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Malison RL, Frakes JI, Andreas AL, Keller PR, Hamant E, Shah AA, Woods HA. Plasticity of salmonfly (Pteronarcys californica) respiratory phenotypes in response to changes in temperature and oxygen. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:276432. [PMID: 36004671 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Like all taxa, populations of aquatic insects may respond to climate change by evolving new physiologies or behaviors, shifting their ranges, exhibiting physiological and behavioral plasticity, or by going extinct. We evaluated the importance of plasticity by measuring changes in growth, survival, and respiratory phenotypes of salmonfly nymphs (the stonefly Pteronarcys californica) in response to experimental combinations of dissolved oxygen and temperature. Overall, smaller individuals grew more rapidly during the six-week experimental period, and oxygen and temperature interacted to affect growth in complex ways. Survival was lower for the warm treatment, though only four mortalities occurred (91.6 vs 100%). Nymphs acclimated to warmer temperatures did not have higher critical thermal maxima (CTMAX), but those acclimated to hypoxia had CTMAX values (in normoxia) higher by approximately 1 °C. These results suggest possible adaptive plasticity of systems for taking up or delivering oxygen. We examined these possibilities by measuring the oxygen-sensitivity of metabolic rates and the morphologies of tracheal gill tufts located ventrally on thoracic and abdominal segments. Mass-specific metabolic rates of individuals acclimated to warmer temperatures were higher in acute hypoxia but lower in normoxia, regardless of their recent history of oxygen exposure during acclimation. The morphology of gill filaments, however, changed in ways that appeared to depress rates of oxygen delivery in functional hypoxia. Our combined results from multiple performance metrics indicate that rising temperatures and hypoxia may interact to magnify the risks to aquatic insects, but that physiological plasticity in respiratory phenotypes may offset some of these risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel L Malison
- The University of Montana, Division of Biological Sciences, Flathead Lake Biological Station, 32125 Bio Station Lane, Polson, MT 59801, USA
| | - James I Frakes
- The University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Amanda L Andreas
- The University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Priya R Keller
- The University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Emily Hamant
- The University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Alisha A Shah
- The University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - H Arthur Woods
- The University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
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Thermal and Oxygen Flight Sensitivity in Ageing Drosophila melanogaster Flies: Links to Rapamycin-Induced Cell Size Changes. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10090861. [PMID: 34571738 PMCID: PMC8464818 DOI: 10.3390/biology10090861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Cold-blooded organisms can become physiologically challenged when performing highly oxygen-demanding activities (e.g., flight) across different thermal and oxygen environmental conditions. We explored whether this challenge decreases if an organism is built of smaller cells. This is because small cells create a large cell surface, which is costly, but can ease the delivery of oxygen to cells’ power plants, called mitochondria. We developed fruit flies in either standard food or food with rapamycin (a human drug altering the cell cycle and ageing), which produced flies with either large cells (no supplementation) or small cells (rapamycin supplementation). We measured the maximum speed at which flies were flapping their wings in warm and hot conditions, combined with either normal or reduced air oxygen concentrations. Flight intensity increased with temperature, and it was reduced by poor oxygen conditions, indicating limitations of flying insects by oxygen supply. Nevertheless, flies with small cells showed lower limitations, only slowing down their wing flapping in low oxygen in the hot environment. Our study suggests that small cells in a body can help cold-blooded organisms maintain demanding activities (e.g., flight), even in poor oxygen conditions, but this advantage can depend on body temperature. Abstract Ectotherms can become physiologically challenged when performing oxygen-demanding activities (e.g., flight) across differing environmental conditions, specifically temperature and oxygen levels. Achieving a balance between oxygen supply and demand can also depend on the cellular composition of organs, which either evolves or changes plastically in nature; however, this hypothesis has rarely been examined, especially in tracheated flying insects. The relatively large cell membrane area of small cells should increase the rates of oxygen and nutrient fluxes in cells; however, it does also increase the costs of cell membrane maintenance. To address the effects of cell size on flying insects, we measured the wing-beat frequency in two cell-size phenotypes of Drosophila melanogaster when flies were exposed to two temperatures (warm/hot) combined with two oxygen conditions (normoxia/hypoxia). The cell-size phenotypes were induced by rearing 15 isolines on either standard food (large cells) or rapamycin-enriched food (small cells). Rapamycin supplementation (downregulation of TOR activity) produced smaller flies with smaller wing epidermal cells. Flies generally flapped their wings at a slower rate in cooler (warm treatment) and less-oxygenated (hypoxia) conditions, but the small-cell-phenotype flies were less prone to oxygen limitation than the large-cell-phenotype flies and did not respond to the different oxygen conditions under the warm treatment. We suggest that ectotherms with small-cell life strategies can maintain physiologically demanding activities (e.g., flight) when challenged by oxygen-poor conditions, but this advantage may depend on the correspondence among body temperatures, acclimation temperatures and physiological thermal limits.
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VandenBrooks JM, Ford CF, Harrison JF. Responses to Alteration of Atmospheric Oxygen and Social Environment Suggest Trade-Offs among Growth Rate, Life Span, and Stress Susceptibility in Giant Mealworms ( Zophobas morio). Physiol Biochem Zool 2021; 93:358-368. [PMID: 32758057 DOI: 10.1086/710726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Growth rate, development time, and response to environmental stressors vary tremendously across organisms, suggesting trade-offs that are affected by evolutionary or ecological factors, but such trade-offs are poorly understood. Prior studies using artificially selected lines of Manduca sexta suggest that insects with high growth rates, long development time, and large body size are more sensitive to hypoxic or hyperoxic stresses, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, but the mechanisms and specific life-history associations remain unclear. Here, we manipulated the social environment to differentiate the effects of size, growth rate, and development time on oxygen sensitivity of the giant mealworm, Zophobas morio. Crowding reduced growth rates but yielded larger adults as a result of supernumerary molts and longer development times. The juvenile performance (growth rate, development time, adult mass) of crowd-reared mealworms was less sensitive to variation in atmospheric oxygen than it was for individually reared animals, consistent with the hypothesis that high growth rates are associated with increased sensitivity to ROS. Life span in normoxia was extended by crowd rearing, perhaps due to the larger size and/or increased resources of the larger adults. Life spans of crowd-reared animals were more negatively affected by hypoxia or hyperoxia than life spans of individually reared animals, possibly due to the longer total stress exposure of crowd-reared animals. These data suggest that animals with high growth rates experience a negative trade-off of performance with greater sensitivity to stress during the juvenile phase, while animals with long development times or life spans experience a negative trade-off of greater susceptibility of life span to environmental stress.
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Youngblood JP, VandenBrooks JM, Babarinde O, Donnay ME, Elliott DB, Fredette-Roman J, Angilletta MJ. Oxygen supply limits the chronic heat tolerance of locusts during the first instar only. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 127:104157. [PMID: 33098860 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2020.104157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Although scientists know that overheating kills many organisms, they do not agree on the mechanism. According to one theory, referred to as oxygen- and capacity-limitation of thermal tolerance, overheating occurs when a warming organism's demand for oxygen exceeds its supply, reducing the organism's supply of ATP. This model predicts that an organism's heat tolerance should decrease under hypoxia, yet most terrestrial organisms tolerate the same amount of warming across a wide range of oxygen concentrations. This point is especially true for adult insects, who deliver oxygen through highly efficient respiratory systems. However, oxygen limitation at high temperatures may be more common during immature life stages, which have less developed respiratory systems. To test this hypothesis, we measured the effects of heat and hypoxia on the survival of South American locusts (Schistocerca cancellata) throughout development and during specific instars. We demonstrate that the heat tolerance of locusts depends on oxygen supply during the first instar but not during later instars. This finding provides further support for the idea that oxygen limitation of thermal tolerance depends on respiratory performance, especially during immature life stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob P Youngblood
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA.
| | | | | | - Megan E Donnay
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Deanna B Elliott
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
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Lombardi EJ, Bywater CL, White CR. The effect of ambient oxygen on the thermal performance of a cockroach, Nauphoeta cinerea. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb208306. [PMID: 32366686 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.208306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The oxygen and capacity-limited thermal tolerance (OCLTT) hypothesis proposes that the thermal tolerance of an animal is shaped by its capacity to deliver oxygen in relation to oxygen demand. Studies testing this hypothesis have largely focused on measuring short-term performance responses in animals under acute exposure to critical thermal maximums. The OCLTT hypothesis, however, emphasises the importance of sustained animal performance over acute tolerance. The present study tested the effect of chronic hypoxia and hyperoxia during development on moderate to long-term performance indicators at temperatures spanning the optimal temperature for growth in the speckled cockroach, Nauphoeta cinerea In contrast to the predictions of the OCLTT hypothesis, development under hypoxia did not significantly reduce growth rate or running performance, and development under hyperoxia did not significantly increase growth rate or running performance. The effects of developmental temperature and oxygen on tracheal morphology and metabolic rate were also not consistent with OCLTT predictions, suggesting that oxygen delivery capacity is not the primary driver shaping thermal tolerance in this species. Collectively, these findings suggest that the OCLTT hypothesis does not explain moderate to long-term thermal performance in N.cinerea, which raises further questions about the generality of the hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Lombardi
- Centre for Geometric Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Candice L Bywater
- Centre for Geometric Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Craig R White
- Centre for Geometric Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
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Antoł A, Labecka AM, Horváthová T, Zieliński B, Szabla N, Vasko Y, Pecio A, Kozłowski J, Czarnoleski M. Thermal and oxygen conditions during development cause common rough woodlice (Porcellio scaber) to alter the size of their gas-exchange organs. J Therm Biol 2020; 90:102600. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2020.102600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Sang W, Ji R, Lei C, Zhu-Salzman K. Parental hypoxic exposure influences performance of offspring in Callosobruchus maculatus. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2019; 75:2810-2819. [PMID: 30843346 DOI: 10.1002/ps.5396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Modified atmosphere based on lack of O2 can protect stored grains from insect pest damage. Although population expansion of cowpea bruchid (Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius)) could be temporarily arrested when exposed to 2% O2 , this insect could survive extended periods of hypoxia and continue its normal development if normoxic conditions resumed. It is not clear whether parental hypoxic treatment has any effects on offspring performance and response to hypoxia. RESULTS Hypoxia postponed development of treated parental bruchids at all stages. Its negative effects on oviposition and hatch rate of these eggs were significant only when hypoxia was administered at the parental fourth instar larval stage or later. When the F1 generation was exposed to hypoxia at the fourth instar larval stage, they exhibited comparable developmental delay and reduction in adult emergence and fecundity whether the parents experienced hypoxia or not. Interestingly, eggs laid by hypoxia-treated F1s had increased hatch rates if their parents had also been exposed to hypoxia. Stronger suppression of the digestive protease gene CatL and elevated basal expression of the stress responsive gene Hsp27 were observed in F1 larvae with parental hypoxic experience. CONCLUSION Parental hypoxic experience appeared to better prepare the F1 progenies for further hypoxic challenge. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Sang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application, Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Institute for Plant Genomics & Biotechnology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Rui Ji
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Institute for Plant Genomics & Biotechnology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Chaoliang Lei
- Hubei Insect Resources Utilization and Sustainable Pest Management Key Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Hubei, Wuhan, China
| | - Keyan Zhu-Salzman
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Institute for Plant Genomics & Biotechnology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
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Harrison JF, Waters JS, Biddulph TA, Kovacevic A, Klok CJ, Socha JJ. Developmental plasticity and stability in the tracheal networks supplying Drosophila flight muscle in response to rearing oxygen level. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 106:189-198. [PMID: 28927826 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2017.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Revised: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/09/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
While it is clear that the insect tracheal system can respond in a compensatory manner to both hypoxia and hyperoxia, there is substantial variation in how different parts of the system respond. However, the response of tracheal structures, from the tracheoles to the largest tracheal trunks, have not been studied within one species. In this study, we examined the effect of larval/pupal rearing in hypoxia, normoxia, and hyperoxia (10, 21 or 40kPa oxygen) on body size and the tracheal supply to the flight muscles of Drosophila melanogaster, using synchrotron radiation micro-computed tomography (SR-µCT) to assess flight muscle volumes and the major tracheal trunks, and confocal microscopy to assess the tracheoles. Hypoxic rearing decreased thorax length whereas hyperoxic-rearing decreased flight muscle volumes, suggestive of negative effects of both extremes. Tomography at the broad organismal scale revealed no evidence for enlargement of the major tracheae in response to lower rearing oxygen levels, although tracheal size scaled with muscle volume. However, using confocal imaging, we found a strong inverse relationship between tracheole density within the flight muscles and rearing oxygen level, and shorter tracheolar branch lengths in hypoxic-reared animals. Although prior studies of larger tracheae in other insects indicate that axial diffusing capacity should be constant with sequential generations of branching, this pattern was not found in the fine tracheolar networks, perhaps due to the increasing importance of radial diffusion in this regime. Overall, D. melanogaster responded to rearing oxygen level with compensatory morphological changes in the small tracheae and tracheoles, but retained stability in most of the other structural components of the tracheal supply to the flight muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon F Harrison
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, PO Box 874501, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, USA.
| | - James S Waters
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, PO Box 874501, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, USA; Department of Biology, Providence College, Providence, RI 02918, USA
| | - Taylor A Biddulph
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, PO Box 874501, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, USA
| | - Aleksandra Kovacevic
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, PO Box 874501, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, USA; School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - C Jaco Klok
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, PO Box 874501, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, USA; Sable Systems International, 3840 N. Commerce St., North Las Vegas, NV 89032, USA
| | - John J Socha
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, 332 Norris Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
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VandenBrooks JM, Gstrein G, Harmon J, Friedman J, Olsen M, Ward A, Parker G. Supply and demand: How does variation in atmospheric oxygen during development affect insect tracheal and mitochondrial networks? JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 106:217-223. [PMID: 29122550 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2017.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Revised: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric oxygen is one of the most important atmospheric component for all terrestrial organisms. Variation in atmospheric oxygen has wide ranging effects on animal physiology, development, and evolution. This variation in oxygen has the potential to affect both respiratory systems (the supply side) and mitochondrial networks (the demand side) in animals. Insect respiratory systems supplying oxygen to tissues in the gas phase through blind ended tracheal systems are particularly susceptible to this variation. While the large conducting tracheae have previously been shown to respond developmentally to changes in rearing oxygen, the effect of oxygen on the tracheolar network has been relatively unexplored, especially in adult insects. Similarly, mitochondrial networks that meet energy demand in insects and other animals are dynamic and their enzyme activities have been shown to vary in the presence of oxygen. These two systems together should be under selective pressure to meet the aerobic metabolic requirements of insects. To test this hypothesis, we reared Mito-YFP Drosophila under three different oxygen concentrations hypoxia (12%), normoxia (21%), and hyperoxia (31%) and imaged their tracheolar and mitochondrial networks within their flight muscle using confocal microscopy. In terms of oxygen supply, hypoxia increased mean (mid-length) tracheolar diameters, tracheolar tip diameters, the number of tracheoles per main branch and affected tracheal branching patterns, while the opposite was observed in hyperoxia. In terms of oxygen demand, hypoxia increased mitochondrial investment and mitochondrial to tracheolar volume ratios; while the opposite was observed in hyperoxia. Generally, hypoxia had a stronger effect on both systems than hyperoxia. These results show that insects are capable of developmentally changing investment in both their supply and demand networks to increase overall fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gregory Gstrein
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA
| | - Jason Harmon
- Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA
| | - Jessica Friedman
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA
| | - Matthew Olsen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA
| | - Anna Ward
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA
| | - Gregory Parker
- Department of Physiology, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA
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Kivelä SM, Viinamäki S, Keret N, Gotthard K, Hohtola E, Välimäki P. Elucidating mechanisms for insect body size: partial support for the oxygen-dependent induction of moulting hypothesis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:jeb.166157. [PMID: 29150451 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.166157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Body size is a key life history trait, and knowledge of its mechanistic basis is crucial in life history biology. Such knowledge is accumulating for holometabolous insects, whose growth is characterised and body size affected by moulting. According to the oxygen-dependent induction of moulting (ODIM) hypothesis, moult is induced at a critical mass at which oxygen demand of growing tissues overrides the supply from the tracheal respiratory system, which principally grows only at moults. Support for the ODIM hypothesis is controversial, partly because of a lack of proper data to explicitly test the hypothesis. The ODIM hypothesis predicts that the critical mass is positively correlated with oxygen partial pressure (PO2 ) and negatively with temperature. To resolve the controversy that surrounds the ODIM hypothesis, we rigorously test these predictions by exposing penultimate-instar Orthosia gothica (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae to temperature and moderate PO2 manipulations in a factorial experiment. The relative mass increment in the focal instar increased along with increasing PO2 , as predicted, but there was only weak suggestive evidence of the temperature effect. Probably owing to a high measurement error in the trait, the effect of PO2 on the critical mass was sex specific; high PO2 had a positive effect only in females, whereas low PO2 had a negative effect only in males. Critical mass was independent of temperature. Support for the ODIM hypothesis is partial because of only suggestive evidence of a temperature effect on moulting, but the role of oxygen in moult induction seems unambiguous. The ODIM mechanism thus seems worth considering in body size analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sami M Kivelä
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, EE-51014 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Sonja Viinamäki
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, University of Oulu, PO Box 3000, 90014 University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Netta Keret
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, University of Oulu, PO Box 3000, 90014 University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Karl Gotthard
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Esa Hohtola
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, University of Oulu, PO Box 3000, 90014 University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Panu Välimäki
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, University of Oulu, PO Box 3000, 90014 University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
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Harrison JF, Greenlee KJ, Verberk WCEP. Functional Hypoxia in Insects: Definition, Assessment, and Consequences for Physiology, Ecology, and Evolution. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 63:303-325. [PMID: 28992421 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Insects can experience functional hypoxia, a situation in which O2 supply is inadequate to meet oxygen demand. Assessing when functional hypoxia occurs is complex, because responses are graded, age and tissue dependent, and compensatory. Here, we compare information gained from metabolomics and transcriptional approaches and by manipulation of the partial pressure of oxygen. Functional hypoxia produces graded damage, including damaged macromolecules and inflammation. Insects respond by compensatory physiological and morphological changes in the tracheal system, metabolic reorganization, and suppression of activity, feeding, and growth. There is evidence for functional hypoxia in eggs, near the end of juvenile instars, and during molting. Functional hypoxia is more likely in species with lower O2 availability or transport capacities and when O2 need is great. Functional hypoxia occurs normally during insect development and is a factor in mediating life-history trade-offs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon F Harrison
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-4501;
| | - Kendra J Greenlee
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108-6050;
| | - Wilco C E P Verberk
- Department of Animal Ecology and Ecophysiology, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands;
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12
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Shiehzadegan S, Le Vinh Thuy J, Szabla N, Angilletta MJ, VandenBrooks JM. More oxygen during development enhanced flight performance but not thermal tolerance of Drosophila melanogaster. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0177827. [PMID: 28542380 PMCID: PMC5441596 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
High temperatures can stress animals by raising the oxygen demand above the oxygen supply. Consequently, animals under hypoxia could be more sensitive to heating than those exposed to normoxia. Although support for this model has been limited to aquatic animals, oxygen supply might limit the heat tolerance of terrestrial animals during energetically demanding activities. We evaluated this model by studying the flight performance and heat tolerance of flies (Drosophila melanogaster) acclimated and tested at different concentrations of oxygen (12%, 21%, and 31%). We expected that flies raised at hypoxia would develop into adults that were more likely to fly under hypoxia than would flies raised at normoxia or hyperoxia. We also expected flies to benefit from greater oxygen supply during testing. These effects should have been most pronounced at high temperatures, which impair locomotor performance. Contrary to our expectations, we found little evidence that flies raised at hypoxia flew better when tested at hypoxia or tolerated extreme heat better than did flies raised at normoxia or hyperoxia. Instead, flies raised at higher oxygen levels performed better at all body temperatures and oxygen concentrations. Moreover, oxygen supply during testing had the greatest effect on flight performance at low temperature, rather than high temperature. Our results poorly support the hypothesis that oxygen supply limits performance at high temperatures, but do support the idea that hyperoxia during development improves performance of flies later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shayan Shiehzadegan
- School of Life Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | | | - Natalia Szabla
- Institute of Environmental Studies, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Michael J. Angilletta
- School of Life Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - John M. VandenBrooks
- Department of Physiology, Midwestern University, Glendale, Arizona, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Harrison JF, Manoucheh M, Klok CJ, Campbell JB. Temperature and the Ventilatory Response to Hypoxia in Gromphadorhina portentosa (Blattodea: Blaberidae). ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2016; 45:479-483. [PMID: 26721296 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvv217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In general, insects respond to hypoxia by increasing ventilation frequency, as seen in most other animals. Higher body temperatures usually also increase ventilation rates, likely due to increases in metabolic rates. In ectothermic air-breathing vertebrates, body temperatures and hypoxia tend to interact significantly, with an increasing responsiveness of ventilation to hypoxia at higher temperatures. Here, we tested whether the same is true in insects, using the Madagascar hissing cockroach, Gromphadorhina portentosa (Schaum) (Blattodea: Blaberidae). We equilibrated individuals to a temperature (beginning at 20 °C), and animals were exposed to step-wise decreases in PO2 (21, 15, 10, and 5 kPa, in that order), and we measured ventilation frequencies from videotapes of abdominal pumping after 15 min of exposure to the test oxygen level. We then raised the temperature by 5 °C, and the protocol was repeated, with tests run at 20, 25, 30, and 35 °C. The 20 °C animals had high initial ventilation rates, possibly due to handling stress, so these animals were excluded from subsequent analyses. Across all temperatures, ventilation increased in hypoxia, but only significantly at 5 kPa PO2 Surprisingly, there was no significant interaction between temperature and oxygen, and no significant effect of temperature on ventilation frequency from 25 to 35 °C. Plausibly, the rise in metabolic rates at higher temperatures in insects is made possible by increasing other aspects of gas exchange, such as decreasing internal PO2, or increases in tidal volume, spiracular opening (duration or amount), or removal of fluid from the tracheoles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon F Harrison
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501 (; ; ; ) and
| | - Milad Manoucheh
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501 (; ; ; ) and
| | - C Jaco Klok
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501 (; ; ; ) and
| | - Jacob B Campbell
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501 (; ; ; ) and
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Kivelä SM, Friberg M, Wiklund C, Leimar O, Gotthard K. Towards a mechanistic understanding of insect life history evolution: oxygen-dependent induction of moulting explains moulting sizes. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sami M. Kivelä
- Department of Zoology; Stockholm University; SE-10691 Stockholm Sweden
| | - Magne Friberg
- Department of Plant Ecology and Evolution; Evolutionary Biology Centre; Norbyvagen 18D SE-752 36 Uppsala Sweden
| | - Christer Wiklund
- Department of Zoology; Stockholm University; SE-10691 Stockholm Sweden
| | - Olof Leimar
- Department of Zoology; Stockholm University; SE-10691 Stockholm Sweden
| | - Karl Gotthard
- Department of Zoology; Stockholm University; SE-10691 Stockholm Sweden
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15
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Harrison JF. Handling and Use of Oxygen by Pancrustaceans: Conserved Patterns and the Evolution of Respiratory Structures. Integr Comp Biol 2015; 55:802-15. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icv055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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16
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Harrison JF, Klok CJ, Waters JS. Critical PO 2 is size-independent in insects: implications for the metabolic theory of ecology. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2014; 4:54-59. [PMID: 28043409 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2014.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Revised: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 08/29/2014] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Insects, and all animals, exhibit hypometric scaling of metabolic rate, with larger species having lower mass-specific metabolic rates. The metabolic theory of ecology (MTE) is based on models ascribing hypometric scaling of metabolic rate to constrained O2 supply systems in larger animals. We compiled critical PO2 of metabolic and growth rates for more than 40 insect species with a size range spanning four orders of magnitude. Critical PO2 values vary from far below 21kPa for resting animals to near 21kPa for growing or flying animals and are size-independent, demonstrating that supply capacity matches oxygen demand. These data suggest that hypometric scaling of resting metabolic rate in insects is not driven by constraints on oxygen availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon F Harrison
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, United States.
| | - C J Klok
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, United States
| | - James S Waters
- Department of Biology, Providence College, Providence, Princeton, RI 02918, United States
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17
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Farzin M, Albert T, Pierce N, VandenBrooks JM, Dodge T, Harrison JF. Acute and chronic effects of atmospheric oxygen on the feeding behavior of Drosophila melanogaster larvae. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 68:23-29. [PMID: 25008193 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2014.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Revised: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 06/28/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
All insects studied to date show reduced growth rates in hypoxia. Drosophila melanogaster reared in moderate hypoxia (10 kPa PO2) grow more slowly and form smaller adults, but the mechanisms responsible are unclear, as metabolic rates are not oxygen-limited. It has been shown that individual fruit flies do not grow larger in hyperoxia (40 kPa PO2), but populations of flies evolve larger size. Here we studied the effect of acute and chronic variation in atmospheric PO2 (10, 21, 40 kPa) on feeding behavior of third instar larvae of D.melanogaster to assess whether oxygen effects on growth rate can be explained by effects on feeding behavior. Hypoxic-reared larvae grew and developed more slowly, and hyperoxic-rearing did not affect growth rate, maximal larval mass or developmental time. The effect of acute exposure to varying PO2 on larval bite rates matched the pattern observed for growth rates, with a 22% reduction in 10 kPa PO2 and no effect of 40 kPa PO2. Chronic rearing in hypoxia had few effects on the responses of feeding rates to oxygen, but chronic rearing in hyperoxia caused feeding rates to be strongly oxygen-dependent. Hypoxia produced similar reductions in bite rate and in the volume of tunnels excavated by larvae, supporting bite rate as an index of feeding behavior. Overall, our data show that reductions in feeding rate can explain reduced growth rates in moderate hypoxia for Drosophila, contributing to reduced body size, and that larvae cannot successfully compensate for this level of hypoxia with developmental plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoush Farzin
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, United States
| | - Todd Albert
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, United States
| | - Nicholas Pierce
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, United States
| | - John M VandenBrooks
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, United States
| | - Tahnee Dodge
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, United States
| | - Jon F Harrison
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, United States.
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18
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Callier V, Nijhout HF. Plasticity of insect body size in response to oxygen: integrating molecular and physiological mechanisms. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2014; 1:59-65. [PMID: 32846731 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2014.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2014] [Revised: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The hypoxia-induced reduction of body size in Drosophila and Manduca is ideal for understanding the mechanisms of body size plasticity. The mechanisms of size regulation are well-studied in these species, and the molecular mechanisms of oxygen sensing are also well-characterized. What is missing is the connection between oxygen sensing and the mechanisms that regulate body size in standard conditions. Oxygen functions both as a substrate for metabolism to produce energy and as a signaling molecule that activates specific cellular signaling networks. Hypoxia affects metabolism in a passive, generalized manner. Hypoxia also induces the activation of targeted signaling pathways, which may mediate the reduction in body size, or alternatively, compensate for the metabolic perturbations and attenuate the reduction in size. These alternative hypotheses await testing. Both perspectives-metabolism and information-are necessary to understand how oxygen affects body size.
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19
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Verberk WCEP, Atkinson D. Why polar gigantism and
P
alaeozoic gigantism are not equivalent: effects of oxygen and temperature on the body size of ectotherms. Funct Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wilco C. E. P. Verberk
- Department of Animal Ecology and Ecophysiology Institute for Water and Wetland Research Radboud University P.O. Box 9010 6500 GL Nijmegen the Netherlands
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre School of Marine Science and Engineering University of Plymouth Davy Building Drake Circus Plymouth PL4 8AA UK
| | - David Atkinson
- Department of Evolution, Ecology & Behaviour Biosciences Building Institute of Integrative Biology University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 7ZB UK
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20
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Klok CJ, Harrison JF. The Temperature Size Rule in Arthropods: Independent of Macro-Environmental Variables but Size Dependent. Integr Comp Biol 2013; 53:557-70. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/ict075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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21
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Harrison JF, Cease AJ, Vandenbrooks JM, Albert T, Davidowitz G. Caterpillars selected for large body size and short development time are more susceptible to oxygen-related stress. Ecol Evol 2013; 3:1305-16. [PMID: 23762517 PMCID: PMC3678485 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2012] [Revised: 02/25/2013] [Accepted: 02/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies suggest that higher growth rates may be associated with reduced capacities for stress tolerance and increased accumulated damage due to reactive oxygen species. We tested the response of Manduca sexta (Sphingidae) lines selected for large or small body size and short development time to hypoxia (10 kPa) and hyperoxia (25, 33, and 40 kPa); both hypoxia and hyperoxia reduce reproduction and oxygen levels over 33 kPa have been shown to increase oxidative damage in insects. Under normoxic (21 kPa) conditions, individuals from the large-selected (big-fast) line were larger and had faster growth rates, slightly longer developmental times, and reduced survival rates compared to individuals from a line selected for small size (small-fast) or an unselected control line. Individuals from the big-fast line exhibited greater negative responses to hyperoxia with greater reductions in juvenile and adult mass, growth rate, and survival than the other two lines. Hypoxia generally negatively affected survival and growth/size, but the lines responded similarly. These results are mostly consistent with the hypothesis that simultaneous acquisition of large body sizes and short development times leads to reduced capacities for coping with stressful conditions including oxidative damage. This result is of particular importance in that natural selection tends to decrease development time and increase body size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon F Harrison
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University Tempe, Arizona, 85287-4501
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