Common variable immunodeficiency and the gastrointestinal tract

The Histologic Spectrum of Rituximab-Associated Common Variable Immunodeficiency-Like Enteropathy

Rituximab (RTX) is a monoclonal anti-CD20 antibody widely used to treat B-cell neoplasms and autoimmune conditions. RTX has recently been linked to an enteropathy characterized by diarrhea, malabsorption, and hypogammaglobulinemia, closely resembling common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) enteropathy. We present the first dedicated histopathologic assessment of RTX-associated CVID-like enteropathy. Study inclusion criteria were the presence of diarrhea, weight loss, or other gastrointestinal symptoms in the setting of current/prior RTX use and associated hypogammaglobulinemia. Twenty-two patients (15 male:7 female; mean age at biopsy/resection, 63.4 years) across 9 tertiary medical centers met inclusion criteria and had small bowel (N = 20) and/or colon (N = 17) specimens (biopsies/resections) available for review; 71.4% of specimens dated from ≤5 years of last RTX dose. Cases were systematically evaluated by gastrointestinal pathologists at each institution. Key histologic features in the small bowel included sparse/absent lamina propria plasma cells (N = 10; 50%), intraepithelial lymphocytosis (N = 12; 60%), villous atrophy (N = 11; 55%), increased crypt apoptotic bodies (N = 6; 30%), and active inflammation (N = 5; 25%). Common features in the colon included sparse/absent plasma cells (N = 7; 41.2%), increased crypt apoptotic bodies (N = 7; 41.2%), active inflammation (N = 5; 29.4%), and intraepithelial lymphocytosis (N = 4; 23.5%). Goblet cell loss was appreciated in small bowel and/or colon specimens from 2 patients. Follow-up biopsies (interval, 2 months to 4 years) were available for 7 patients and largely recapitulated the histology of the index specimens, though 1 patient demonstrated improvement in villous blunting and intraepithelial lymphocytosis. In summary, the histologic spectrum of post-RTX CVID-like enteropathy encompasses lamina propria plasma cell depletion, increased crypt apoptotic bodies, small bowel villous atrophy, and goblet cell loss. While the underlying pathophysiology remains uncertain, the clinicopathologic picture may reflect post-RTX B-cell/plasma cell impairment. Although histologic findings may be subtle and variable, pathologists should be aware of this entity and should seek a history of RTX use in patients whose biopsies exhibit these CVID enteropathy-like features.

Gastrointestinal Disease in Common Variable Immunodeficiency Disorder (CVID): Histological Patterns, Diagnostic Clues and Pitfalls for the Pathologist and Gastroenterologist

Background/Objectives: Gastrointestinal diseases are a major cause of morbidity in common variable immunodeficiency disorder (CVID), clinically often mimicking other conditions including celiac disease and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Hence, diagnosis of CVID remains challenging. This study aims to raise awareness and highlight histopathological clues for CVID in intestinal biopsies, emphasizing diagnostic pitfalls for the pathologist/gastroenterologist. Methods: We reviewed 63 (18 duodenal, 23 ileal, 22 colonic) biopsies and case histories from seven CVID patients, obtained over a 31-year period, with attention to active inflammation, intraepithelial lymphocytes, plasma cells, lymphoid hyperplasia, crypt/villous architecture, subepithelial collagen, apoptosis, granulomas, and infections. Clinical information of 41 pathology requests was reviewed. Results: Gastrointestinal symptoms were variable. Histological features included IBD-like (3/7), celiac disease-like (2/7), graft-versus-host disease (GVHD)-like (2/7), lymphocytic sprue/colitis-like (3/7), collagenous colitis-like (2/7), and acute colitis-like (4/7) patterns, often overlapping (2/7) and/or changing over time (3/7). Lymphoid hyperplasia was seen in 3/7 patients; 1/7 had giardiasis; and 5/7 had few plasma cells, usually only in part of the gut (3/5). Clinical information of 12/41 (29%) pathology requests mentioned known/suspected CVID, despite being known in 33/41 (80%). Conclusions: Clinical/histological features of CVID in the gut are diverse, often mimicking IBD, microscopic colitis, celiac disease and/or GVHD, hence the importance of adequate clinical information. Some histological features are atypical of these established entities and may indicate CVID, as may overlapping/changing histological patterns and/or few plasma cells in part of the gut. Awareness of the heterogenous clinical presentation and histopathological indicators of CVID may improve diagnosis.

Is there a role for microbiome-based approach in common variable immunodeficiency?

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is a primary immunodeficiency characterized by low levels of serum immunoglobulins and increased susceptibility to infections, autoimmune disorders and cancer. CVID embraces a plethora of heterogeneous manifestations linked to complex immune dysregulation. While CVID is thought to be due to genetic defects, the exact cause of this immune disorder is unknown in the large majority of cases. Compelling evidences support a linkage between the gut microbiome and the CVID pathogenesis, therefore a potential for microbiome-based treatments to be a therapeutic pathway for this disorder. Here we discuss the potential of treating CVID patients by developing a gut microbiome-based personalized approach, including diet, prebiotics, probiotics, postbiotics and fecal microbiota transplantation. We also highlight the need for a better understanding of microbiota-host interactions in CVID patients to prime the development of improved preventive strategies and specific therapeutic targets.

Infections in Inborn Errors of Immunity with Combined Immune Deficiency: A Review

Enhanced susceptibility to microbes, often resulting in severe, intractable and frequent infections due to usually innocuous organisms at uncommon sites, is the most striking feature in individuals with an inborn error of immunity. In this narrative review, based on the International Union of Immunological Societies' 2022 (IUIS 2022) Update on phenotypic classification of human inborn errors of immunity, the focus is on commonly encountered Combined Immunodeficiency Disorders (CIDs) with susceptibility to infections. Combined immune deficiency disorders are usually commensurate with survival beyond infancy unlike Severe Combined Immune Deficiency (SCID) and are often associated with clinical features of a syndromic nature. Defective humoral and cellular immune responses result in susceptibility to a broad range of microbial infections. Although disease onset is usually in early childhood, mild defects may present in late childhood or even in adulthood. A precise diagnosis is imperative not only for determining management strategies, but also for providing accurate genetic counseling, including prenatal diagnosis, and also in deciding empiric treatment of infections upfront before investigation reports are available.

MHC II - EGFP knock-in mouse model is a suitable tool for systems and quantitative immunology

Immunology is a rapidly evolving field of research with sophisticated models and methods. However, detailed data on total immune cell counts and population distributions remain surprisingly scarce. Nevertheless, recently established quantitative approaches could help us understand the overall complexity of the immune system. Here, we studied a major histocompatibility complexclass II - enhanced green fluorescent protein knock-in mouse model to precisely identify and manipulate lymphoid structures. By combining flow cytometry with light sheet microscopy, we quantified MHC II⁺ populations of the small intestine and associated individual mesenteric lymph nodes, with 36.7 × 10⁶ cells in lamina propria, 3.0 × 10⁵ cells in scattered lymphoid tissue and 1.1 × 10⁶ cells in Peyer's patches. In addition to these whole-organ cell counts, we assessed approximately 1 × 10⁶ total villi in the small intestine and 450 scattered lymphoid tissue follicles. By direct noninvasive microscopic observation of a naturally fully translucent mouse organ, the cornea, we quantified 12 ± 4 and 35 ± 7 cells/mm² Langerhans- and macrophage-like populations, respectively. Ultimately, our findings show that flow cytometry with quantitative imaging data analysis enables us to avoid methodological discrepancies while gaining new insights into the relevance of organ-specific quantitative approaches for immunology.

Nomenclature and diagnosis of seronegative coeliac disease and chronic non-coeliac enteropathies in adults: the Paris consensus

OBJECTIVE

Differential diagnosis of villous atrophy (VA) without coeliac antibodies in adults includes seronegative coeliac disease (CD) and chronic enteropathies unrelated to gluten, ie. non-coeliac enteropathies (NCEs). There is currently no international consensus on the nomenclature and diagnostic criteria for these enteropathies. In this work, a Delphi process was conducted to address this diagnostic and clinical uncertainty.

DESIGN

An international task force of 13 gastroenterologists from six countries was recruited at the 16th International Coeliac Disease Symposium, Paris, 2019. Between September 2019 and July 2021, a Delphi process was conducted through mail surveys to reach a consensus on which conditions to consider in the differential diagnosis of VA with negative coeliac serology and the clinical diagnostic approaches required for these conditions. A 70% agreement threshold was adopted.

RESULTS

Chronic enteropathies characterised by VA and negative coeliac serology can be attributed to two main clinical scenarios: forms of CD presenting with negative serology, which also include seronegative CD and CD associated with IgA deficiency, and NCEs, with the latter recognising different underlying aetiologies. A consensus was reached on the diagnostic criteria for NCEs assisting clinicians in differentiating NCEs from seronegative CD. Although in adults seronegative CD is the most common aetiology in patients with VA and negative serology, discriminating between seronegative CD and NCEs is key to avoid unnecessary lifelong gluten-free diet, treat disease-specific morbidity and contrast poor long-term outcomes.

CONCLUSION

This paper describes the Paris consensus on the definitions and diagnostic criteria for seronegative CD and chronic NCEs in adults.

An Expert Opinion/Approach: Clinical Presentations, Diagnostic Considerations, and Therapeutic Options for Gastrointestinal Manifestations of Common Variable Immune Deficiency

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is the most common symptomatic primary immunodeficiency. It is characterized by impaired B-cell differentiation. Although patients can be diagnosed with CVID anytime during their lifetime, most patients have symptoms for 5-9 years before their diagnosis. The diagnosis of CVID starts with a detailed history focusing on the infectious and noninfectious manifestations of the disease. In patients who are suspected to experience CVID, quantitative immunoglobulins (Ig) should be checked to confirm the diagnosis. IgG should be at least 2 times less than the age-specific SD along with either a low IgA or IgM and with evidence of impaired vaccine response. CVID is usually associated with infectious and/or noninfectious conditions, the latter of which can be inflammatory, autoimmune, lymphoproliferative, or malignant, among other manifestations. Ig therapy has positively affected the disease course of patients with infectious complications but has limited effect on the noninfectious manifestations because the noninfectious complications are related to immune dysregulation involving B cells and T cells rather than primarily due to antibody deficiency. When the gastrointestinal (GI) system is involved, patients with CVID may display signs and symptoms that mimic several GI conditions such as celiac disease, pernicious anemia, or inflammatory bowel diseases. The inflammatory bowel disease-like condition is usually treated with steroids, 5-aminosalicylates, thiopurines, or biologic agents to control the inflammation. In this review, the clinical presentations, diagnostic considerations, and therapeutic options for GI manifestations of CVID will be discussed to facilitate the individualized management of these often-complex patients.

Autoimmune Cytopenias in Common Variable Immunodeficiency Are a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Conundrum: An Update

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is the most common symptomatic primary immunodeficiency (PID). CVID is a heterogenous condition and clinical manifestations may vary from increased susceptibility to infections to autoimmune manifestations, granulomatous disease, polyclonal lymphoproliferation, and increased risk of malignancy. Autoimmune manifestations may, at times, be the first and only clinical presentation of CVID, resulting in diagnostic dilemma for the treating physician.

Autoimmune cytopenias (autoimmune haemolytic anaemia and/or thrombocytopenia) are the most common autoimmune complications seen in patients with CVID. Laboratory investigations such as antinuclear antibodies, direct Coomb’s test and anti-platelet antibodies may not be useful in patients with CVID because of lack of specific antibody response. Moreover, presence of autoimmune cytopenias may pose a significant therapeutic challenge as use of immunosuppressive agents can be contentious in these circumstances. It has been suggested that serum immunoglobulins must be checked in all patients presenting with autoimmune cytopenia such as immune thrombocytopenia or autoimmune haemolytic anaemia.

It has been observed that patients with CVID and autoimmune cytopenias have a different clinical and immunological profile as compared to patients with CVID who do not have an autoimmune footprint. Monogenic defects have been identified in 10-50% of all patients with CVID depending upon the population studied. Monogenic defects are more likely to be identified in patients with CVID with autoimmune complications. Common genetic defects that may lead to CVID with an autoimmune phenotype include nuclear factor kappa B subunit 1 (NF-kB1), Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-responsive beige-like anchor protein (LRBA), cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA4), Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), inducible T-cell costimulatory (ICOS), IKAROS and interferon regulatory factor-2 binding protein 2 (IRF2BP2).

In this review, we update on recent advances in pathophysiology and management of CVID with autoimmune cytopenias.

Enteropathies with villous atrophy but negative coeliac serology in adults: current issues

Objective

The differential diagnosis and management of seronegative enteropathies is challenging due to the rarity of these conditions, the overlap of clinical and histopathological features and the current lack of an international consensus on their nomenclature.

Design

This is a narrative review providing pragmatic guide on the investigation and clinical management of seronegative enteropathies in adults based on the available literature and our clinical experience.

Conclusions

Seronegative coeliac disease is the most frequent cause among the heterogeneous group of seronegative enteropathies and its diagnosis is confirmed by the clinical and histological response to a gluten-free diet after the exclusion of other causes of villous atrophy. Correct identification and targeted management of seronegative enteropathies is mandatory because of the variation in terms of clinical outcomes and prognosis.

Common variable immunodeficiency disorders: What generalists should know

Primary immune deficiency disorders (PIDDs) are common and underdiagnosed. Predominant antibody deficiencies (PADs) are the most common type of immune deficiency and comprise 55% of the immune deficiencies diagnosed.^[1] Although immunoglobulin A (IgA) deficiency remains the most common type of PID, common variable immunodeficiency disorders remain the most common symptomatic PID for which medical therapy is sought.

Seronegative autoimmune enteropathy with duodenal sparing and colonic clues in an adult female

Autoimmune enteropathy (AIE) is a rare immune disorder of the gut seldom found in adults and characterized by uncontrollable diarrhea resulting in malabsorption. While AIE is known to be pan-enteric, virtually all cases have presented with altered duodenal histology following known patterns with or without macroscopic change. We describe a unique case of seronegative AIE lacking typical duodenal manifestations in a 43-year-old female. To our knowledge, this is the first report of AIE lacking usual duodenal histologic changes, which resulted in missed diagnosis for years. Ultimately, crypt epithelial apoptosis, mononuclear inflammation of the lamina propria, and goblet cell loss of intestinal mucosa besides the duodenum clinched the diagnosis of AIE. Colonic histologic abnormalities consistent with AIE in the setting of diarrhea with malnutrition despite duodenal sparing should prompt suspicion for AIE given the pan-enteric nature of this disease.

Gastrointestinal Disease in Patients with Common Variable Immunodeficiency: A Retrospective Observational Study

BACKGROUND

Gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms are common among patients with common variable immunodeficiency disorder (CVID) yet remain poorly understood.

AIMS

The aim of this study was to characterize the demographic, clinical, endoscopic and histologic features of patients with CVID and GI symptoms.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective observational study of all patients with CVID at a large Canadian tertiary care centre between January 2000 and May 2018.

RESULTS

We included 95 patients with CVID. The mean age of patients at the time of CVID diagnosis was 38.2(±16.0). Fifty-three (56%) patients were female. Sixty-four (67%) patients had GI symptoms, with a mean age of onset for GI symptoms of 43.4(±15.1) years. The most common symptoms were bowel movement changes (n = 55 [58%]) and abdominal pain (n = 44 [46%]). Patients with GI symptoms were more likely to have anemia (n = 23 [36%] versus n = 3 [10%], P = 0.0129), iron deficiency (n = 16 [25%] versus n = 2 [7%], P = 0.0481), and have received GI antibiotics (n = 37 [58%] versus n = 0, P < 0.0001) and proton pump inhibitors for reflux (n = 24 [38%] versus n = 3 [10%], P = 0.0067). The most common GI infections were Giardia lamblia (n = 14 [15%]) and Clostridium difficile (n = 4 [4%]). Forty-three (45%) patients with GI symptoms underwent colonoscopy, esophagogastroduodenoscopy or both. The most common findings were inflammation, nodular lymphoid hyperplasia, reduced plasma cells and increased intraepithelial lymphocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the largest study on CVID patients in a North American setting. The majority of patients experienced GI symptoms. Future studies should study response to treatment for GI disease among patients with CVID.

Primary Humoral Immune Deficiencies: Overlooked Mimickers of Chronic Immune-Mediated Gastrointestinal Diseases in Adults

In recent years, the incidence of immune-mediated gastrointestinal disorders, including celiac disease (CeD) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), is increasingly growing worldwide. This generates a need to elucidate the conditions that may compromise the diagnosis and treatment of such gastrointestinal disorders. It is well established that primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) exhibit gastrointestinal manifestations and mimic other diseases, including CeD and IBD. PIDs are often considered pediatric ailments, whereas between 25 and 45% of PIDs are diagnosed in adults. The most common PIDs in adults are the selective immunoglobulin A deficiency (SIgAD) and the common variable immunodeficiency (CVID). A trend to autoimmunity occurs, while gastrointestinal disorders are common in both diseases. Besides, the occurrence of CeD and IBD in SIgAD/CVID patients is significantly higher than in the general population. However, some differences concerning diagnostics and management between enteropathy/colitis in PIDs, as compared to idiopathic forms of CeD/IBD, have been described. There is an ongoing discussion whether CeD and IBD in CVID patients should be considered a true CeD and IBD or just CeD-like and IBD-like diseases. This review addresses the current state of the art of the most common primary immunodeficiencies in adults and co-occurring CeD and IBD.

Gastrointestinal findings in 26 adults with common variable immunodeficiency: The fickle nature of the disease manifests in gastrointestinal biopsies

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The aim of the present study was to demonstrate the histopathological findings in gastrointestinal (GI) biopsies in adults with common variable immunodeficiency (CVID).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 172 GI biopsies of 26 patients with CVID obtained over a 16-year period were reevaluated. Findings were analyzed using descriptive analyzes and χ2 test.

RESULTS

Female-to-male ratio was 1.36. The median age at diagnosis was 36±13.94 (16-72) years. Chronic esophagitis was noted in 3 patients. The absence of plasma cells in the stomach, duodenum, and colon was observed in 16, 14, and 9 patients, respectively. Divergent results for the presence of plasma cells in concurrent stomach and duodenum samples were found in 11 (44%) patients. Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia (NLH) was notable in the duodenum (56%). The mean number of eosinophils in one high-power field was significantly higher in duodenal biopsies with NLH (27.21 vs. 14.37, p=0.002). Active inflammation was more prominent in the colon (91%) than in the stomach (65%) and duodenum (60%). Helicobacter pylori infection was found in 57.6%, including a case with persistent infection by the coccoid form. Celiac-like villous blunting and increased intraepithelial lymphocytes were seen in 40% and 24%, respectively. In addition, 23% had giardiasis associated with acute duodenitis and duodenal NLH (p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

CVID gastroenteropathy is a challenging entity, and due to the heterogeneity in the presence and distribution of plasma cells throughout the GI tract and diverse disease course, multiple concurrent biopsies may be needed for tissue diagnosis. Duodenal CVID may present with villous alterations and giardiasis, and NLH appears to be an important clue in the duodenum. The association between duodenal NLH and eosinophil infiltration deserves further investigation.

Gastrointestinal Disorders Associated with Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases

There are now 354 inborn errors of immunity (primary immunodeficiency diseases (PIDDs)) with 344 distinct molecular etiologies reported according to the International Union of Immunological Sciences (IUIS) (Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 11: p. 1050-63, 2013, Semin Gastrointest Dis 8: p. 22-32, 1997, J Clin Immunol 38: p. 96-128, 2018). Using the IUIS document as a reference and cross-checking PubMed ( www.ncbi.nlm.nih.pubmed.gov ), we found that approximately one third of the 354 diseases of impaired immunity have a gastrointestinal component [J Clin Immunol 38: p. 96-128, 2018]. Often, the gastrointestinal symptomatology and pathology is the heralding sign of a PIDD; therefore, it is important to recognize patterns of disease which may manifest along the gastrointestinal tract as a more global derangement of immune function. As such, holistic consideration of immunity is warranted in patients with clinically significant gastrointestinal disease. Here, we discuss the manifold presentations and GI-specific complications of PIDDs which could lead patients to seek advice from a variety of clinician specialists. Often, patients with these medical problems will engage general pediatricians, surgeons, gastroenterologists, rheumatologists, and clinical immunologists among others. Following delineation of the presenting concern, accurate and often molecular diagnosis is imperative and a multi-disciplinary approach warranted for optimal management. In this review, we will summarize the current state of understanding of PIDD gastrointestinal disease involvement. We will do so by focusing upon gastrointestinal disease categories (i.e., inflammatory, diarrhea, nodular lymphoid hyperplasia, liver/biliary tract, structural disease, and oncologic disease) with an intent to aid the healthcare provider who may encounter a patient with an as-yet undiagnosed PIDD who presents initially with a gastrointestinal symptom, sign, or problem.

Primary Immunodeficiency and the Gut

This article presents the most common gastrointestinal, hepatic, and pancreatic manifestations of the primary immunodeficiency diseases, including the appropriate laboratory testing, endoscopic evaluation, and recommendations for further management.

Overview in the clinical management of patients with seronegative villous atrophy

Differential diagnosis and management of enteropathies found in the context of seronegative villous atrophy (VA) are still a clinical challenge. Although seronegative coeliac disease may be the most frequent cause of serology-negative VA, other conditions must be taken into account in the differential diagnosis of seronegative VA. The rarity of these enteropathies with frequent overlapping of histological features may result in misclassification of such patients as affected by a seronegative or a refractory form of coeliac disease with consequent inappropriate treatments and long-term morbidity. The aim of this review is to summarize the current knowledge and to provide an evidence base and practical algorithmic approach for the investigation and management of seronegative VA.

Prevalence of Intestinal Parasitic Infection in Cancer, Organ Transplant and Primary Immunodeficiency Patients in Tehran, Iran

Background:

Intestinal parasitic infection in immunodeficient patients especially those with impaired cellular immunity, like neoplasia, renal or heart transplant needs careful consideration. The objective of this study is to evaluate the prevalence of intestinal parasites in different group of patients including cancer patients; organ transplants recipients, and primary immunodeficiency patients.

Methods:

Stool samples from 190 patients including 80 patients with Primary Immunodeficiency, 85 cancer patients and 25 organ transplant recipients were collected; a direct examination with Phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and formalin ether concentration was performed. The DNA was extracted from parasitologically confirmed patients and nested PCR and sequencing was performed and new obtained sequences of Cryptosporidium parvum and Enterocytozoon bieneusi were compared with deposited ones.

Results:

In general, the prevalence of parasites was 26/80 (32.5%) in primary immunodeficiency, 22/85(25.9%) in cancer group, and 7/25 (28%) in organ transplant. The prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections in primary immunodeficiency patients were Blastocystis hominis 13 (16.2%), Giardia lamblia 10 (12.5%), Cryptosporidium 1(1.2%), Chilomastix mesnilii 1 (1.2%), Dientamoeba fragilis 1(1.2%). Of 25 organ transplants, 6 (24%) Cryptosporidium sp were found, all of which were confirmed as Cryptosporidium parvum and one case of Microspora in a heart transplant recipient was confirmed as Enterocytozoon bieneusi by PCR sequencing. The predominant intestinal parasitic infection in cancer patients was 19 (22.3%) Blastocystis hominis followed by two (2.3%) Giardia lamblia and one Dientamoeba fragilis 1 (1.1%).

Conclusion:

The high rate of infection with Blastocystis hominis was found in cancer patients especially colorectal cancer patients, so careful consideration should be given by physicians. Cryptosporidium sp was found to be the major cause of parasitic intestinal infection in patients with organ transplant compared to primary immunodeficiency patients; so transplant recipients undergoing immunosuppressive therapy should be considered as a risk group for acquiring microsporidiosis and Cryptosporidium infection.

The high mortality of patients with common variable immunodeficiency and small bowel villous atrophy

OBJECTIVES

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is a primary humoral immunodeficiency characterised by reduced serum levels of immunoglobulins, recurrent infections, autoimmune phenomena and lymphoproliferative disorders. Gastrointestinal symptoms are very common in these patients and a coeliac-like villous atrophy was described in some of them. Since mortality in CVID is much higher than in the general population, our aim was to evaluate mortality rates and clinical predictors of survival in patients with both CVID and duodenal villous atrophy.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Sex, date of diagnosis of villous atrophy, HLA genomic typing, date of death/last follow-up, type of complication were retrospectively collected from medical files. Univariate analysis for each predictor was conducted and Kaplan-Meier curves were generated to evaluate survival.

RESULTS

Twenty-three patients were enrolled (9 females, mean age at diagnosis of villous atrophy 38 ± 13 years) and 8 of them died after a median time of 96 months (25th-75th 60-120 months) corresponding to a mortality rate of 3.9 per 100 person-years (95% CI 1.9-7.7). Mortality was higher in men compared to women (60 vs. 11/1000 person-years), although not statistically significant. Causes of death included onco-haematological disorders and infections.

CONCLUSIONS

Although based on a small cohort, our results confirm that patients with CVID and villous atrophy are burdened by a very high mortality mainly due to onco-immunological disorders and infections. Strict follow-up is required in these patients.

Gastrointestinal Presentations of Common Variable Immunodeficiency: Hiding in Plain Sight

Primary immunodeficiency disorders typically have an onset in childhood. The suspicion for these conditions usually arises from a history of recurrent respiratory, gastrointestinal, or cutaneous infections with a history often dating back to infancy or early childhood. However, adults can also be affected. Common variable immunodeficiency, which usually has an onset/diagnosis in adulthood, is the most common symptomatic primary immunodeficiency. However, as its presentation could be manifold, its diagnosis is often delayed. The gastrointestinal tract is the second most affected system after the respiratory tract; symptoms associated with the gastrointestinal tract are often intractable. As patients with common variable immunodeficiency are often misdiagnosed, a high index of suspicion and clinical correlation is required for the appropriate diagnosis of this potentially debilitating condition.

B Cell Defects Observed in Nod2 Knockout Mice Are a Consequence of a Dock2 Mutation Frequently Found in Inbred Strains

Phenotypic differences among substrains of laboratory mice due to spontaneous mutations or pre-existing genetic variation confound the interpretation of targeted mutagenesis experiments and contribute to challenges with reproducibility across institutions. Notably, C57BL/6 Hsd mice and gene-targeted mice that have been backcrossed to this substrain have been reported to harbor a duplication in exons 28 and 29 of Dock2 In this study, we demonstrate the presence of this Dock2 variant in the widely used Nod2-/- mice. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 2 (NOD2) is a cytosolic innate immune receptor associated with inflammatory bowel disease susceptibility. Consistent with a role of NOD2 in an immunological disorder, Nod2-/- mice bred at our institution displayed multiple B cell defects including deficiencies in recirculating B cells, marginal zone B cells, and B1a cells in vivo, as well as defects in class switch recombination in vitro. However, we found that these effects are due to the Dock2 variant and are independent of Nod2 deletion. Despite originating from the same gene-targeted founder mice, Nod2-/- mice from another source did not harbor the Dock2 variant or B cell defects. Finally, we show that Dock2-/- mice display the same B cell defects as mice harboring the Dock2 variant, confirming that the variant is a loss-of-function mutation and is sufficient to explain the alterations to the B cell compartment observed in Nod2-/- mice. Our findings highlight the effects of confounding mutations from widely used inbred strains on gene-targeted mice and reveal new functions of DOCK2 in B cells.

[Common variable immune deficiency in adults: focus on pulmonary complications]

Common variable immune deficiency is the most common form of a group of primary immunodeficiencies in adult patients. Pulmonary complications occupy leading positions. It is the development of recurrent bronchopulmonary inflammatory diseases that is considered to be one of the main causes of death and disability in patients with this disease. By presenting two clinical cases with long diagnostic delays, the authors try to attract the attention of specialists of related professions, which will minimize the development of irreversible complications in the patients.

A difficult diagnosis of coeliac disease: Repeat duodenal histology increases diagnostic yield in patients with concomitant causes of villous atrophy

Villous atrophy in absence of coeliac disease (CD)-specific antibodies represents a diagnostic dilemma. We report a case of a woman with anaemia, weight loss and diarrhoea with an initial diagnosis of seronegative CD and a histological documented villous atrophy who did not improve on gluten-free diet due to the concomitant presence of common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) and Giardia lamblia infection. This case report confirms that CD diagnosis in CVID patients is difficult; the combination of anti-endomysial antibodies (EmA-IgA), anti-tissue transglutaminase antibodies (tTG-IgAb) antibodies and total IgA is obligatory in basic diagnostic of CD but in CVID are negative. Furthermore, the typical histological aspects of the intestinal mucosa in CVID (absence of plasma cells and switch to the IgD immunoglobulins), cannot rule out a concomitant CD diagnosis. HLA typing in this setting has a low positive predictive value but should be considered. Histological response to a gluten-free diet on repeat biopsy and the concomitant treatment of other causes of villous atrophy leads to a definite diagnosis of CD.

Chronic Diarrhea in Common Variable Immunodeficiency: a Case Series and Review of the Literature

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is a primary immunodeficiency characterized by reduced immunoglobulin serum levels and absent or impaired antibody production. Clinical manifestations, including infections, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, and malignancies, also involve various segments of the gastrointestinal tract. Chronic diarrhea is one of the most common gastrointestinal symptoms and may cause a wide spectrum of potentially life-threatening conditions as malabsorption and protein-energy malnutrition. We describe three female CVID adult patients presenting with chronic diarrhea, weight loss, and protein-energy malnutrition due to different underlying conditions. Our review of the literature explores the various gastrointestinal involvements in CVID and points out several histopathological findings proper of the disease, thus highlighting the relevance of the endoscopic and histological assessment in CVID patients presenting with chronic diarrhea.

Common Variable Immunodeficiency with Several Gastrointestinal Manifestations

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is an immunodeficiency disorder with a high incidence of gastrointestinal (GI) manifestations and an increased risk of gastric malignancy. We report a case of a CVID with mild anemia presenting with multiple GI manifestations: gastric low-grade dysplasia (LGD), enteropathy with villous atrophy, refractory Giardia infection, nodular lymphoid hyperplasia, and inflammatory bowel-like disease. The differential diagnosis with celiac sprue could be challenging because of CVID enteropathy with villous flattening. Gastric LGD in a patient with an increased risk for gastric malignancy makes the appropriate surveillance of gastric cancer in CVID challenging.

Gastrointestinal disorders next to respiratory infections as leading symptoms of X-linked agammaglobulinemia in children - 34-year experience of a single center

INTRODUCTION

Respiratory tract infections constitute the most frequent manifestation of X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA). There are not many papers elucidating gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), in such patients. The aim of the study was to evaluate the occurrence of gastrointestinal disorders and IBD compared to respiratory tract infections in XLA individuals.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Of 1563 patients with primary immunodeficiencies diagnosed in the Department of Immunology, the Children's Memorial Health Institute (CMHI), 66 boys had a provisional diagnosis of agammaglobulinemia. Forty-four subjects fulfilled definitive ESID (European Society for Immunodeficiencies) diagnostic criteria of XLA. A retrospective analysis of medical history of XLA patients was undertaken.

RESULTS

Recurrent respiratory tract infections, particularly bronchitis (73%) and pneumonia (59%), were the most common symptoms of XLA. The GI disorders constituted the next main manifestation (63.6%), followed by upper respiratory tract infections. Twenty-six of 28 XLA patients with GI disorders complained of diarrhea, which was resolved generally after immunoglobulin therapy introduction. Single but prolonged episodes of Campylobacter jejuni diarrhea were reported in two individuals. Inflammatory bowel disease of mild to moderate activity was diagnosed in 1 patient, and local enteritis of mild activity in another one.

CONCLUSIONS

Gastrointestinal disorders were one of the main manifestations of XLA, reported almost as often as lower respiratory tract infections. The most common GI symptom was diarrhea, which usually resolved after immunoglobulin therapy was started. Infections caused by Giardia lamblia were reported occasionally. Inflammatory bowel disease was diagnosed quite exceptionally, which presumably may be connected with normal T cell immunity.

Chronic Giardiasis in a Case of Common Variable Immunodeficiency (CVID): A Case Report

Common Variable Immunodeficiency (CVID) is a primary immunodeficiency characterized by low antibody levels and recurrent infections. This makes an individual more prone to recurrent respiratory and gastrointestinal tract infections. In cases where there is persistent positive finding of intestinal parasites in stool, a high index of suspicion should be raised to rule out immunodeficiency state. Early diagnosis of such cases will help in reducing the morbidity and better management of the patient. A case of CVID in 18-year-old male with recurrent lower respiratory tract infection and chronic diarrhoea due to Giardia lamblia is reported herewith.

Association between common variable immunodeficiency and collagenous infiltrative disorders of the gastrointestinal tract: A series of four patients

Hypogammaglobulinemia/common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) may lead to disruption of the gut mucosal immune barrier. Collagenous infiltrative disorders of the intestinal tract (colitis, gastritis, sprue) constitute a relatively new spectrum of gastrointestinal disorders. Our aims were (1) to determine the association between immunoglobulin deficiency state like CVID and collagenous infiltrative disorders of the gut and (2) to study the clinic-pathologic characteristics and treatment outcomes in these patients. A retrospective search was conducted to identify cases with concurrence of these two conditions at an academic center from 2007 to 2013. Four such patients were identified from our database: three with collagenous colitis and one with collagenous gastritis. All patients with collagenous colitis had normal colonic mucosa while the patient with collagenous gastritis had nodular gastric mucosa. Only one patient out of four had decreased plasma cells in the submucosa as expected in low immunoglobulin states. All patients had improvement in their symptoms on immunoglobulin therapy with considerable remission on budesonide. Literature search revealed reporting of four similar patients. In conclusion, (1) the association between collagenous infiltrative disorders of the gut and CVID and its prompt response to immunoglobulins with effective maintenance with budesonide are novel findings. Our study also shows that the presence of plasma cells should not rule out the possibility of CVID. (2) In patients with chronic diarrhea, hypogammaglobulinemia and collagenous colitis/sprue should be considered for the available effective treatments such as immunoglobulins and budesonide.

High Immunoglobulin A Levels Mediate the Association Between High Anger Expression and Low Somatic Symptoms in Intimate Partner Violence Perpetrators

It has been hypothesized that anger expression may be associated with increased salivary immunoglobulin A (sIgA) levels, which is associated with decreased somatic symptoms, and therefore anger expression may be associated with reduced somatic symptoms in intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetrators. This study tested the potential mediating effect of sIgA levels on the relationship between anger expression and respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms in IPV perpetrators and non-violent controls. The sample consisted of IPV perpetrators (n = 19) and controls (n = 21). Saliva samples were collected for assessing sIgA levels. The State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 was used to assess anger expression and the Revised version of the Somatic Symptoms Scale developed by Sandín and Chorot to measure somatic symptoms. High anger expression was associated with low levels of respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms in IPV perpetrators mediated through high sIgA levels but the same was not true for non-violent controls. This finding supports the hypothesis that for IPV perpetrators, anger expression may be physiologically and psychologically rewarding. Future research examining other immunological parameters is needed to further test this hypothesis. Such effort may illuminate why some IPV perpetrators continue to use violence against their partners.

HESI/FDA workshop on immunomodulators and cancer risk assessment: Building blocks for a weight-of-evidence approach

Profound immunosuppression (e.g., AIDS, transplant therapy) is epidemiologically associated with an increased cancer risk, and often with oncogenic viruses. It is currently unclear how broadly this association translates to therapeutics that modulate immunity. A workshop co-sponsored by the FDA and HESI examined how perturbing the immune system may contribute to carcinogenesis, and highlighted priorities for improving non-clinical risk assessment of targeted immunomodulatory therapies. Conclusions from the workshop were as follows. 1) While profound altered immunity can promote tumorigenesis, not all components of the immune system are equally important in defense against or promotion of cancer and a similar cancer risk for all immunomodulatory molecules should not be assumed. 2) Rodent carcinogenicity studies have limitations and are generally not reliable predictors of cancer risk associated with immunosuppression. 3) Cancer risk needs to be evaluated based on mechanism-based weight-of-evidence, including data from immune function tests most relevant to tumor immunosurveillance or promotion. 4) Information from nonclinical experiments, clinical epidemiology and immunomodulatory therapeutics show that immunosurveillance involves a complex network of cells and mediators. To support a weight-of-evidence approach, an increased focus on understanding the quantitative relationship between changes in relevant immune function tests and cancer risk is needed.

Profound Reversible Hypogammaglobulinemia Caused by Celiac Disease in the Absence of Protein Losing Enteropathy

When patients with hypogammaglobulinemia are encountered, a vigorous search should be undertaken for secondary treatable causes. Here we describe the first case of a patient with severe asymptomatic hypogammaglobulinemia where the underlying cause was undiagnosed celiac disease. A strict gluten free diet resulted in resolution of her mild long-standing abdominal symptoms and correction of her hypogammaglobulinemia. There was corresponding improvement in her duodenal histology and normalisation of her celiac serology. Protein losing enteropathy was unlikely to have been the mechanism of her profound hypogammaglobulinemia, as her albumin was within the normal range and she had a normal fecal alpha 1 antitrypsin level. Application of the Ameratunga et al. (2013) diagnostic criteria was helpful in confirming this patient did not have Common Variable Immunodeficiency Disorder (CVID). Celiac disease must now be considered in the differential diagnosis of severe hypogammaglobulinemia. There should be a low threshold for undertaking celiac serology in patients with hypogammaglobulinemia, even if they have minimal symptoms attributable to gut disease.

Diagnosing primary immunodeficiency: a practical approach for the non-immunologist

OBJECTIVE

This review will provide an overview of the most common clinical presentations of primary immunodeficiency (PI), navigating through various affected organ systems. The goal is to accurately portray the high variability of this disease and provide a resource that helps to raise the index of suspicion of PI among physicians, aid in recognition of various PI disorders, and trigger more frequent screenings with appropriate referrals to immunologists for further evaluation and treatment.

SUMMARY

Patients with PI comprise more than 200 defined genetic abnormalities. Patients have an array of clinical manifestations, ranging from the most widely associated recurrent and chronic bacterial infections to other associated comorbid conditions involving many organ systems. There is still considerable delay between the onset of symptoms and the time of diagnosis of PI. This review will present an overview of the clinical manifestations that will enhance a physician's recognition of a possible PI. Particular emphasis is placed on the pathogens associated with the specific arm of the immune system that is related to each particular type of PI. The initial immune evaluation is described, which together with the history and physical exam can help focus the physician on the immune compartment most likely associated with a PI.

CONCLUSIONS

Understanding the types of PI and the related clinical manifestations can help physicians see beyond the presenting symptoms and lead to improved recognition and diagnosis of PI. Timely diagnosis is of utmost importance in PI, as recent advances in bone transplantation and immunoglobulin replacement therapy, as well as future gene therapies, provide effective ways to prevent significant mortality and morbidity.

A practical approach to small bowel biopsy interpretation: celiac disease and its mimics

While celiac disease is the most common cause of villous remodeling and intraepithelial lymphocytosis in the proximal small bowel, there are many entities that can mimic its histologic appearance. The purpose of this review is to discuss normal small bowel histology and the differential diagnosis of celiac disease. Approaches to evaluate increased intraepithelial lymphocytes are presented, followed by a detailed discussion of the pathology of celiac disease. Particular emphasis is given to those conditions that cause intraepithelial lymphocytosis in the setting of preserved villous architecture, although other important entities, such as peptic injury, idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease, medication injury, eosinophilic (allergic) gastroenteritis, autoimmune enteropathy, common variable immunodeficiency, and infections are also reviewed.

Genetic defects and the role of helper T-cells in the pathogenesis of common variable immunodeficiency

Common variable immunodeficfiiency (CVID) is a primary immunodeficiency syndrome representing a heterogeneous set of disorders resulting mostly in antibody deficiency and recurrent infections. However, inflammatory and autoimmune disorders and some kinds of malignancies are frequently reported as a part of the syndrome. Although it is one of the most widespread primary immunodeficiency, only recently some genetic defects in CVID have been identified. Mutations have been detected in inducible T-cell costimulator (ICOS), transmembrane activator and calcium modulator and cyclophilin ligand interactor (TACI), B-cell activating factor-receptor (BAFF-R), B-cell receptor complex (CD19, CD21 and CD81) and CD20. On the other hand, recent studies have shown a decrease in T-helper-17 cells frequency and their characteristic cytokines in CVID patients and this emphasis on the vital role of the T-cells in immunopathogenesis of the CVID. Furthermore, in the context of autoimmune diseases accompanying CVID, interleukin 9 has recently attracted a plenty of considerations. However, the list of defects is expanding as exact immunologic pathways and genetic disorders in CVID are not yet defined. In this review, we have a special focus on the immunopathogenesis of CVID, recent advances in understanding the underlying etiology and genetics for patients.

A review on guidelines for management and treatment of common variable immunodeficiency

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is the most common symptomatic primary immunodeficiency in adults. As symptoms of CVID are usually heterogeneous and unspecific, diagnosis and follow-up of CVID can be challenging. In light of this, a broad review of advances in management and treatment of CVID is performed here in order to reach a distinct protocol. However, it should be noted that owing to the nature of the disease, it can only be treated symptomatically but not cured. There is little evidence to guide appropriate or universal guidelines to improve the current status of management of the disease. The most satisfactory treatments of CVID could be achieved by the use of immunoglobulin replacement, antibiotics, immunosuppressants and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. This review is written based on the importance of clinical surveillance of asymptomatic CVID cases and early recognition of different clinical complications. Moreover, for each complication, appropriate interventions for improving outcomes are mentioned.

Possible primary immunodeficiency presenting with gastrointestinal symptoms: Case report and minireview

Primary immunodeficiency is a disease characterized by reduced levels of serum immunoglobulins and multiple clinical manifestations. Patients with primary immunodeficiency frequently present with gastrointestinal symptoms, such as diarrhea, malabsorption and weight loss. The mainstay of treatment is replacement therapy with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG). In the current study, we report the case of a 23-year-old man with symptoms of chronic diarrhea, malabsorption and weight loss that had been apparent for two years. Subsequent to being diagnosed with possible primary immunodeficiency, the patient was treated with 30 mg/day oral prednisone for one month. The prednisone was then tapered weekly by 5 mg until withdrawal. Three months later, the patient’s clinical symptoms disappeared and his quality of life improved. During the subsequent nine months follow-up, the patient was able to work without suffering any effects from his illness. The body weight of the patient increased and plasma albumin levels were normal. In conclusion, this study describes the case of a patient with primary immunodeficiency-related gastrointestinal symptoms who responded well to oral prednisone treatment.

Diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal disorders in patients with primary immunodeficiency

Gastrointestinal disorders such as chronic or acute diarrhea, malabsorption, abdominal pain, and inflammatory bowel diseases can indicate immune deficiency. The gastrointestinal tract is the largest lymphoid organ in the body, so it is not surprising that intestinal diseases are common among immunodeficient patients. Gastroenterologists therefore must be able to diagnose and treat patients with primary immunodeficiency. Immune-related gastrointestinal diseases can be classified as those that develop primarily via autoimmunity, infection, an inflammatory response, or malignancy. Immunodeficient and immunocompetent patients with gastrointestinal diseases present with similar symptoms. However, intestinal biopsy specimens from immunodeficient patients often have distinct histologic features, and these patients often fail to respond to conventional therapies. Therefore, early recognition of symptoms and referral to an immunologist for a basic immune evaluation is required to select appropriate treatments. Therapies for primary immunodeficiency comprise immunoglobulin replacement, antibiotics, and, in severe cases, bone marrow transplantation. Treatment of immunodeficient patients with concomitant gastrointestinal disease can be challenging, and therapy with immunomodulators often is required for severe disease. This review aims to guide gastroenterologists in the diagnosis and treatment of patients with primary immunodeficiency.

The role of HLA DQ2 and DQ8 in dissecting celiac-like disease in common variable immunodeficiency

OBJECTIVES

Gastrointestinal manifestations are frequent in patients with common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), and some of the patients present with celiac-like features. Diagnosing celiac disease (CD) in CVID however is challenging, as autoantibody detection and histopathology of the small intestine cannot reliably discriminate between classic CD and a celiac-like disease in these individuals. For the development of classic gluten-sensitive CD a certain HLA haplotype involving the loci DQA1* and DQB1* and encoding two different HLA DQ heterodimers is the prerequisite. We aimed to determine the frequency of these haplotypes in CVID patients with suspected CD. Furthermore, we report on autoimmune manifestations and the lymphocyte phenotype in these patients.

METHODS

By retrospective analysis data on gastrointestinal symptoms, diet, concurrent autoimmune diseases, and routine laboratory values were collected. CVID patients were classified according to their B-cell phenotype. Expression of HLA-DQA1* and HLA-DQB1* alleles were determined by genetic analysis.

RESULTS

Twenty out of 250 CVID patients presented with a clinical phenotype resembling celiac disease. Four (20%) out of these CVID patients carried the CD-associated HLA DQ2.5 or DQ8 heterodimer, while HLA DQ2.5 was present in 100% of a CD control cohort. Gluten-free diet (GFD) resulted in a clinical and histological response in two out of four patients with HLA high-risk alleles for CD. The response could not be assessed in the remaining two patients, as these patients did not adhere sufficiently long to GFD. The percentage of autoimmune manifestations other than CD was high (50%) in CVID patients presenting with a CD-like enteropathy, and most of these patients had an expansion of B-cells with low expression of CD21 (CD21low B-cells).

CONCLUSIONS

In CVID patients with suspected celiac disease typing of the HLA loci DQA1 and DQB1 can help to identify those that have a genetic susceptibility for CD. In CVID patients with a celiac-like phenotype but negative for CD-associated HLA-DQ markers, an autoimmune enteropathy (AIE) as part of an extended autoimmune dysregulation needs to be considered. This has important implications for further diagnostics and therapy of these patients.

Chronic immune activation in common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is associated with elevated serum levels of soluble CD14 and CD25 but not endotoxaemia

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), the most frequent symptomatic immunoglobulin primary immunodeficiency, is associated with chronic T cell activation and reduced frequency of CD4(+) T cells. The underlying cause of immune activation in CVID is unknown. Microbial translocation indicated by elevated serum levels of lipopolysaccharide and soluble CD14 (sCD14) has been linked previously to systemic immune activation in human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV-1/AIDS), alcoholic cirrhosis and other conditions. To address the mechanisms of chronic immune activation in CVID, we performed a detailed analysis of immune cell populations and serum levels of sCD14, soluble CD25 (sCD25), lipopolysaccharide and markers of liver function in 35 patients with CVID, 53 patients with selective immunoglobulin (Ig)A deficiency (IgAD) and 63 control healthy subjects. In CVID subjects, the concentration of serum sCD14 was increased significantly and correlated with the level of sCD25, C-reactive protein and the extent of T cell activation. Importantly, no increase in serum lipopolysaccharide concentration was observed in patients with CVID or IgAD. Collectively, the data presented suggest that chronic T cell activation in CVID is associated with elevated levels of sCD14 and sCD25, but not with systemic endotoxaemia, and suggest involvement of lipopolysaccharide-independent mechanisms of induction of sCD14 production.

Rheumatologische und immunologische Krankheitsbilder

Eine Beeinträchtigung der gastrointestinalen Motilität findet sich im Rahmen rheumatologischer Erkrankungen insbesondere bei den chronisch-entzündlichen Bindegewebeerkrankungen und den systemischen Vaskulitiden. Je nach Krankheitsbild und verwandter Untersuchungsmethode variiert der Anteil der Patienten, bei denen eine gastrointestinale Symptomatik dokumentiert wird. Pädiatrische Daten sind bei diesen insgesamt seltenen Erkrankungen rar und umfassen in der Regel nur kleinere Fallserien. Eine gastrointestinale Beteiligung findet sich etwa bei 80–100 % der Patienten mit systemischer Sklerodermie, bei 60 % der Patienten mit einer „Mixed connective tissue disease“ oder einem CREST-Syndrom, etwa bei 50 % der Patienten mit einem Raynaud-Syndrom oder einer lokalen Sklerodermie und ungefähr bei 30 % der Patienten mit systemischem Lupus erythematodes oder juveniler Dermatomyositis.

The significance of duodenal mucosal atrophy in patients with common variable immunodeficiency: a clinical and histopathologic study

Gastrointestinal manifestations and villous atrophy can be seen in patients with common variable immunodeficiency (CVID). In some patients, infectious agents may be responsible, whereas in others, celiac disease (CD) may be the cause. In this study, we investigate the causes and the histopathologic features seen in patients with CVID. Eleven patients with CVID and villous atrophy underwent duodenal biopsies, human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing, and testing for all celiac antibodies. Fifteen patients with CVID and normal villi and 6 patients with CD but without CVID served as controls. Histologic response to a gluten-free diet (GFD) allowed a diagnosis of CD in 3 of 11 patients. In the remaining 8, the lack of a histologic response to a GFD or HLA typing excluded CD. Celiac antibodies gave conflicting results and were of no help. Polymorphonuclear infiltrates and lesions like graft-versus-host disease are seen more often in flat mucosa unresponsive to a GFD. However, the specificity of these findings remains to be determined and response to a GFD remains the only diagnostic criteria for CD in these patients. Villous atrophy was gluten-sensitive in 3 of 11 patients with CVID. It was not related to gluten-responsive CD in most patients.