1
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Mwachaka PM, Gichangi P, Abdelmalek A, Odula P, Ogeng'o J. Impact of varying maternal dietary folate intake on cerebellar cortex histomorphology and cell density in offspring rats. Int J Dev Neurosci 2024. [PMID: 38773676 DOI: 10.1002/jdn.10337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The cerebellum has a long, protracted developmental period that spans from the embryonic to postnatal periods; as a result, it is more sensitive to intrauterine and postnatal insults like nutritional deficiencies. Folate is crucial for foetal and early postnatal brain development; however, its effects on cerebellar growth and development are unknown. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of maternal folate intake on the histomorphology and cell density of the developing cerebellum. Twelve adult female rats (rattus norvegicus) were randomly assigned to one of four premixed diet groups: standard (2 mg/kg), folate-deficient (0 mg/kg), folate-supplemented (8 mg/kg) or folate supra-supplemented (40 mg/kg). The rats started their diets 14 days before mating and consumed them throughout pregnancy and lactation. On postnatal days 1, 7, 21 and 35, five pups from each group were sacrificed, and their brains were processed for light microscopic analysis. Histomorphology and cell density of the external granule, molecular, Purkinje and internal granule layers were obtained. The folate-deficient diet group had smaller, dysmorphic cells and significantly lower densities of external granule, molecular, Purkinje and internal granule cells. Although the folate-enriched groups had greater cell densities than the controls, the folate-supplemented group had considerably higher cell densities than the supra-supplemented group. The folate supra-supplemented group had ectopic Purkinje cells in the internal granule cell layer. These findings imply that a folate-deficient diet impairs cellular growth and reduces cell density in the cerebellar cortex. On the other hand, folate supplementation increases cell densities, but there appears to be an optimal dose of supplementation since excessive folate levels may be detrimental.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter Gichangi
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Adel Abdelmalek
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Paul Odula
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Julius Ogeng'o
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
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2
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Hamel K, Moncada EL, Sheeler C, Rosa JG, Gilliat S, Zhang Y, Cvetanovic M. Cerebellar Heterogeneity and Selective vulnerability in Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 1 (SCA1). Neurobiol Dis 2024; 197:106530. [PMID: 38750673 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2024.106530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 05/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Heterogeneity is one of the key features of the healthy brain and selective vulnerability characterizes many, if not all, neurodegenerative diseases. While cerebellum contains majority of brain cells, neither its heterogeneity nor selective vulnerability in disease are well understood. Here we describe molecular, cellular and functional heterogeneity in the context of healthy cerebellum as well as in cerebellar disease Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 1 (SCA1). We first compared disease pathology in cerebellar vermis and hemispheres across anterior to posterior axis in a knock-in SCA1 mouse model. Using immunohistochemistry, we demonstrated earlier and more severe pathology of PCs and glia in the posterior cerebellar vermis of SCA1 mice. We also demonstrate heterogeneity of Bergmann glia in the unaffected, wild-type mice. Then, using RNA sequencing, we found both shared, as well as, posterior cerebellum-specific molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis that include exacerbated gene dysregulation, increased number of altered signaling pathways, and decreased pathway activity scores in the posterior cerebellum of SCA1 mice. We demonstrated unexpectedly large differences in the gene expression between posterior and anterior cerebellar vermis of wild-type mice, indicative of robust intraregional heterogeneity of gene expression in the healthy cerebellum. Additionally, we found that SCA1 disease profoundly reduces intracerebellar heterogeneity of gene expression. Further, using fiber photometry, we found that population level PC calcium activity was altered in the posterior lobules in SCA1 mice during walking. We also identified regional differences in the population level activity of Purkinje cells (PCs) in unrestrained wild-type mice that were diminished in SCA1 mice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Juao-Guilherme Rosa
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, USA; Current affiliation Graduate Program for Neuroscience, Boston University, 677 Beacon Street, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Stephen Gilliat
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, USA; Current affiliation Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, USA
| | - Ying Zhang
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, USA; Minnesota Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota, USA; Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 2101 6(th) Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Marija Cvetanovic
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, USA; Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 2101 6(th) Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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3
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Nishiyama H, Nishiyama N, Zemelman BV. Loss of Purkinje cells in the developing cerebellum strengthens the cerebellothalamic synapses. bioRxiv 2023:2023.11.01.564864. [PMID: 37961231 PMCID: PMC10635038 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.01.564864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Cerebellar damage early in life often causes long-lasting motor, social, and cognitive impairments, suggesting the roles of the cerebellum in developing a broad spectrum of behaviors. This recent finding has promoted research on how cerebellar damage affects the development of the cerebral cortex, the brain region responsible for higher-order control of all behaviors. However, the cerebral cortex is not directly connected to the cerebellum. The thalamus is the direct postsynaptic target of the cerebellum, sending cerebellar outputs to the cerebral cortex. Despite its crucial position in cerebello-cerebral interaction, thalamic susceptibility to cerebellar damage remains largely unclear. Here, we studied the consequences of early cerebellar perturbation on thalamic development. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings showed that the synaptic organization of the cerebellothlamic circuit is similar to that of the primary sensory thalamus, in which aberrant sensory activity alters synaptic circuit formation. The hemizygous deletion of the tuberous sclerosis complex-1 ( Tsc1 ) gene in the Purkinje cell-known to cause Purkinje cell hypoactivity and autistic behaviors-did not alter cerebellothalamic synapses or intrinsic membrane properties of thalamic neurons. However, the ablation of Purkinje cells in the developing cerebellum strengthened the cerebellothalamic synapses and enhanced thalamic suprathreshold activities. These results suggest that the cerebellothalamic circuit is resistant to moderate perturbation in the developing cerebellum, such as the reduced firing rate of Purkinje cells, and that autistic behaviors are not necessarily linked to thalamic abnormality. Still, Purkinje cell loss alters the thalamic circuit, suggesting the vulnerability of the thalamus to substantial disturbance in the developing cerebellum.
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Liu XX, Chen XH, Zheng ZW, Jiang Q, Li C, Yang L, Chen X, Mao XF, Yuan HY, Feng LL, Jiang Q, Shi WX, Sasaki T, Fukunaga K, Chen Z, Han F, Lu YM. BOD1 regulates the cerebellar IV/V lobe-fastigial nucleus circuit associated with motor coordination. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7:170. [PMID: 35641478 PMCID: PMC9156688 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-022-00989-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebellar ataxias are characterized by a progressive decline in motor coordination, but the specific output circuits and underlying pathological mechanism remain poorly understood. Through cell-type-specific manipulations, we discovered a novel GABAergic Purkinje cell (PC) circuit in the cerebellar IV/V lobe that projected to CaMKIIα+ neurons in the fastigial nucleus (FN), which regulated sensorimotor coordination. Furthermore, transcriptomics profiling analysis revealed various cerebellar neuronal identities, and we validated that biorientation defective 1 (BOD1) played an important role in the circuit of IV/V lobe to FN. BOD1 deficit in PCs of IV/V lobe attenuated the excitability and spine density of PCs, accompany with ataxia behaviors. Instead, BOD1 enrichment in PCs of IV/V lobe reversed the hyperexcitability of CaMKIIα+ neurons in the FN and ameliorated ataxia behaviors in L7-Cre; BOD1f/f mice. Together, these findings further suggest that specific regulation of the cerebellar IV/V lobePCs → FNCaMKIIα+ circuit might provide neuromodulatory targets for the treatment of ataxia behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiu-Xiu Liu
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular & Cerebrovascular Medicine, Drug Target and Drug Discovery Center, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, 211166, Nanjing, China
| | - Xing-Hui Chen
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, 211166, Nanjing, China.,Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, 310058, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhi-Wei Zheng
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, 211166, Nanjing, China
| | - Qin Jiang
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, 211166, Nanjing, China
| | - Chen Li
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular & Cerebrovascular Medicine, Drug Target and Drug Discovery Center, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, 211166, Nanjing, China
| | - Lin Yang
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, 211166, Nanjing, China.,Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, 310058, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiang Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular & Cerebrovascular Medicine, Drug Target and Drug Discovery Center, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, 211166, Nanjing, China
| | - Xing-Feng Mao
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular & Cerebrovascular Medicine, Drug Target and Drug Discovery Center, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, 211166, Nanjing, China
| | - Hao-Yang Yuan
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, 211166, Nanjing, China
| | - Li-Li Feng
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular & Cerebrovascular Medicine, Drug Target and Drug Discovery Center, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, 211166, Nanjing, China
| | - Quan Jiang
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, 310058, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wei-Xing Shi
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Administrative Sciences, Loma Linda University School of Pharmacy, Loma Linda, CA, 92350, USA.,Department of Basic Sciences, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, 92350, USA
| | - Takuya Sasaki
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Kohji Fukunaga
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Zhong Chen
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, 310058, Hangzhou, China
| | - Feng Han
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular & Cerebrovascular Medicine, Drug Target and Drug Discovery Center, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, 211166, Nanjing, China. .,Institute of Brain Science, the Affiliated Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, 210029, Nanjing, China. .,Gusu School, Nanjing Medical University, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, 215002, Suzhou, China.
| | - Ying-Mei Lu
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, 211166, Nanjing, China. .,Institute of Brain Science, the Affiliated Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, 210029, Nanjing, China.
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5
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Kirtay M, Sell J, Marx C, Haselmann H, Ceanga M, Zhou ZW, Rahmati V, Kirkpatrick J, Buder K, Grigaravicius P, Ori A, Geis C, Wang ZQ. ATR regulates neuronal activity by modulating presynaptic firing. Nat Commun 2021; 12:4067. [PMID: 34210973 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24217-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Ataxia Telangiectasia and Rad3-related (ATR) protein, as a key DNA damage response (DDR) regulator, plays an essential function in response to replication stress and controls cell viability. Hypomorphic mutations of ATR cause the human ATR-Seckel syndrome, characterized by microcephaly and intellectual disability, which however suggests a yet unknown role for ATR in non-dividing cells. Here we show that ATR deletion in postmitotic neurons does not compromise brain development and formation; rather it enhances intrinsic neuronal activity resulting in aberrant firing and an increased epileptiform activity, which increases the susceptibility of ataxia and epilepsy in mice. ATR deleted neurons exhibit hyper-excitability, associated with changes in action potential conformation and presynaptic vesicle accumulation, independent of DDR signaling. Mechanistically, ATR interacts with synaptotagmin 2 (SYT2) and, without ATR, SYT2 is highly upregulated and aberrantly translocated to excitatory neurons in the hippocampus, thereby conferring a hyper-excitability. This study identifies a physiological function of ATR, beyond its DDR role, in regulating neuronal activity.
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6
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Choi JM, Acharya R, Marasini S, Narayan B, Lee KW, Hwang WS, Chang DY, Kim SS, Suh-Kim H. Cell Type-specific Knockout with Gli1-mediated Cre Recombination in the Developing Cerebellum. Exp Neurobiol 2021; 30:203-212. [PMID: 34230222 PMCID: PMC8278141 DOI: 10.5607/en21017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The inducible Cre-loxP system provides a useful tool for inducing the selective deletion of genes that are essential for proper development and enables the study of gene functions in properly developed animals. Here, we show that inducible Cre-loxP driven by the Gli1-promoter can induce cell-type-specific deletion of target genes in cerebellar cortical neurons. We used reporter mice containing the YFP (yellow fluorescence protein) gene at the Gt(ROSA)26Sor locus with a loxP-flanked transcriptional stop sequence, in which successful Cre-mediated excision of the stop sequence is indicated by YFP expression in Cre-expressing cells. Administration of tamoxifen during early postnatal days (P4~7) induces Cre-dependent excision of stop sequences and allows YFP expression in proliferating neuronal progenitor cells in the external granule layer and Bergmann glia in the Purkinje cell layer. A substantial number of YFP-positive progenitor cells in the external granule layer migrated to the internal granule cell layer and became granule cell neurons. By comparison, injection of tamoxifen during late postnatal days (P19~22) induces YFP expression only in Bergmann glia, and most granule cell neurons were devoid of YFP expression. The results indicate that the Gli1 promoter is temporarily active in progenitor cells in the external granule layer during the early postnatal period but constitutively active in Bergmann glia. We propose that the Gli1-mediated CreER system can be applied for the conditional deletion of genes of interest from cerebellar granule cell neurons and/or Bergmann glia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Mi Choi
- Department of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Rakshya Acharya
- Department of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | | | - Bashyal Narayan
- Department of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Kwang-Wook Lee
- Department of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Woo Sup Hwang
- Department of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | | | - Sung-Soo Kim
- Department of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Haeyoung Suh-Kim
- Department of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Research Center, CelleBrain Ltd., Jeonju 54871, Korea
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7
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White JJ, Bosman LWJ, Blot FGC, Osório C, Kuppens BW, Krijnen WHJJ, Andriessen C, De Zeeuw CI, Jaarsma D, Schonewille M. Region-specific preservation of Purkinje cell morphology and motor behavior in the ATXN1[82Q] mouse model of spinocerebellar ataxia 1. Brain Pathol 2021; 31:e12946. [PMID: 33724582 PMCID: PMC8412070 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Purkinje cells are the primary processing units of the cerebellar cortex and display molecular heterogeneity that aligns with differences in physiological properties, projection patterns, and susceptibility to disease. In particular, multiple mouse models that feature Purkinje cell degeneration are characterized by incomplete and patterned Purkinje cell degeneration, suggestive of relative sparing of Purkinje cell subpopulations, such as those expressing Aldolase C/zebrinII (AldoC) or residing in the vestibulo‐cerebellum. Here, we investigated a well‐characterized Purkinje cell‐specific mouse model for spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1) that expresses human ATXN1 with a polyQ expansion (82Q). Our pathological analysis confirms previous findings that Purkinje cells of the vestibulo‐cerebellum, i.e., the flocculonodular lobes, and crus I are relatively spared from key pathological hallmarks: somatodendritic atrophy, and the appearance of p62/SQSTM1‐positive inclusions. However, immunohistological analysis of transgene expression revealed that spared Purkinje cells do not express mutant ATXN1 protein, indicating the sparing of Purkinje cells can be explained by an absence of transgene expression. Additionally, we found that Purkinje cells in other cerebellar lobules that typically express AldoC, not only display severe pathology but also show loss of AldoC expression. The relatively preserved flocculonodular lobes and crus I showed a substantial fraction of Purkinje cells that expressed the mutant protein and displayed pathology as well as loss of AldoC expression. Despite considerable pathology in these lobules, behavioral analyses demonstrated a relative sparing of related functions, suggestive of sufficient functional cerebellar reserve. Together, the data indicate that mutant ATXN1 affects both AldoC‐positive and AldoC‐negative Purkinje cells and disrupts normal parasagittal AldoC expression in Purkinje cells. Our results show that, in a mouse model otherwise characterized by widespread Purkinje cell degeneration, sparing of specific subpopulations is sufficient to maintain normal performance of specific behaviors within the context of the functional, modular map of the cerebellum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua J White
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | | | - Catarina Osório
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Bram W Kuppens
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | | | - Chris I De Zeeuw
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands.,Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Dick Jaarsma
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
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8
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Tam WY, Wang X, Cheng ASK, Cheung KK. In Search of Molecular Markers for Cerebellar Neurons. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:1850. [PMID: 33673348 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The cerebellum, the region of the brain primarily responsible for motor coordination and balance, also contributes to non-motor functions, such as cognition, speech, and language comprehension. Maldevelopment and dysfunction of the cerebellum lead to cerebellar ataxia and may even be associated with autism, depression, and cognitive deficits. Hence, normal development of the cerebellum and its neuronal circuitry is critical for the cerebellum to function properly. Although nine major types of cerebellar neurons have been identified in the cerebellar cortex to date, the exact functions of each type are not fully understood due to a lack of cell-specific markers in neurons that renders cell-specific labeling and functional study by genetic manipulation unfeasible. The availability of cell-specific markers is thus vital for understanding the role of each neuronal type in the cerebellum and for elucidating the interactions between cell types within both the developing and mature cerebellum. This review discusses various technical approaches and recent progress in the search for cell-specific markers for cerebellar neurons.
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9
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Achilly NP, He LJ, Kim OA, Ohmae S, Wojaczynski GJ, Lin T, Sillitoe RV, Medina JF, Zoghbi HY. Deleting Mecp2 from the cerebellum rather than its neuronal subtypes causes a delay in motor learning in mice. eLife 2021; 10:64833. [PMID: 33494858 PMCID: PMC7837679 DOI: 10.7554/elife.64833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome is a devastating childhood neurological disorder caused by mutations in MECP2. Of the many symptoms, motor deterioration is a significant problem for patients. In mice, deleting Mecp2 from the cortex or basal ganglia causes motor dysfunction, hypoactivity, and tremor, which are abnormalities observed in patients. Little is known about the function of Mecp2 in the cerebellum, a brain region critical for motor function. Here we show that deleting Mecp2 from the cerebellum, but not from its neuronal subtypes, causes a delay in motor learning that is overcome by additional training. We observed irregular firing rates of Purkinje cells and altered heterochromatin architecture within the cerebellum of knockout mice. These findings demonstrate that the motor deficits present in Rett syndrome arise, in part, from cerebellar dysfunction. For Rett syndrome and other neurodevelopmental disorders, our results highlight the importance of understanding which brain regions contribute to disease phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan P Achilly
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, United States.,Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Ling-Jie He
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, United States.,Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Olivia A Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Shogo Ohmae
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | | | - Tao Lin
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, United States.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Roy V Sillitoe
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, United States.,Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Javier F Medina
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Huda Y Zoghbi
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, United States.,Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
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10
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Nietz A, Krook-Magnuson C, Gutierrez H, Klein J, Sauve C, Hoff I, Christenson Wick Z, Krook-Magnuson E. Selective loss of the GABA Aα1 subunit from Purkinje cells is sufficient to induce a tremor phenotype. J Neurophysiol 2020; 124:1183-1197. [PMID: 32902350 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00100.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Previously, an essential tremor-like phenotype has been noted in animals with a global knockout of the GABAAα1 subunit. Given the hypothesized role of the cerebellum in tremor, including essential tremor, we used transgenic mice to selectively knock out the GABAAα1 subunit from cerebellar Purkinje cells. We examined the resulting phenotype regarding impacts on inhibitory postsynaptic currents, survival rates, gross motor abilities, and expression of tremor. Purkinje cell specific knockout of the GABAAα1 subunit abolished all GABAA-mediated inhibition in Purkinje cells, while leaving GABAA-mediated inhibition to cerebellar molecular layer interneurons intact. Selective loss of GABAAα1 from Purkinje cells did not produce deficits on the accelerating rotarod, nor did it result in decreased survival rates. However, a tremor phenotype was apparent, regardless of sex or background strain. This tremor mimicked the tremor seen in animals with a global knockout of the GABAAα1 subunit, and, like essential tremor in patients, was responsive to ethanol. These findings indicate that reduced inhibition to Purkinje cells is sufficient to induce a tremor phenotype, highlighting the importance of the cerebellum, inhibition, and Purkinje cells in tremor.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Animals with a global knockout of the GABAAα1 subunit show a tremor phenotype reminiscent of essential tremor. Here we show that selective knockout of GABAAα1 from Purkinje cells is sufficient to produce a tremor phenotype, although this tremor is less severe than seen in animals with a global knockout. These findings illustrate that the cerebellum can play a key role in the genesis of the observed tremor phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Nietz
- University of Minnesota, Department of Neuroscience, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | | | - Haruna Gutierrez
- University of Minnesota, Department of Neuroscience, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Julia Klein
- University of Minnesota, Department of Neuroscience, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Clarke Sauve
- University of Minnesota, Department of Neuroscience, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Isaac Hoff
- University of Minnesota, Department of Neuroscience, Minneapolis, Minnesota
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11
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He F, Nichols RM, Kailasam L, Wensel TG, Agosto MA. Critical Role for Phosphatidylinositol-3 Kinase Vps34/PIK3C3 in ON-Bipolar Cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2019; 60:2861-2874. [PMID: 31260037 PMCID: PMC6607926 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.19-26586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate (PI(3)P), and Vps34, the type III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase primarily responsible for its production, are important for function and survival of sensory neurons, where they have key roles in membrane processing events, such as autophagy, endosome processing, and fusion of membranes bearing ubiquitinated cargos with lysosomes. We examined their roles in the most abundant class of secondary neurons in the vertebrate retina, the ON-bipolar cells (ON-BCs). Methods A conditional Vps34 knockout mouse line was generated by crossing Vps34 floxed mice with transgenic mice expressing Cre recombinase in ON-BCs. Structural changes in the retina were determined by immunofluorescence and electron microscopy, and bipolar cell function was determined by electroretinography. Results Vps34 deletion led to selective death of ON-BCs, a thinning of the inner nuclear layer, and a progressive decline of electroretinogram b-wave amplitudes. There was no evidence for loss of other retinal neurons, or disruption of rod-horizontal cell contacts in the outer plexiform layer. Loss of Vps34 led to aberrant accumulation of membranes positive for autophagy markers LC3, p62, and ubiquitin, accumulation of endosomal membranes positive for Rab7, and accumulation of lysosomes. Similar effects were observed in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum, leading to severe and progressive ataxia. Conclusions These results support an essential role for PI(3)P in fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes and in late endosome maturation. The cell death resulting from Vps34 knockout suggests that these processes are essential for the health of ON-BCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng He
- Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Ralph M Nichols
- Department of Ophthalmology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Lavanya Kailasam
- Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Theodore G Wensel
- Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States.,Department of Ophthalmology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Melina A Agosto
- Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States
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12
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Cha HL, Choi JM, Oh HH, Bashyal N, Kim SS, Birnbaumer L, Suh-Kim H. Deletion of the α subunit of the heterotrimeric Go protein impairs cerebellar cortical development in mice. Mol Brain 2019; 12:57. [PMID: 31221179 PMCID: PMC6585000 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-019-0477-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Go is a member of the pertussis toxin-sensitive Gi/o family. Despite its abundance in the central nervous system, the precise role of Go remains largely unknown compared to other G proteins. In the present study, we explored the functions of Go in the developing cerebellar cortex by deleting its gene, Gnao. We performed a histological analysis with cerebellar sections of adult mice by cresyl violet- and immunostaining. Global deletion of Gnao induced cerebellar hypoplasia, reduced arborization of Purkinje cell dendrites, and atrophied Purkinje cell dendritic spines and the terminal boutons of climbing fibers from the inferior olivary nucleus. These results indicate that Go-mediated signaling pathway regulates maturation of presynaptic parallel fibers from granule cells and climbing fibers during the cerebellar cortical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Lim Cha
- Departments of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Woldcup-ro 164, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499 South Korea
| | - Jung-Mi Choi
- Departments of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Woldcup-ro 164, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499 South Korea
| | - Huy-Hyen Oh
- Departments of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Woldcup-ro 164, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499 South Korea
| | - Narayan Bashyal
- Departments of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Woldcup-ro 164, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499 South Korea
- Departments of Biomedical Sciences, The Graduate School, Ajou University School of Medicine, World cup-ro 164, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499 South Korea
| | - Sung-Soo Kim
- Departments of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Woldcup-ro 164, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499 South Korea
| | - Lutz Birnbaumer
- Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, Durham, 27709 NC USA
- Institute of Biomedical Research (BIOMED), School of Medical Sciences, Catholic University of Argentina, Av. Alicia Moreau de Justo 1300, Edificio San Jose Piso 3, C1107AAZ Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Haeyoung Suh-Kim
- Departments of Anatomy, Ajou University School of Medicine, Woldcup-ro 164, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499 South Korea
- Departments of Biomedical Sciences, The Graduate School, Ajou University School of Medicine, World cup-ro 164, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499 South Korea
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13
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Namikawa K, Dorigo A, Zagrebelsky M, Russo G, Kirmann T, Fahr W, Dübel S, Korte M, Köster RW. Modeling Neurodegenerative Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 13 in Zebrafish Using a Purkinje Neuron Specific Tunable Coexpression System. J Neurosci 2019; 39:3948-3969. [PMID: 30862666 PMCID: PMC6520513 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1862-18.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Purkinje cells (PCs) are primarily affected in neurodegenerative spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs). For generating animal models for SCAs, genetic regulatory elements specifically targeting PCs are required, thereby linking pathological molecular effects with impaired function and organismic behavior. Because cerebellar anatomy and function are evolutionary conserved, zebrafish represent an excellent model to study SCAs in vivo We have isolated a 258 bp cross-species PC-specific enhancer element that can be used in a bidirectional manner for bioimaging of transgene-expressing PCs in zebrafish (both sexes) with variable copy numbers for tuning expression strength. Emerging ectopic expression at high copy numbers can be further eliminated by repurposing microRNA-mediated posttranslational mRNA regulation.Subsequently, we generated a transgenic SCA type 13 (SCA13) model, using a zebrafish-variant mimicking a human pathological SCA13R420H mutation, resulting in cell-autonomous progressive PC degeneration linked to cerebellum-driven eye-movement deficits as observed in SCA patients. This underscores that investigating PC-specific cerebellar neuropathologies in zebrafish allows for interconnecting bioimaging of disease mechanisms with behavioral analysis suitable for therapeutic compound testing.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT SCA13 patients carrying a KCNC3R420H allele have been shown to display mid-onset progressive cerebellar atrophy, but genetic modeling of SCA13 by expressing this pathogenic mutant in different animal models has not resulted in neuronal degeneration so far; likely because the transgene was expressed in heterologous cell types. We developed a genetic system for tunable PC-specific coexpression of several transgenes to manipulate and simultaneously monitor cerebellar PCs. We modeled a SCA13 zebrafish accessible for bioimaging to investigate disease progression, revealing robust PC degeneration, resulting in impaired eye movement. Our transgenic zebrafish mimicking both neuropathological and behavioral changes manifested in SCA-affected patients will be suitable for investigating causes of cerebellar diseases in vivo from the molecular to the behavioral level.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marta Zagrebelsky
- Cellular Neurobiology, Zoological Institute, Technical University Braunschweig, Braunschweig 38106, Germany
| | - Giulio Russo
- Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology
- Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Institute for Biochemistry, Technical University Braunschweig 38106, Germany, and
| | | | - Wieland Fahr
- Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Institute for Biochemistry, Technical University Braunschweig 38106, Germany, and
| | - Stefan Dübel
- Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Institute for Biochemistry, Technical University Braunschweig 38106, Germany, and
| | - Martin Korte
- Cellular Neurobiology, Zoological Institute, Technical University Braunschweig, Braunschweig 38106, Germany
- Research Group Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig 38106, Germany
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14
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Pergande MR, Nguyen TTA, Haney-Ball C, Davidson CD, Cologna SM. Quantitative, Label-Free Proteomics in the Symptomatic Niemann-Pick, Type C1 Mouse Model Using Standard Flow Liquid Chromatography and Thermal Focusing Electrospray Ionization. Proteomics 2019; 19:e1800432. [PMID: 30888112 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201800432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Niemann-Pick disease, type C1 (NPC1) is a fatal, autosomal recessive, neurodegenerative disorder caused by mutations in the NPC1 gene. As a result, there is accumulation of unesterified cholesterol and sphingolipids in the late endosomal/lysosomal system. This abnormal accumulation results in a cascade of pathophysiological events including progressive, cerebellar neurodegeneration, among others. While significant progress has been made to better understand NPC1, the downstream effects of cholesterol storage and the major mechanisms that drive neurodegeneration remain unclear. In the current study, a) the use of a commercial, highly efficient standard flow-ESI platform for protein biomarker identification is implemented and b) protein biomarkers are identified and evaluated at a terminal time point in the NPC1 null mouse model. In this study, alterations are observed in proteins related to fatty acid homeostasis, calcium binding and regulation, lysosomal regulation, and inositol biosynthesis and metabolism, as well as signaling by Rho family GTPases. New observations from this study include altered expression of Pcp2 and Limp2 in Npc1 mutant mice relative to control, with Pcp2 exhibiting multiple isoforms and specific to the cerebella. This study provides valuable insight into pathways altered in the late-stage pathophysiology of NPC1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa R Pergande
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA
| | - Thu T A Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA
| | | | - Cristin D Davidson
- Rose F. Kennedy Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
| | - Stephanie M Cologna
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA
- Laboratory for Integrative Neuroscience, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA
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15
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Neureither F, Ziegler K, Pitzer C, Frings S, Möhrlen F. Impaired Motor Coordination and Learning in Mice Lacking Anoctamin 2 Calcium-Gated Chloride Channels. Cerebellum 2018; 16:929-937. [PMID: 28536821 PMCID: PMC5717130 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-017-0867-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Neurons communicate through excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Both lines of communication are adjustable and allow the fine tuning of signal exchange required for learning processes in neural networks. Several distinct modes of plasticity modulate glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses in Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex to promote motor control and learning. In the present paper, we present evidence for a role of short-term ionic plasticity in the cerebellar circuit activity. This type of plasticity results from altered chloride driving forces at the synapses that molecular layer interneurons form on Purkinje cell dendrites. Previous studies have provided evidence for transiently diminished chloride gradients at these GABAergic synapses following climbing fiber activity. Electrical stimulation of climbing fibers in acute slices caused a decline of inhibitory postsynaptic currents recorded from Purkinje cells. Dendritic calcium-gated chloride channels of the type anoctamin 2 (ANO2) were proposed to mediate this short-term modulation of inhibition, but the significance of this process for motor control has not been established yet. Here, we report results of behavioral studies obtained from Ano2−/− mice, a mouse line that was previously shown to lack this particular mode of ionic plasticity. The animals display motor coordination deficits that constitute a condition of mild ataxia. Moreover, motor learning is severely impaired in Ano2−/− mice, suggesting cerebellar dysfunction. This reduced motor performance of Ano2−/− mice highlights the significance of inhibitory control for cerebellar function and introduces calcium-dependent short-term ionic plasticity as an efficient control mechanism for neural inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Neureither
- Department of Animal Molecular Physiology, Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 504, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Katharina Ziegler
- Department of Animal Molecular Physiology, Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 504, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Claudia Pitzer
- Interdisciplinary Neurobehavioral Core (INBC), Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 515, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stephan Frings
- Department of Animal Molecular Physiology, Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 504, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Frank Möhrlen
- Department of Animal Molecular Physiology, Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 504, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
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16
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Galvan A, Stauffer WR, Acker L, El-Shamayleh Y, Inoue KI, Ohayon S, Schmid MC. Nonhuman Primate Optogenetics: Recent Advances and Future Directions. J Neurosci 2017; 37:10894-10903. [PMID: 29118219 PMCID: PMC5678022 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1839-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Revised: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Optogenetics is the use of genetically coded, light-gated ion channels or pumps (opsins) for millisecond resolution control of neural activity. By targeting opsin expression to specific cell types and neuronal pathways, optogenetics can expand our understanding of the neural basis of normal and pathological behavior. To maximize the potential of optogenetics to study human cognition and behavior, optogenetics should be applied to the study of nonhuman primates (NHPs). The homology between NHPs and humans makes these animals the best experimental model for understanding human brain function and dysfunction. Moreover, for genetic tools to have translational promise, their use must be demonstrated effectively in large, wild-type animals such as Rhesus macaques. Here, we review recent advances in primate optogenetics. We highlight the technical hurdles that have been cleared, challenges that remain, and summarize how optogenetic experiments are expanding our understanding of primate brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Galvan
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center and Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329,
| | - William R Stauffer
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261
| | - Leah Acker
- Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - Yasmine El-Shamayleh
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Ken-Ichi Inoue
- Department of Neuroscience, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi 484-8506, Japan
- PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
| | - Shay Ohayon
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, and
| | - Michael C Schmid
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle, United Kingdom NE2 4HH
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17
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Abstract
Purkinje cells of the primate cerebellum play critical but poorly understood roles in the execution of coordinated, accurate movements. Elucidating these roles has been hampered by a lack of techniques for manipulating spiking activity in these cells selectively-a problem common to most cell types in non-transgenic animals. To overcome this obstacle, we constructed AAV vectors carrying the channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) gene under the control of a 1 kb L7/Pcp2 promoter. We injected these vectors into the cerebellar cortex of rhesus macaques and tested vector efficacy in three ways. Immunohistochemical analyses confirmed selective ChR2 expression in Purkinje cells. Neurophysiological recordings confirmed robust optogenetic activation. Optical stimulation of the oculomotor vermis caused saccade dysmetria. Our results demonstrate the utility of AAV-L7-ChR2 for revealing the contributions of Purkinje cells to circuit function and behavior, and they attest to the feasibility of promoter-based, targeted, genetic manipulations in primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmine El-Shamayleh
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific St., HSB I-728, UW Mailbox 357290, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific St., HSB I-728, UW Mailbox 357290, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Yoshiko Kojima
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific St., HSB I-728, UW Mailbox 357290, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific St., HSB I-728, UW Mailbox 357290, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Robijanto Soetedjo
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific St., HSB I-728, UW Mailbox 357290, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific St., HSB I-728, UW Mailbox 357290, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Gregory D Horwitz
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific St., HSB I-728, UW Mailbox 357290, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific St., HSB I-728, UW Mailbox 357290, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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