Food nitrogen footprint reductions related to a balanced Japanese diet

Traditional japanese diet score and the sustainable development goals by a global comparative ecological study

BACKGROUND

Reducing the environmental impact of the food supply is important for achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) worldwide. Previously, we developed the Traditional Japanese Diet Score (TJDS) and reported in a global ecological study that the Japanese diet is associated with reducing obesity and extending healthy life expectancy etc. We then examined the relationship between the TJDS and environmental indicators.

METHODS

The average food (g/day/capita) and energy supplies (kcal/day/capita) by country were obtained from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Statistics Division database. The TJDS was calculated from eight food groups (beneficial food components in the Japanese diet: rice, fish, soybeans, vegetables, and eggs; food components that are relatively unused in the traditional Japanese diet: wheat, milk, and red meat) by country using tertiles, and calculated the total score from - 8 to 8, with higher scores meaning greater adherence to the TJDS. We used Land Use (m2), Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 2007/2013 (kg CO2eq), Acidifying emissions (g SO2eq), Eutrophying emissions (g PO43- eq), Freshwater (L), and water use (L) per food weight by Poore et al. as the environmental indicators and multiplied these indicators by each country's average food supply. We evaluated the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between the TJDS and environmental indicators from 2010 to 2020. This study included 151 countries with populations ≥ 1 million.

RESULTS

Land use (β ± standard error; -0.623 ± 0.161, p < 0.001), GHG 2007 (-0.149 ± 0.057, p < 0.05), GHG 2013 (-0.183 ± 0.066, p < 0.01), Acidifying (-1.111 ± 0.369, p < 0.01), and Water use (-405.903 ± 101.416, p < 0.001) were negatively associated with TJDS, and Freshwater (45.116 ± 7.866, p < 0.001) was positively associated with TJDS after controlling for energy supply and latitude in 2010. In the longitudinal analysis, Land Use (β ± standard error; -0.116 ± 0.027, p < 0.001), GHG 2007 (-0.040 ± 0.010, p < 0.001), GHG 2013 (-0.048 ± 0.011, p < 0.001), Acidifying (-0.280 ± 0.064, p < 0.001), Eutrophying (-0.132 ± 0.062, p < 0.05), and Water use (-118.246 ± 22.826, p < 0.001) were negatively associated with TJDS after controlling for confounders.

CONCLUSIONS

This ecological study suggests that the traditional Japanese dietary pattern might improve SDGs except Fresh water.

Bibliometric Analysis of Current Status of Circular Economy during 2012–2021: Case of Foods

Food is usually recognized as a limited resource in sustainability, recognized by the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2, which aims to achieve zero hunger. It is expected that the circular economy (CE) can improve processes related to food production. The objective of the present study was to apply a bibliometric approach using VOSviewer visualization software as a research tool to analyze the relevant literature from the Scopus database in the field of circular economy and its relation to improvements in food issues throughout 2012–2021. A total of 1316 articles were analyzed. Italy was the most productive country with 313 articles, with Wageningen University & Research the organization with the most publications with 39 articles. The top 10 institutions originated from Italy, The Netherlands, France, and Denmark. Sustainability was the most productive journal with 107 articles. Bioresource Technology had the highest average citation frequency (44.68). The study helps initiate investigations to adapt the results obtained and create new strategies for increasing food circular economy efforts.

Spatial effects and impact factors of food nitrogen footprint in China based on spatial durbin panel model

Reactive nitrogen (Nr) has far-reaching advantages and disadvantages on human beings. Nitrogen footprint (NF) is a tool to quantify the use of Nr in the environment. Food nitrogen footprint (FNF) accounts for the largest proportion of the total NF, and the differences between provinces in China exist objectively. In order to explore the spatial correlation and socio-economic driving factors of China's FNF, this paper uses N-calculator tool to calculate the FNF of 30 provinces in China from 2000 to 2018, and uses exploratory spatial data to analyze the spatial correlation and changes of provincial FNF, The driving factors and spatial effects of FNF change in the province were analyzed by using spatial Durbin panel model and spatial regression partial differential method. The results showed that: (1) There is a significant and stable positive spatial dependence and heterogeneity in the FNF among provinces; (2) The direct effect factors of promoting the growth of FNF in the province are urban household Engel coefficient, per capita disposable income of rural residents and rural household Engel coefficient. The main factors of restraining the growth of FNF in the province are wastewater discharge per unit GDP and per capita GDP; (3) the spillover effect is mainly manifested as the negative effect of the increase of urban household Engel coefficient on neighboring provinces, and the spillover effect of per capita disposable income of urban residents and nitrogen fertilizer application rate per unit grain yield on the growth of FNF of neighboring provinces is significant. From the policy level, it is necessary to guide healthy and scientific eating habits, reduce the proportion of meat and fish in the diet structure, reduce the nitrogen fertilizer application per unit grain yield, and improve the efficiency of chemical fertilizer utilization. When formulating relevant policies, government departments should give consideration to the cooperation between provincial and regional governments.

Sustainable Diets as Tools to Harmonize the Health of Individuals, Communities and the Planet: A Systematic Review

Background. Climate change and global health are inextricably linked. Thus, health systems and their professionals must adapt and evolve without losing quality of care. Aim(s). To identify health and environmental co-benefits derived from a sustainable diet and promotion strategies that favor its implementation. Methods. A systematic search for articles published on sustainable diets and human/planetary health published between 2013 and 2020 was conducted on the databases PubMed, Cinahl, Scopus and Trip from 4 to 7 May 2020 in accordance with the PRISMA guideline. Results. A total of 201 articles was retrieved, but only 21 were included. A calorie-balanced diet mainly based on food of plant origin that would allow the attainment of 60% of daily caloric requirements and a low protein intake from animal foods (focusing in fish and poultry) could significantly reduce global morbi-mortality and the dietary environmental impact maintaining a framework of sustainability conditioned by the consumption of fresh, seasonal, locally produced and minimally packaged products. Discussion. The implementation of sustainable diets requires working on the triangulation of concepts of food–health–environment from schools and that is permanently reinforced during all stages of the life by healthcare workers, who should establish the appropriate modifications according to the age, gender and health situation.

Nitrogen budgets in Japan from 2000 to 2015: Decreasing trend of nitrogen loss to the environment and the challenge to further reduce nitrogen waste

The benefits of the artificial fixation of reactive nitrogen (Nr, nitrogen [N] compounds other than dinitrogen), in the form of N fertilizers and materials are huge, while at the same time posing substantial threats to human and ecosystem health by the release of Nr to the environment. To achieve sustainable N use, Nr loss to the environment must be reduced. An N-budget approach at the national level would allow us to fully grasp the whole picture of Nr loss to the environment through the quantification of important N flows in the country. In this study, the N budgets in Japan were estimated from 2000 to 2015 using available statistics, datasets, and literature. The net N inflow to Japanese human sectors in 2010 was 6180 Gg N yr^-1 in total. With 420 Gg N yr^-1 accumulating in human settlements, 5760 Gg N yr^-1 was released from the human sector, of which 1960 Gg N yr^-1 was lost to the environment as Nr (64% to air and 36% to waters), and the remainder assumed as dinitrogen. Nr loss decreased in both atmospheric emissions and loss to terrestrial water over time. The distinct reduction in the atmospheric emissions of nitrogen oxides from transportation, at -4.3% yr^-1, was attributed to both emission controls and a decrease in energy consumption. Reductions in runoff and leaching from land as well as the discharge of treated water were found, at -1.0% yr^-1 for both. The aging of Japan's population coincided with the reductions in the per capita supply and consumption of food and energy. Future challenges for Japan lie in further reducing N waste and adapting its N flows in international trade to adopt more sustainable options considering the reduced demand due to the aging population.

Changes in the nitrogen footprint of green tea consumption in Japan from 1965 to 2016

Heavy application of nitrogen (N) in tea (Camellia sinensis (L.)) plantations causes various environmental problems. To date, studies on N flows have been limited to the tea plantation level, but the crucial drivers of N flows are consumers, not farmers. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate changes in N flows concerning green tea production and consumption in Japan from 1965 to 2016 using the N footprint concept. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), virtual N factor (VNF), and N footprint were calculated using a Monte Carlo method from data for 17 parameters obtained from the literature review. The VNF for green tea in Japan decreased from 54.5 in 1991 to 30.8 in 2016. The major reasons for this decrease were (i) increased NUE in plantations and (ii) increased consumption of ready-to-drink (RTD) tea, matcha, and powdered tea, indicating an increase in the efficiency of N intake from green tea by consumers. The decrease in VNF resulted in a reduction in N footprint from green tea consumption. However, the decline in N footprint since 2004 is not derived from the decrease in VNF but mainly from reduced green tea consumption. A sensitivity analysis revealed that the parameters associated with the extraction efficiency of tea, powdered tea production, and the amount of tea leaves used for RTD production strongly affected VNF estimation.

Linking Dietary Patterns to Environmental Degradation: The Spatiotemporal Analysis of Rural Food Nitrogen Footprints in China

Background: China has a large emerging economy that illustrates how dietary patterns can affect food-source nitrogen (N) cycling. The indicator of food nitrogen footprint (NF) reflects the amount of reactive nitrogen (Nr) emissions and impacts of these emissions on the environment. It is a result of food production and consumption to satisfy basic dietary demands of a given population. Different from urban food consumption with improved waste treatment, rural food consumption significantly affects the environment from food production to waste disposal. We therefore, performed a nationwide case study to link dietary patterns to environmental degradation based on rural food NF accounting. Methods: The N-Calculator model was adopted to reveal the spatiotemporal characteristics of food NFs per capita, and regional food NFs related to rural diets in China from 2000 to 2019. Then, food-source Nr emissions to regional environment were quantified based on food NF accounting and relevant inventory of regional Nr emissions. Results: (i) The average annual food NF per-capita in rural regions was lower than that of its national counterpart, but exhibited regional differences, mainly attributed to the dietary role of cereals. (ii) There existed significant spatiotemporal characteristics among regional food NFs that were mainly contributed by plant-derived food consumptions (73%). Sichuan, Henan, Shandong, and Hunan exhibited larger regional food NFs, and Beijing, Shanghai, and Tibet showed a growth in NFs, wherein rural diets were dominated by animal-derived food. (iii) Rural diets affected the environment by the pathways of ammonia and nitrous oxide volatilization processes, as well as Nr loss to water, accounting for a 33, 5, and 62% average of food NFs across regions. (iv) Although current rural dietary patterns suggest reliance on cereal and vegetable consumptions, more animal-derived types of food would be consumed as urbanization continues, especially in developed regions, creating a barrier for further reduction in national food NF. Conclusion: The findings of this study highlight the importance of changing dietary patterns to the human health-environment dilemma. Strategies that include improvements in N recycling rates, adjustments in dietary patterns, and reductions in food wastes could mitigate regional N pollution with rural dietary shifts.

The Effect of Religious Dietary Cultures on Food Nitrogen and Phosphorus Footprints: A Case Study of India

The excessive consumption of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), two vital nutrients for living organisms, is associated with negative environmental and health impacts. While food production contributes to a large amount of N and P loss to the environment, very little N and P is consumed as food. Food habits are affected by multiple regulations, including the dietary restrictions and dictates of various religions. In this study, religion-sensitive N-Calculator and P-Calculator approaches were used to determine the impact of religious dietary culture on the food N and P footprints of India in the major religious communities. Using 2013 data, the food N footprint of Hindus, Muslims, Christians, and Buddhists was 10.70, 11.45, 11.47, and 7.39 kg-N capita-1 year-1 (10.82 kg-N capita-1 year-1 was the national average), and the food P footprint was 1.46, 1.58, 1.04. and 1.58 kg-P capita-1 year-1 (1.48 kg-P capita-1 year-1 was the national average). The findings highlight the impact of individual choice on the N and P food footprints, and the importance of encouraging the followers of religion to follow a diet consistent with the food culture of that religion. The results of this study are a clear indication of the requirement for religion-sensitive analyses in the collecting of data pertinent to a particular country for use in making government policies designed to improve the recycling of food waste and the treatment of wastewater.

The food nitrogen footprint for African countries under fertilized and unfertilized farms

Although nitrogen (N) is a limiting factor for food production (FP) in Africa, and African food security is seriously threatened by the phenomenon of soil N depletion, there is a dearth of information that shows the points to focus on throughout the chain of FP and food consumption (FC) in all African countries to minimize N loss while securing food N supply. Food N footprint (NF) is an indicator for tracing the losses of reactive N (Nr) with regard to the FP and FC chain. This is the first study to calculate the food NF for all African countries under fertilized and unfertilized farms, by calculating two sets of virtual N factors (VNFs; kg Nr released to the environment kg^-1 N in consumed product): one for unfertilized farms (the unfertilized scenario) and one for fertilized farms (the fertilized scenario). The fertilized and unfertilized VNFs were utilized to calculate a weighted average set of VNFs (the combined scenario). From the percentage of farms that utilize N fertilizer, and the N percentage in production that comes from soil depletion, the proportion used for the combined scenario was determined. Soil N depletion factors (SNDFs; kg N taken from the unfertilized soil kg^-1 N in food consumed) were also computed to identify the quantity of N extracted from the soil for food production. We have also provided the changes in N inputs, N outputs, and N use efficiency (NUE) for North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) during the last 57 years. The average total N input to croplands increased from 24 and 19 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1 in 1961-1965 to 100 and 42 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1 in 2010-2017 for North Africa and SSA, respectively. The NUE declined from 109% and 67% (1961-1965) to 47% and 63% (2010-2017) for North Africa and SSA, respectively. The total average per-capita food NF was 11 and 5.8 kg N cap^-1 yr^-1 in unfertilized farms; 21 and 14 kg N cap^-1 yr^-1 in fertilized farms; and 19 and 7.5 kg N cap^-1 yr^-1 under the combined scenario for North Africa and SSA, respectively. Vegetable-fruit and beef have the highest SDNFs in Africa. FP in Africa contributes approximately 70% of the total food NF. Therefore, if possible, the best way for Africans to reduce soil N depletion and N emissions is to encourage the production and consumption of livestock and crops products with less VNF and SNDF. However, African people do not have this luxury of choice because of poverty and ignorance. Therefore, African policy-makers must adopt integrated approaches that provide effective tools to control the production of animals and crops in conjunction with the improvement of NUE. Trying to completely change the African agricultural system is impossible, but strategies must be developed to reduce soil depletion in a gradual way, as well as a shift towards low-VNF foods.

Budgeting nitrogen flows and the food nitrogen footprint of Egypt during the past half century: Challenges and opportunities

Egypt is the largest nitrogen (N) fertilizer consumer in Africa. However, its nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is low, and the relationships between both dietary options and the NUE trend with reactive N (Nr) release into the environment in Egypt have not yet been studied. In this study, we estimated the changes in the N budget and NUE in Egypt during the past 56 years (1961-2016). We also calculated particular virtual N factors (the average amount of Nr released to the environment during food production per unit of N consumption) for major food items to estimate their N footprints (NF). The total N input to croplands increased from 136 kg N ha^-1 y^-1 (1961-1970) to 307 kg N ha^-1 y^-1 (2010-2016), while the total crop N uptake increased from 101 kg N ha^-1 y^-1 to 136 kg N ha^-1 y^-1, indicating a decrease of NUE from 71% (1960s) to 44% during 2010-2016. Gaseous N emissions of NH₃, N₂O, and NO increased from 97, 5.6, and 8.3 Gg N y^-1 to 339, 29, and 39 Gg N y^-1. The total per capita food NF increased from 15 kg N capita^-1 y^-1 (1961-1970) to 26 kg N capita^-1 y^-1 (2010-2016). There was a change in the average per capita food consumption NF and food production NF from the 1960s (3.2 and 11.3 kg capita^-1 y^-1) to 2010-2016 (5.9 and 20.3 kg N capita^-1 y^-1). There is a dire need to increase the NUE and decrease the food NF in Egypt to minimize the negative consequences of Nr on the environment.

Review of Methodologies for Assessing Sustainable Diets and Potential for Development of Harmonised Indicators

The underlying values and priorities that drive policy responses depend largely on the constructs that researchers and decision makers select to measure and the metrics used. Despite much recent attention being given to sustainable diets and food systems and to the importance of clearly measuring sustainability to meet targets, to achieve goals, and to appraise dietary and environmental policies, it is not commonly agreed how the different indicators of sustainable diets are assessed. The evidence base for assessment of these indicators are frequently weak, fragmented, and arbitrary. The aim of this paper was to compare a range of published methods and indicators for assessing sustainable diets and food systems in order to harmonise them. Keyword and reference searches were performed in PubMed, Scopus, CAB Abstracts, and Web of Knowledge. Fifty-two studies (21 proposed methods and 31 used methods) that combined environment, nutrition and health, and socioeconomic aspects of sustainable diets were reviewed. The majority (over 90%) of the studies focused on high-income countries. Twenty-eight studies assessed the environmental effects of different dietary practices, eight of the studies examined the nutrition and health indicators used for assessing sustainable food systems, and seven studies assessed the social and economic costs of diets. A classification of the elements was developed, and common elements are proposed for standardizing. These elements were categorized into nutrition and health indicators, environment indicators, and socioeconomic indicators. Standardized or harmonized indicators can be used for consistency and applicability purposes and to support, implement, and monitor relevant policies.