triterpenoid saponin derived from Ilex kudingcha suppresses adipogenesis through modulation of the AMPK pathway in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

The leaves of Ilex Kudingcha, locally named "Kudingcha" in China, has been traditionally applied for treating obesity. Studies have demonstrated that the ethanol extract of Ilex kudingcha have anti-adipogenic effects. However, the constituent which was responsible for its anti-obesity and its underlying molecular mechanism has not yet been elucidated. This research explored the anti-obesity effect of kudinoside-D which was a main natural component of triterpenoid saponin from the ethanol extract of Ilex kudingcha, on lipid accumulation and the potential mechanism of action of adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. The adipocytes were treated with various concentrations of kudinoside D (0 to 40μM) during differentiation. The image-based Oil Red O staining analyses revealed that KD-D, dose dependently reduced cytoplasmic lipid droplet in 3T3-L1 adipocytes with the IC₅₀ is 59.49μM. Meanwhile, major adipogenic transcription factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-α (C/EBPα) and sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c) were significantly repressed as well as their target genes. The phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and its downstream target phosphorylated-acetyl CoA carboxylase (ACC) expression were also increased. In addition, the inhibitory effects of KD-D on the expressions of PPARγ and C/EBPα were weakened when cells were cotreated with AMPK inhibitor Compound C. These results indicated KD-D exerts anti-adipogenic effects through modulation of adipogenic transcription factors via AMPK signaling pathway. And the current findings demonstrated that KD-D was a potential therapeutic candidate for alleviating obesity and hyperlipidemia.

Ilex latifolia Thunb protects mice from HFD-induced body weight gain

Kuding tea is implicated in alleviating metabolic disorders in traditional Chinese medicine. However, the role of Ilex latifolia Thunb (kuding tea), one of the large leaf kuding tea species, in the prevention of the development of obesity remains to be determined. We show here that 7-week-old male mice treated with an Ilex latifolia Thunb supplement for 14 weeks were resistant to HFD-induced body weight gain and hepatic steatosis, accompanied by improved insulin sensitivity. Ilex latifolia Thunb supplementation dramatically reduced the systemic and tissue inflammation levels of mice via reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, increasing anti-inflammatory cytokine levels in the circulation and inhibiting p38 MAPK and p65 NF-κB signaling in adipose tissue. Together, these results indicate that Ilex latifolia Thunb protects mice from the development of obesity and is a potential compound pool for the development of novel anti-obesity drugs.

Hydrolysis of Dicaffeoylquinic Acids from Ilex kudingcha Happens in the Colon by Intestinal Microbiota

Monocaffeoylquinic acids (mono-CQAs) can be hydrolyzed or metabolized by pancreatin, intestinal brush border esterase, and microbiota in the colon. Data about the conversion of dicaffeoylquinic acids (diCQAs) in digestion are scarce. The diCQA-rich fraction including 3,4-, 3,5-, and 4,5-diCQAs was prepared from Ilex kudingcha, and the conversion in simulated gastricintestine was investigated. Artificial saliva, gastric and pancreatic fluids, Caco-2 monolayer cells, and anaerobic fermentation model were utilized to mimic digestions of the oral cavity, stomach, small intestine, and colon in vitro. The results revealed that diCQAs remained intact in simulated saliva, gastric, and pancreatic fluids and within Caco-2 cells. In anaerobic fermentation with human fecal slurry, diCQAs were hydrolyzed to mono-CQAs and caffeic acid, which were further metabolized to caffeic acid and dihydrocaffeic acid, respectively. The hydrolysis of diCQAs depended on the chemical structures, carbohydrates in the culture medium, and microbial compositions. Our research demonstrated that hydrolysis of diCQAs happened in the colon by intestinal microbiota.

Ilex kaushue and Its Bioactive Component 3,5-Dicaffeoylquinic Acid Protected Mice from Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Lung Injury

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a severe respiratory disease with high mortality rates worldwide. Recent reports suggest that human neutrophil elastase (HNE) plays a key role in the inflammatory response that is characteristic of ALI, which indicates that the development of HNE inhibitors could be an efficient treatment strategy. In the current study, an enzyme-based screening assay was used to identify effective HNE inhibitors from a number of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs). Among them, a water extract of Ilex kaushue (IKWE) effectively inhibited HNE activity (IC₅₀, 11.37 ± 1.59 μg/mL). Using bioactivity-guided fractionation, one new compound and 23 known compounds were identified. Compound 6 (identified as 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid; 3,5-DCQA) exerted the most potent and selective inhibitory effect on HNE activity (IC₅₀, 1.86 ± 0.06 μM). In a cell-based assay, 3,5-DCQA not only directly reduced superoxide generation and elastase activity but also attenuated the Src family kinase (SRKs)/Vav signaling pathway in N-formyl-L-Met-L-Leu-L-Phe (fMLF)-stimulated human neutrophils. In an animal disease model, both 3,5-DCQA and standardized IKWE protected against lipopolysaccharide-induced ALI in mice, which provides support for their potential as candidates in the development of new therapeutic agents for neutrophilic inflammatory diseases.

Chloroplast genome structure in Ilex (Aquifoliaceae)

Aquifoliaceae is the largest family in the campanulid order Aquifoliales. It consists of a single genus, Ilex, the hollies, which is the largest woody dioecious genus in the angiosperms. Most species are in East Asia or South America. The taxonomy and evolutionary history remain unclear due to the lack of a robust species-level phylogeny. We produced the first complete chloroplast genomes in this family, including seven Ilex species, by Illumina sequencing of long-range PCR products and subsequent reference-guided de novo assembly. These genomes have a typical bicyclic structure with a conserved genome arrangement and moderate divergence. The total length is 157,741 bp and there is one large single-copy region (LSC) with 87,109 bp, one small single-copy with 18,436 bp, and a pair of inverted repeat regions (IR) with 52,196 bp. A total of 144 genes were identified, including 96 protein-coding genes, 40 tRNA and 8 rRNA. Thirty-four repetitive sequences were identified in Ilex pubescens, with lengths >14 bp and identity >90%, and 11 divergence hotspot regions that could be targeted for phylogenetic markers. This study will contribute to improved resolution of deep branches of the Ilex phylogeny and facilitate identification of Ilex species.