Proniosomal gel for transdermal delivery of lornoxicam: optimization using factorial design and in vivo evaluation in rats

Formulation, optimisation, and evaluation of Lornoxicam-loaded Novasomes for targeted ulcerative colitis therapy: in vitro and in vivo investigations

The purpose of this work was to create and assess Lornoxicam (LOR) loaded Novasomes (Novas) for the efficient treatment of ulcerative colitis. The study was performed using a 23 factorial design to investigate the impact of several formulation variables. Three separate parameters were investigated: Surface Active agent (SAA) type (X1), LOR concentration (X2), and SAA: Oleic acid ratio (X3). The dependent responses included encapsulation efficiency (Y1: EE %), particle size (Y2: PS), zeta potential (Y3: ZP), and polydispersity index (Y4: PDI). The vesicles demonstrated remarkable LOR encapsulation efficiency, ranging from 81.32 ± 3.24 to 98.64 ± 0.99%. The vesicle sizes ranged from 329 ± 9.88 to 583.4 ± 9.04 nm with high negative zeta potential values. The release pattern for Novas' LOR was biphasic and adhered to Higuchi's model. An in-vivo study assessed how LOR-Novas affected rats' acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis (UC). The optimised LOR-Novas effectively reduced colonic ulceration (p < 0.05) and reduced the inflammatory pathway via inhibiting Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), Nuclear factor kappa β (NF-κβ) and inducible nitric oxide (iNO). At the same time, it elevated Silent information regulator-1(SIRT-1) and reduced glutathione (GSH) colon contents. Thus, the current study suggested that the formulation of LOR-Novas may be a viable treatment for ulcerative colitis.

A review article on transethosomes: revolutionizing drug delivery through transdermal patches

Transethosomes, advanced nanovesicular carriers, have emerged as a revolutionary drug delivery system, particularly for transdermal patches. Combining the structural flexibility of ethosomes and the penetration-enhancing properties of surfactants, transethosomes offer remarkable advantages in overcoming the skin barrier to deliver a broad range of therapeutic agents. These vesicles enhance drug permeation, improve bioavailability, and enable controlled and sustained release, making them a promising alternative to conventional drug delivery methods. This review explores the unique composition, mechanisms of action, and penetration pathways of transethosomes while highlighting their application in various therapeutic areas, including pain management, dermatology, and hormone replacement therapies. Additionally, the article discusses the potential for transethosomes to target specific skin layers or cells, improving drug localization and minimizing systemic side effects. Current challenges, such as formulation stability, variability in skin types, and regulatory hurdles, are critically analyzed, alongside underexplored areas like large biomolecule delivery and multi-drug systems. Emerging trends, including personalized medicine, combination therapies, and stimuli-responsive formulations, are also reviewed, emphasizing the future potential of transethosomes in drug delivery innovation. By addressing these aspects, this article provides comprehensive insights into the transformative role of transethosomes in revolutionizing transdermal drug delivery systems.

Gels as Promising Delivery Systems: Physicochemical Property Characterization and Recent Applications

Gels constitute a versatile class of materials with considerable potential for applications in both technical and medical domains. Physicochemical property characterization is a critical evaluation method for gels. Common characterization techniques include pH measurement, structural analysis, mechanical property assessment, rheological analysis, and phase transition studies, among others. While numerous research articles report characterization results, few reviews comprehensively summarize the appropriate numerical ranges for these properties. This lack of standardization complicates harmonized evaluation methods and hinders direct comparisons between different gels. To address this gap, it is essential to systematically investigate characterization methods and analyze data from the extensive body of literature on gels. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of general characterization methods and present a detailed analysis of gel characterization data to support future research and promote standardized evaluation protocols.

Efficient Delivery of Gold Nanoparticles and miRNA-33a Via Cationic PEGylated Niosomal Formulation to MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells

To overcome the challenges associated with the co-delivery of AuNPs (gold nanoparticles) and miRNA as an anti-breast cancer combination therapy, niosomal systems were developed using Span 60, cholesterol, and a cationic lipid (CTAB), and the formulations were optimized using Box-Behnken experimental design. The niosomal formulations with the smallest size were selected for further optimization of size, surface charge, entrapment efficiency, and stability. To achieve this, AuNPs and DSPE-PEG2000 (2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[amino(polyethylene glycol)-2000)were added to the formulation. The optimized niosomal formulation could effectively encapsulate AuNPs with an entrapment efficiency of 34.49% ± 0.84 and a spherical particle size of 153.6 ± 4.62 nm. The incorporation of PEG and CTAB led to notable enhancements in the overall characteristics of the delivery system. To evaluate the effectiveness of the combination therapy, various assessments such as cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and gene expression properties were conducted. The results demonstrated that the combination delivery using the new C-PEG-Nio-AuNPs (cationic pegylated niosomal gold nanoparticles) system and miRNA had the lowest IC50, the highest apoptosis rate, and the most significant upregulation of miRNA and BAX/BCL2 expression in MCF-7 cell growth. In conclusion, this innovative co-delivery approach represents a promising breakthrough in the development of therapeutic agents for breast cancer treatment. By combining multiple therapeutic agents within a single delivery system, this method has the potential to enhance treatment efficacy, reduce side effects, and improve patient outcomes.

Beyond Skin Deep: Phospholipid-Based Nanovesicles as Game-Changers in Transdermal Drug Delivery

Transdermal administration techniques have gained popularity due to their advantages over oral and parenteral methods. Noninvasive, self-administered delivery devices improve patient compliance and control drug release. Transdermal delivery devices struggle with the skin's barrier function. Molecules over 500 Dalton (Da) and ionized compounds don't permeate through the skin. Drug encapsulation in phospholipid-based vesicular systems is the most effective skin delivery technique. Vesicular carriers include bi-layered liposomes, ultra-deformable liposomes, ethanolic liposomes, transethosomes, and invasomes. These technologies enhance skin drug permeation by increasing formula solubilization, partitioning into the skin, and fluidizing the lipid barrier. Phospholipid-based delivery systems are safe and efficient, making them a promising pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical drug delivery technique. Still, making delivery systems requires knowledge about the physicochemical properties of the drug and carrier, manufacturing and process variables, skin delivery mechanisms, technological advances, constraints, and regulatory requirements. Consequently, this review covers recent research achievements addressing the mentioned concerns.

Design, optimization, and characterization of Althaea officinalis-loaded transliposomes for the treatment of atopic dermatitis: a Box Behnken Design, in vitro, and ex vivo study

A chronic skin disorder called atopic dermatitis (AD) is brought on by the deterioration of the skin's barrier function marked by inflammation, dryness, and bacterial infection along with immunological changes. Althaea officinalis (AO), known for its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, has been explored as a potential treatment for AD. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a novel transliposomes (TL) formulation containing AO for AD treatment. Using rotary evaporation, AO-TL formulations were created and optimized employing Box Behnken Design. The optimized AO-TL formulation showed consistent characteristics: vesicle size of 145.8 nm, polydispersity index of 0.201, zeta potential of -28.22 mV, and entrapment efficiency of 86.21%. TEM imaging shows the spherical shapes of the vesicle. These findings demonstrate the formulation's stability and ability to encapsulate AO effectively. In vitro drug release studies revealed that the AO-TL formulation released 81.28% of the drug, outperforming conventional AO dispersion (56.80%). Additionally, when applied to rat skin, the TL gel demonstrated deeper penetration (30 μm) in comparison to the standard solution (5.0 μm) based on confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Ex vivo and dermatokinetics studies showed improved penetration of drug-loaded transliposomes gel in rat skin than the conventional AO gel. Overall, the optimized AO-TL formulation offers promising characteristics and performance for the topical treatment of AD. Its drug release, antioxidant activity, and deeper penetration suggest enhanced therapeutic effects. Further research and clinical trials are needed to validate its efficacy and safety in AD patients.

Formulation of Transliposomal Nanocarrier Gel Containing Strychnine for the Effective Management of Skin Cancer

Strychnine (STCN) has demonstrated an exceptional anticancer effect against various cancers. However, the STCN clinical utility has been hampered by its low water solubility, restricted therapeutic window, short half-life, and significant toxicity. The objective of this investigation was to design and optimize a formulation of strychnine-loaded transliposomes (STCN-TLs) for dermal administration of STCN to treat skin cancer. The formulations of STCN-TL were examined in terms of vesicle size (VS), polydispersity index (PDI), entrapment efficiency (EE), and in vitro delivery. The improved STCN-TL formulation exhibited VS, PDI, EE, and in vitro delivery of 101.5 ± 2.14 nm, 0.218 ± 0.12, 81.74 ± 1.43%, and 85.39 ± 2.33%, respectively. In an ex vivo penetration, the created STCN-TL formulation demonstrated a 2.5-fold increase in permeability compared to the STCN solution. CLSM pictures of skin (rat) revealed that the rhodamine B-loaded transliposome preparation penetrated deeper than the rhodamine B hydroalcoholic mixture. Additionally, rat skin managed with STCN-TL nanogel exhibited a significant increase in Cskin max and AUC0-8 compared to rat skin treated with traditional STCN gel. The findings demonstrated that the transliposome preparation might be a suitable nanocarrier for the cutaneous distribution of STCN in the amelioration of skin cancer.

Combinatorial drug-loaded quality by design adapted transliposome gel formulation for dermal delivery: In vitro and dermatokinetic study

BACKGROUND

Ursolic acid is a powerful drug that possesses many therapeutic properties, such as hepatoprotection, immunomodulation, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antiviral, antiulcer, and anticancer activity. Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Umbelliferae) contains a triterpene called asiatic acid, which has been used effectively in traditional Chinese and Indian medicine system for centuries. Anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties are only some of the many pharmacological actions previously attributed to asiatic acid .

AIM

The present work developed an optimized combinatorial drug-loaded nano-formulation by Quality by design approach.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The optimize transliposome for accentuated dermal delivery of dual drug. The optimization of drug-loaded transliposome was done using the "Box-Behnken design." The optimized formulation was characterized for vesicles size, entrapment efficiency (%), and in vitro drug release. Additionally, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), and dermatokinetic study were performed for further evaluation of drug-loaded optimized transliposome formulation.

RESULTS

The optimized combinatorial drug-loaded transliposome formulation showed a particle size of 86.36 ± 2.54 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) 0.230 ± 0.008, and an entrapment efficiency of 87.43 ± 2.66% which depicted good entrapment efficiency. In vitro drug release of ursolic acid and asiatic acid transliposomes was found to be 85.12 ± 2.54% and 80.23 ± 3.23%, respectively, as compared to optimized ursolic acid and asiatic acid transliposome gel drug release that was 67.18 ± 2.85% and 60.28 ± 4.12%, respectively. The skin permeation study of ursolic and asiatic acid conventional formulation was only 32.48 ± 2.42%, compared with optimized combinatorial drug-loaded transliposome gel (79.83 ± 4.52%) at 12 h. After applying combinatorial drug-loaded transliposome gel, rhodamine was able to more easily cross rat skin, as observed by confocal laser scanning microscopy, in comparison with when the rhodamine control solution was used.

DISCUSSION

The UA_AA-TL gel formulation absorbed more ursolic acid and asiatic acid than the UA_AA-CF gel formulation, as per dermatokinetic study. Even after being incorporated into transliposome vesicles, the antioxidant effects of ursolic and asiatic acid were still detectable. In most cases, transliposomes vesicular systems generate depots in the skin's deeper layers and gradually release the medicine over time, allowing for fewer applications.

CONCLUSION

In overall our studies, it may be concluded that developed dual drug-loaded transliposomal formulation has great potential for effective topical drug delivery for skin cancer.

Quality-by-Design-Based Development of Rivaroxaban-Loaded Liquisolid Compact Tablets with Improved Biopharmaceutical Attributes

Rivaroxaban (RXN) finds use in the management of pulmonary embolism and deep vein thrombosis. Its poor solubility (5-7 µg/mL) and P-gp-mediated efflux from intestinal lining limits the oral application of RXN. This work assessed the impact of liquisolid compact technique in augmenting the solubility and bioavailability of RXN. PEG 400, Avicel PH 200, and Aerosil 200 were used as non-volatile liquid, carrier, and coating material, respectively, to formulate RXN liquid-solid compacts (RXN LSCs). A 32-factor factorial design was used in the optimisation to assess the impacts of factors (load factor and carrier:coating ratio) on the responses (angle of repose and Q30 min). Pre-compression parameters of RXN LSCs suggested adequate flow and compressibility. Optimisation data suggested significant influence of factors on both the responses. Optimised RXN LSC-based tablets showed a significantly higher in vitro dissolution rate than RXN API and Xarelto® tablets due to improved solubility, reduced crystallinity, greater surface area, and enhanced wetting of RXN particles. XRD, DSC, and SEM data supported RXN's amorphization. The cytotoxicity (MTT assay) and permeation studies indicated the nontoxicity of prepared RXN LSC tablets and the role of PEG 400 in inhibiting P-gp. Pharmacokinetic study of RXN LSC-based tablets in Albino Wistar rats exhibited 2.51- and 1.66-times higher AUC in comparison to RXN API and Xarelto® tablets respectively, demonstrating that developed formulation had a greater oral bioavailability. The RXN LSC tablets showed longer bleeding times and higher rates of platelet aggregation than RXN API. Thus, RXN LSC tablets can be considered a facile, scalable technology.

Design, Development, and Evaluation of Constant Voltage Iontophoresis for the Transungual Delivery of Efinaconazole

The efficacy of topical antifungal therapy in onychomycosis has been hindered by the failure of the antimycotic to permeate the nail plate. This research aims to design and develop a transungual system for the effective delivery of efinaconazole utilizing constant voltage iontophoresis. Seven prototype drug-loaded hydrogel formulations (E1-E7) were prepared to assess the influence of solvent (ethanol) and cosolvent (Labrasol^®) on transungual delivery. Optimization was performed to evaluate the effect of three independent variables; voltage, solvent-to-cosolvent ratio, and penetration enhancer (PEG 400) concentration on critical quality attributes (CQAs), such as drug permeation and loading into the nail. The selected hydrogel product was characterized for pharmaceutical properties, efinaconazole release from the nail, and antifungal activity. Preliminary data indicates ethanol, Labrasol^®, and voltage influence the transungual delivery of efinaconazole. Optimization design indicates a significant impact by applied voltage (p-0.0001) and enhancer concentration (p-0.0004) on the CQAs. Excellent correlation between selected independent variables and CQAs was confirmed by the high desirability value (0.9427). A significant (p < 0.0001) enhancement in the permeation (~78.59 µg/cm²) and drug loading (3.24 µg/mg) was noticed in the optimized transungual delivery with 10.5 V. FTIR spectral data indicates no interaction between the drug and excipients, while the DSC thermograms confirmed the amorphous state of the drug in the formulation. Iontophoresis produces a drug depot in the nail that releases above the minimum inhibitory concentration level for an extended period, potentially reducing the need for frequent topical treatment. Antifungal studies further substantiate the release data and have shown remarkable inhibition of Trichophyton mentagrophyte. Overall, the promising results obtained here demonstrate the prospective of this non-invasive method for the effective transungual delivery of efinaconazole, which could improve the treatment of onychomycosis.

Design, Development, and Evaluation of Treprostinil Embedded Adhesive Transdermal Patch

Clinical application of treprostinil in pulmonary arterial hypertension is hampered by adverse effects caused by its high dosing frequency. The objective of this investigation was to Formulate an adhesive-type transdermal patch of treprostinil and evaluate it both in vitro and in vivo. A 3²-factorial design was utilized to optimize the selected independent variables (X₁: drug amount, X₂: enhancer concentration) on the response variables (Y₁: drug release, Y₂: transdermal flux). The optimized patch was evaluated for various pharmaceutical properties, skin irritation, and pharmacokinetics in rats. Optimization results signify considerable influence (p < 0.0001) of X₁ on both Y₁ and Y₂, as compared to X₂. The optimized patch possesses higher drug content (>95%), suitable surface morphology, and an absence of drug crystallization. FTIR analysis revealed compatibility of the drug with excipients, whereas DSC thermograms indicate that the drug exists as amorphous in the patch. The adhesive properties of the prepared patch confirm adequate adhesion and painless removal, while the skin irritation study confirms its safety. A steady drug release via Fickian diffusion and greater transdermal delivery (~23.26 µg/cm²/h) substantiate the potential of the optimized patch. Transdermal therapy resulted in higher treprostinil absorption (p < 0.0001) and relative bioavailability (237%) when compared to oral administration. Overall, the results indicate that the developed drug in the adhesive patch can effectively deliver treprostinil through the skin and could be a promising treatment option for pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Formulation, and Optimization of Transdermal Atorvastatin Calcium-Loaded Ultra-flexible Vesicles; Ameliorates Poloxamer 407-caused Dyslipidemia

Atorvastatin calcium (AC), a cholesterol-lowering medication, has limited oral bioavailability (14%) and adverse impacts on the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), liver, and muscle. So, in an effort to improve the poor availability and overcome the hepatotoxicity complications attendant to peroral AC administration, transdermal transfersomal gel (AC-TFG) was developed as a convenient alternative delivery technique. The impact of utilizing an edge activator (EA) and varying the phosphatidylcholine (PC): EA molar ratio on the physico-chemical characteristics of the vesicles was optimized through a Quality by Design (QbD) strategy. The optimal transdermal AC-TFG was tested in an ex-vivo permeation study employing full-thickness rat skin, Franz cell experiments, an in-vivo pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) evaluation, and a comparison to oral AC using poloxamer-induced dyslipidemic Wister rats. The optimized AC-loaded TF nanovesicles predicted by the 2³-factorial design strategy had a good correlation with the measured vesicle diameter of 71.72 ± 1.159 nm, encapsulation efficiency of 89.13 ± 0.125%, and cumulative drug release of 88.92 ± 3.78% over 24 hours. Ex-vivo data revealed that AC-TF outperformed a free drug in terms of permeation. The pharmacokinetic parameters of optimized AC-TFG demonstrated 2.5- and 13.3-fold significant improvements in bioavailability in comparison to oral AC suspension (AC-OS) and traditional gel (AC-TG), respectively. The transdermal vesicular technique preserved the antihyperlipidemic activity of AC-OS without increasing hepatic markers. Such enhancement was proven histologically by preventing the hepatocellular harm inflicted by statins. The results showed that the transdermal vesicular system is a safe alternative way to treat dyslipidemia with AC, especially when given over a long period of time.

Qbd-Based Approach to Optimize Niosomal Gel of Levosulpiride for Transdermal Drug Delivery

Poor aqueous solubility besides extensive hepatic first effect significantly decreases the oral absorption of levosulpiride, which in turn minimizes its therapeutic effectiveness. Niosomes have been extensively investigated as a transdermal vesicular nanocarrier to increase the delivery of low permeable compounds into and across the skin. This research work was to design, develop and optimize levosulpiride-loaded niosomal gel and to evaluate its prospects for transdermal delivery. The Box-Behnken design was used to optimize niosomes by analyzing the impact of three factors (cholesterol; X1, Span 40; X2, and sonication time; X3) on the responses (particle size, Y1, and entrapment efficiency, Y2). Optimized formulation (NC) was incorporated into gel and evaluated for pharmaceutical properties, drug release study, ex vivo permeation, and in vivo absorption. The design experiment data suggest that all three independent variables influence both response variables significantly (p < 0.01). Pharmaceutical characteristics of NC vesicles showed the absence of drug excipient interaction, nanosize (~102.2 nm), narrow distribution (~0.218), adequate zeta potential (−49.9 mV), and spherical shape, which are suitable for transdermal therapy. The levosulpiride release rates varied significantly (p < 0.01) between niosomal gel formulation and control. Greater flux (p < 0.01) was observed with levosulpiride-loaded niosomal gel than with control gel formulation. Indeed, the drug plasma profile of niosomal gel was significantly higher (p < 0.005), with ~3 folds higher Cmax and greater bioavailability (~500% higher; p < 0.0001) than its counterpart. Overall, these findings imply that the use of an optimized niosomal gel formulation can increase the therapeutic efficacy of levosulpiride and may represent a promising alternative to conventional therapy.

Design development and optimisation of multifunctional Doxorubicin-loaded Indocynanine Green proniosomal gel derived niosomes for tumour management

This study presents the design, development, and optimization of multifunctional Doxorubicin (Dox)-loaded Indocyanine Green (ICG) proniosomal gel-derived niosomes, using Design of Experiments (2³ factorial model). Herein, the multifunctional proniosomal gel was prepared using the coacervation phase separation technique, which on hydration forms niosomes. The effect of formulation variables on various responses including Zeta potential, Vesicle size, entrapment efficiency of Dox, entrapment efficiency of ICG, Invitro drug release at 72nd hour, and NIR hyperthermia temperature were studied using statistical models. On the basis of the high desirability factor, optimized formulation variables were identified and validated with the experimental results. Further, the chemical nature, vesicle morphology, surface charge, and vesicle size of optimized proniosomal gel-derived niosomes were evaluated. In addition, the effect of free ICG and bound ICG on NIR hyperthermia efficiency has been investigated to demonstrate the heating rate and stability of ICG in the aqueous environment and increased temperature conditions. The drug release and kinetic studies revealed a controlled biphasic release profile with complex mechanisms of drug transport for optimized proniosomal gel-derived niosomes. The potential cytotoxic effect of the optimised formulation was also demonstrated invitro using HeLa cell lines.

Ginger Extract-Loaded Sesame Oil-Based Niosomal Emulgel: Quality by Design to Ameliorate Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Ginger, a natural plant belonging to the Zingeberaceae family, has been reported to have reasonable anti-inflammatory effects. The current study aimed to examine ginger extract transdermal delivery by generating niosomal vesicles as a promising nano-carrier incorporated into emulgel prepared with sesame oil. Particle size, viscosity, in vitro release, and ex vivo drug penetration experiments were performed on the produced formulations (ginger extract loaded gel, ginger extract loaded emulgel, ginger extract niosomal gel, and ginger extract niosomal emulgel). Carrageenan-induced edema in rat hind paw was employed to estimate the in vivo anti-inflammatory activity. The generated ginger extract formulations showed good viscosity and particle size. The in vitro release of ginger extract from niosomal formulation surpassed other formulations. In addition, the niosomal emulgel formulation showed improved transdermal flux and increased drug permeability through rabbit skin compared to other preparations. Most importantly, carrageenan-induced rat hind paw edema test confirmed the potential anti-inflammatory efficacy of ginger extract niosomal emulgel, compared to other formulations, as manifested by a significant decrease in paw edema with a superior edema inhibition potency. Overall, our findings suggest that incorporating a niosomal formulation within sesame oil-based emulgel might represent a plausible strategy for effective transdermal delivery of anti-inflammatory drugs like ginger extract.

Development, In-Vitro Characterization and Preclinical Evaluation of Esomeprazole-Encapsulated Proniosomal Formulation for the Enhancement of Anti-Ulcer Activity

Objective: The present study aimed to develop and optimize esomeprazole loaded proniosomes (EZL-PNs) to improve bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy. Method: EZL-PNs formulation was developed by slurry method and optimized by 33 box-Bhekhen statistical design software. Span 60 (surfactant), cholesterol, EZL concentration were taken as independent variables and their effects were evaluated on vesicle size (nm), entrapment efficiency (%, EE) and drug release (%, DR). Furthermore, optimized EZL-PNs (EZL-PNs-opt) formulation was evaluated for ex vivo permeation, pharmacokinetic and ulcer protection activity. Result: The EZL-PNs-opt formulation showed 616 ± 13.21 nm of vesicle size, and 81.21 ± 2.35% of EE. EZL-PNs-opt exhibited negative zeta potential and spherical confirmed scanning electron microscopy. EZL-PNs-opt showed sustained release of EZL (95.07 ± 2.10% in 12 h) than pure EZL dispersion. The ex-vivo gut permeation result exhibited a significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced flux than pure EZL. The in vivo results revealed 4.02-fold enhancement in bioavailability and 61.65% protection in ulcer than pure EZL dispersion (43.82%). Conclusion: Our findings revealed that EZL-PNs formulation could be an alternative delivery system of EZL to enhance oral bioavailability and antiulcer activity.

Itraconazole loaded nano-structured lipid carrier for topical ocular delivery: Optimization and evaluation

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES

Low penetration efficiency and retention time are the main therapeutic concerns that make it difficult for most of the drugs to be delivered to the intraocular tissues. These challenging issues are often related to those drugs, which have low or poor solubility and low permeability. The goal of this study was designed to develop nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) loaded with itraconazole (ITZ) with the objective of enhancing topical ocular permeation and thereby improving clinical efficacy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ITZ-loaded NLCs were fabricated by a high-speed homogenization technique using surfactant (Poloxamer 407), and lipids (stearic acid and oleic acid). Optimization of formulations was performed by 3 level factorial design and the selected formulation (F6) was evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry and transmission electron microscopy. Antifungal activity was assessed by measuring the zone of inhibition and irritation potential using the HET-CAM test.

RESULTS

The independent variables (lipid ratio-X1 and percentage of emulsifier-X2) have a positive impact on percentage entrapment efficiency (Y2) and percentage release (Y3) but have a negative impact on particle size (Y1). Based on the better entrapment efficiency (94.65%), optimum particle size (150.67 nm), and percentage cumulative drug release (68.67%), batch F6 was selected for further evaluation. Electron microscopic images revealed that the prepared particles are spherical and have nano size. Antifungal studies demonstrated enhancement in the zone of inhibition by formulation F6 as compared to a commercial eye drop. The non-irritancy of optimized formulation (F6) was confirmed with a zero score.

INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION

In summary, the optimized NLCs seem to be a potent carrier for the effective delivery of itraconazole in ocular therapy.

Lipid-Based Nanovesicular Drug Delivery Systems

In designing a new drug, considering the preferred route of administration, various requirements must be fulfilled. Active molecules pharmacokinetics should be reliable with a valuable drug profile as well as well-tolerated. Over the past 20 years, nanotechnologies have provided alternative and complementary solutions to those of an exclusively pharmaceutical chemical nature since scientists and clinicians invested in the optimization of materials and methods capable of regulating effective drug delivery at the nanometer scale. Among the many drug delivery carriers, lipid nano vesicular ones successfully support clinical candidates approaching such problems as insolubility, biodegradation, and difficulty in overcoming the skin and biological barriers such as the blood-brain one. In this review, the authors discussed the structure, the biochemical composition, and the drug delivery applications of lipid nanovesicular carriers, namely, niosomes, proniosomes, ethosomes, transferosomes, pharmacosomes, ufasomes, phytosomes, catanionic vesicles, and extracellular vesicles.

Brucine-Loaded Ethosomal Gel: Design, Optimization, and Anti-inflammatory Activity

Brucine, one of the natural medications obtained from Nux vomica seeds, is used as an anti-inflammatory drug. Several investigations were performed to overcome its drawbacks, which will affect significantly its pharmaceutical formulation. The goal of the current investigation was to design, optimize, and evaluate the anti-inflammatory performance of BRU ethosomal gel. Brucineethosomal formulations were prepared using thin film hydration method and optimized by central composite design approach using three independent variables (lecithin concentration, cholesterol concentration, and ethanol percentage) and three response variables (vesicular size, encapsulation efficiency, and skin permeation). The optimized formulation was examined for its stability and then incorporated into HPMC gel to get BRU ethosomal gel. The obtained BRU-loaded ethosomal gel was evaluated for its physical properties, in vitro release, and ex vivo permeation and skin irritation. Finally, carrageenan-induced rat hind paw edema test was adopted for the anti-inflammatory activity. The developed BRU ethosomal gel exhibited good physical characteristics comparable with the conventional developed BRU gel. In vitro release of BRU from ethosomal gel was effectively extended for 6 h. Permeation of BRU from ethosomes was significantly higher than all formulations (p < 0.05), since it recorded steady state transdermal flux value 0.548 ± 0.03 μg/cm² h with enhancement ratio 2.73 ± 0.23. Eventually, BRU ethosomal gel exhibited potent anti-inflammatory activity as manifested by a significant decrease in rat hind paw inflammation following 24 h. In conclusion, the study emphasized the prospective of ethosomal gel as a fortunate carrier for intensifying the anti-inflammatory effect of Brucine.

Self-Assembling Drug Formulations with Tunable Permeability and Biodegradability

This review focuses on key topics in the field of drug delivery related to the design of nanocarriers answering the biomedicine criteria, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, low toxicity, and the ability to overcome biological barriers. For these reasons, much attention is paid to the amphiphile-based carriers composed of natural building blocks, lipids, and their structural analogues and synthetic surfactants that are capable of self-assembly with the formation of a variety of supramolecular aggregates. The latter are dynamic structures that can be used as nanocontainers for hydrophobic drugs to increase their solubility and bioavailability. In this section, biodegradable cationic surfactants bearing cleavable fragments are discussed, with ester- and carbamate-containing analogs, as well as amino acid derivatives received special attention. Drug delivery through the biological barriers is a challenging task, which is highlighted by the example of transdermal method of drug administration. In this paper, nonionic surfactants are primarily discussed, including their application for the fabrication of nanocarriers, their surfactant-skin interactions, the mechanisms of modulating their permeability, and the factors controlling drug encapsulation, release, and targeted delivery. Different types of nanocarriers are covered, including niosomes, transfersomes, invasomes and chitosomes, with their morphological specificity, beneficial characteristics and limitations discussed.

Amalgamation of Solid Dispersion and Melt Adsorption Technique: Improved In Vitro and In Vivo Performance of Ticagrelor Tablets

Ticagrelor (TG) suffers from low peroral bioabsorption (36%) due to P-gp efflux and poor solubility (10 µg/mL). TG solid dispersion adsorbates (TG-SDAs) were formulated using an amalgamation of solid dispersion and melt adsorption techniques which were simple, economic, scalable, and solvent-free. FTIR indicated no incompatibility between drug and excipients. DSC, XRD, and SEM suggested a reduction in TG crystallinity. Q_30min from TG-SUSP and TG-conventional tablets was only 2.30% and 6.59% respectively whereas TG-SDA-based tablets exhibited a significantly higher drug release of 86.47%. Caco-2 permeability studies showed 3.83-fold higher permeability of TG from TG-SDAs. TG-SDA-based tablets exhibited relative bioavailability of 748.53% and 153.43% compared to TG-SUSP and TG-conventional tablets respectively in rats. TG-SDA-based tablets were devoid of any cytotoxicity as indicated by MTT assay and exhibited better antiplatelet activity in rats. Enhanced oral bioavailability of TG-SDAs can be attributed to inhibition of P-gp efflux by PEG 4000, increased wettability, and reduced crystallinity of drug leading to improved drug solubility and dissolution. Improved bioabsorption results in a reduction of dose, cost of therapy as well as dose-related side effects. Thus, SDAs can be considered a promising and scalable approach for the improvement of dissolution rate and solubility of TG. TG-SDAs can be translated to an effective and safe dosage form, whereby its rapid onset of action promotes the prevention of heart attack, stroke, and related ill events in individuals with the acute coronary syndrome. However, scale-up, validation, and clinical-studies are necessary for confirmation of the proof-of-concept.

Effect of nanostructured lipid carriers on transdermal delivery of tenoxicam in irradiated rats

Transdermal delivery of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is an effective route of drug administration, as it directs the drug to the inflamed site with reduced incidence of systemic adverse effects such as gastric hemorrhage and ulcers. Tenoxicam (TNX) is a member of NSAIDs that are marketed only as oral tablets due to very poor absorption through the skin. The current study intended to formulate and characterize a hydrogel loaded with nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) to enhance the transdermal delivery of TNX. Six formulations of TNX were formulated by slight modifications of high shear homogenization and ultrasonication method. The selected formula was characterized for their particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, entrapment efficiency (EE), in-vitro drug release and ex-vivo skin permeation studies. Moreover, the effectiveness of the developed formula was studied in-vivo using carrageenan-induced paw edema and hyperalgesia model in irradiated rats. Formula F4 was chosen from six formulations, as the average diameter was 679.4 ± 51.3 nm, PDI value of about 0.02, zeta potential of -4.24 mV, EE of 92.36%, globules nanoparticles without aggregations and absence of interactions in the developed formula. Additionally, the in-vivo study showed the efficacy of formula F4 (TNX-NLCs hydrogel) equivalent to oral TNX in reducing the exaggerated inflammatory response induced by carrageenan after irradiation. In conclusion, the present findings suggest that TNX-NLCs hydrogel could be a potential transdermal drug delivery system alternative to the oral formulation for the treatment of various inflammatory conditions.

Quality by Design for Development, Optimization and Characterization of Brucine Ethosomal Gel for Skin Cancer Delivery

Natural products have been extensively used for treating a wide variety of disorders. In recent times, Brucine (BRU) as one of the natural medications extracted from seeds of nux vomica, was investigated for its anticancer activity. As far as we know, this is the first study on BRU anticancer activity against skin cancer. Thus, the rational of this work was implemented to develop, optimize and characterize the anticancer activity of BRU loaded ethosomal gel. Basically, thin film hydration method was used to formulate BRU ethosomal preparations, by means of Central composite design (CCD), which were operated to construct (3²) factorial design. Two independent variables were designated (phospholipid percentage and ethanol percentage) with three responses (vesicular size, encapsulation efficiency and flux). Based on the desirability function, one formula was selected and incorporated into HPMC gel base to develop BRU loaded ethosomal gel. The fabricated gel was assessed for all physical characterization. In-vitro release investigation, ex-vivo permeation and MTT calorimetric assay were performed. BRU loaded ethosomal gel exhibited acceptable values for the characterization parameters which stand proper for topical application. In-vitro release investigation was efficiently prolonged for 6 h. The flux from BRU loaded ethosome was enhanced screening optimum SSTF value. Finally, in-vitro cytotoxicity study proved that BRU loaded ethosomal gel significantly improved the anticancer activity of the drug against A375 human melanoma cell lines. Substantially, the investigation proposed a strong motivation for further study of the lately developed BRU loaded ethosomal gel as a prospective therapeutic strategy for melanoma treatment.

Brucine-loaded transliposomes nanogel for topical delivery in skin cancer: statistical optimization, in vitro and dermatokinetic evaluation

The aim of the present study was to develop, optimize brucine-loaded transliposomes (BRC-TL) formulation for dermal delivery of brucine for skin cancer. The BRC-TL formulations were evaluated for vesicle size, entrapment efficiency, and in vitro drug release. The optimized formulation was further evaluated for skin penetration by confocal laser microscopy and dermatokinetic study. The optimized BRC-TL formulation presented sealed lamellar shaped vesicles, with vesicles size, polydispersity index, entrapment efficiency, and in vitro drug release of 136.20 ± 2.87 nm, 0.354 ± 0.02, 86.01 ± 1.27%, and 83.09 ± 2.07%, respectively. Ex vivo permeation study showed that, developed BRC-TL formulation had a 2.4-fold increment in permeation as compared to BRC suspension. Texture analysis showed that the BRC-TL gel presented firmness of 158.91 g, consistency of 615.03 g/s, cohesiveness of  - 115.26 g and a viscosity index of  - 472.05 g/s. The confocal images of rat skin clearly showed the deeper penetration of rhodamine B-loaded TL formulation as compared to the Rhodamine B-hydro alcoholic solution. The optimized BRC-TL formulation demonstrated significantly higher cytotoxicity than placebo liposome and BRC suspension (P < 0.05). Further, the BRC-TL nanogel treated rat skin showed a substantial increase in C_{Skin max} and AUC_0-8 in comparison to rat skin treated with BRC conventional gel (P < 0.05). The data revealed that the developed TLs formulation could be a promising drug nanocarrier for brucine dermal delivery in the treatment of skin cancer.

Preparation, characterization and evaluation of anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of brucine-loaded nanoemulgel

Brucine (BRU) is a natural product derived from nux-vomica seeds. It is commonly used as an anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive drug to relieve arthritis and traumatic pain. Nevertheless, its use is significantly limited by its low aqueous solubility, as well as the gastrointestinal problems and systemic toxicity that may occur following oral administration. The goal of this study, therefore, was to formulate and evaluate a nanoemulgel formulation of BRU for enhanced topical anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities. Different formulations were developed (BRU gel, emulgel and nanoemulgel) using 1% w/w NaCMC as a gelling agent. The formulated preparations were assessed for their physical appearance, spreadability, viscosity, particle size, in vitro drug release and ex vivo permeation studies. In addition, the carrageenan-induced rat hind paw edema method was adopted to scrutinize the anti-inflammatory activity, while the hot plate method and acetic acid-induced writhing test were used to assess the anti-nociceptive activity of different formulations in male BALB/c mice. The formulated BRU-loaded preparations showed good physical characteristics. Cumulative drug release from BRU-loaded nanoemulgel was remarkably higher than that of the other formulations. Ex vivo drug permeation of the nanoemulgel formulation across rat skin showed enhanced drug permeation and higher transdermal flux as compared to BRU-loaded gel or emulgel. Most importantly, the carrageenan-induced rat hind paw edema model verified the efficient anti-inflammatory potential of BRU-loaded nanoemulgel. In addition, BRU-loaded nanoemulgel exhibited significant protective effects against thermal stimulation in the hot plate test and remarkably inhibited acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing in mice. Furthermore, a skin irritation test indicated that BRU-loaded nanoemulgel elicited neither edema nor erythema upon application to rat skin. Collectively, our results suggest that myrrh oil-based nanoemulgel might represent a promising delivery vehicle for potentiating the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive actions of brucine.

Enhanced Solubility and Bioavailability of Dolutegravir by Solid Dispersion Method: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation-a Potential Approach for HIV Therapy

Being a candidate of BCS class II, dolutegravir (DTG), a recently approved antiretroviral drug, possesses solubility issues. The current research was aimed to improve the solubility of the DTG and thereby enhance its efficacy using the solid dispersion technique. In due course, the miscibility study of the drug was performed with different polymers, where Poloxamer 407 (P407) was found suitable to move forward. The solid dispersion of DTG and P407 was formulated using solvent evaporation technique with a 1:1 proportion of drug and polymer, where the solid-state characterization was performed using differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. No physicochemical interaction was found between the DTG and P407 in the fabricated solid dispersion; however, crystalline state of the drug was changed to amorphous as evident from the X-ray diffractogram. A rapid release of DTG was observed from the solid dispersion (>95%), which is highly significant (p<0.05) as compared to pure drug (11.40%), physical mixture (20.07%) and marketed preparation of DTG (35.30%). The drug release from the formulated solid dispersion followed Weibull model kinetics. Finally, the rapid drug release from the solid dispersion formulation revealed increased C_max (14.56 μg/mL) when compared to the physical mixture (4.12 μg/mL) and pure drug (3.45 μg/mL). This was further reflected by improved bioavailability of DTG (AUC: 105.99±10.07 μg/h/mL) in the experimental Wistar rats when compared to the AUC of animals administered with physical mixture (54.45±6.58 μg/h/mL) and pure drug (49.27±6.16 μg/h/mL). Therefore, it could be concluded that the dissolution profile and simultaneously the bioavailability of DTG could be enhanced by means of the solid dispersion platform using the hydrophilic polymer, P407, which could be projected towards improved efficacy of the drug in HIV/AIDS.

Experimental design, formulation and in vivo evaluation of a novel topical in situ gel system to treat ocular infections

In situ gels have been extensively explored as ocular drug delivery system to enhance bioavailability and efficacy. The objective of present study was to design, formulate and evaluate ion-activated in situ gel to enhance the ocular penetration and therapeutic performance of moxifloxacin in ophthalmic delivery. A simplex lattice design was utilized to examine the effect of various factors on experimental outcomes of the in situ gel system. The influence of polymers (independent variables) such as gellan gum (X₁), sodium alginate (X₂), and HPMC (X₃) on gel strength, adhesive force, viscosity and drug release after 10 h (Q₁₀) were assessed. Selected formulation (MH7) was studied for ex vivo permeation, in vivo irritation and pharmacokinetics in rabbits. Data revealed that increase in concentration of polymers led to higher gel strength, adhesive force and viscosity, however, decreases the drug release. MH7 exhibited all physicochemical properties within acceptable limits and was stable for 6 months. Release profile of moxifloxacin from MH7 was comparable to the check point batches and followed Korsmeyer-Peppas matrix diffusion-controlled mechanism. Ocular irritation study signifies that selected formulation is safe and non-irritant for ophthalmic administration. In vivo pharmacokinetics data indicates significant improvement of moxifloxacin bioavailability (p < 0.0001) from MH7, as evidenced by higher C_max (727 ± 56 ng/ml) and greater AUC (2881 ± 108 ng h/ml), when compared with commercial eye drops (C_max; 503 ± 85 ng/ml and AUC; 978 ± 86 ng h/ml). In conclusion, developed in situ gel system (MH7) could offers a more effective and extended ophthalmic therapy of moxifloxacin in ocular infections when compared to conventional eye drops.

Enhancement of Curcumin Anti-Inflammatory Effect via Formulation into Myrrh Oil-Based Nanoemulgel

Background: Curcumin (Cur) possesses a variety of beneficial pharmacological properties including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory activities. Nevertheless, the low aqueous solubility and subsequent poor bioavailability greatly limits its effectiveness. Besides, the role of myrrh oil as an essential oil in treating inflammatory disorders has been recently demonstrated. The objective of the current investigation is to enhance Cur efficacy via developing Cur nanoemulgel, which helps to improve its solubility and permeability, for transdermal delivery. Methods: The formulated preparations (Cur gel, emulgel and nanoemulgel) were evaluated for their physical appearance, spreadability, viscosity, particle size, in vitro release and ex vivo drug permeation studies. The in vivo anti-inflammatory activity was estimated using the carrageenan-induced rat hind paw edema method. Results: The formulated Cur-loaded preparations exhibited good physical characteristics that were in the acceptable range of transdermal preparations. The release of Cur from gel, emulgel and nanoemulgel after 12 h was 72.17 ± 3.76, 51.93 ± 3.81 and 62.0 ± 3.9%, respectively. Skin permeation of Cur was significantly (p < 0.05) improved when formulated into nanoemulgel since it showed the best steady state transdermal flux (SSTF) value (108.6 ± 3.8 µg/cm²·h) with the highest enhancement ratio (ER) (7.1 ± 0.2). In vivo anti-inflammatory studies proved that Cur-loaded nanoemulgel displayed the lowest percent of swelling (26.6% after 12 h). Conclusions: The obtained data confirmed the potential of the nanoemulgel dosage form and established the synergism of myrrh oil and Cur as an advanced anti-inflammatory drug.

Optimization of transdermal atorvastatin calcium - Loaded proniosomes: Restoring lipid profile and alleviating hepatotoxicity in poloxamer 407-induced hyperlipidemia

In an attempt to optimize the anti- hyperlipidemic effect and reduce statins induced hepatotoxicity, Atorvastatin Calcium (ATC) transdermal proniosomal gel (PNG) was developed. Different non-ionic surfactants (NISs) (Spans, Tweens, Cremophor RH 40 and Brij 52) were incorporated in the vesicle's lipid bilayer, in combination with lecithin. PNG formulae were characterized for encapsulation efficiency percent (% EE), vesicle size, polydispersity index (PDI) and zeta potential (ZP). Ex-vivo permeation study was performed using full thickness rat skin measuring drug flux and skin permeability coefficients. The pharmacodynamic performance of optimized transdermal ATC- PNG on both lipid profile and liver biomarkers was assessed and compared to oral ATC administration in poloxamer 407-induced hyperlipidemic rats. The liver tissues were subjected to histological examination as well. The results revealed nano-size range vesicles with relatively high ATC entrapment efficiency. Ex-vivo results demonstrated the permeation superiority of ATC proniosomes over free drug. Pharmacodynamic study revealed that transdermal administration of ATC- PNG succeeded in retaining the anti-hyperlipidemic efficacy of orally administered ATC without elevating liver biomarkers. The histological examination signified the role of optimized ATC-PNG in hindering statin- induced hepatocellular damage. The obtained results suggested a promising, easy-to-manufacture and effective ATC proniosomal gel for safe treatment of hyperlipidemia.

Bilosomes as Promising Nanovesicular Carriers for Improved Transdermal Delivery: Construction, in vitro Optimization, ex vivo Permeation and in vivo Evaluation

Purpose

The goal of this research was to enhance the transdermal delivery of lornoxicam (LX), using nanovesicular carriers composed of the bile salt sodium deoxycholate (SDC), soybean phosphatidyl choline (SPC) and a permeation enhancer limonene.

Methods

Thin-film hydration was the technique employed for the fabrication using a Box–Behnken design with three central points. The investigated factors were SPC molar concentration, SDC amount in mg and limonene percentage (%). The studied responses were percent entrapment efficiency (%EE), particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), and in vitro drug release (after 2, 10 h). In order to obtain the optimum formula, numerical optimization by Design-Expert® software was used. Electing the optimized bilosomal formula was based on boosting %EE, ZP (as absolute value) and in vitro drug release, taking in consideration diminishing PS and PDI. Further assessment of the selected formula was achieved by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), stability testing, ex vivo skin permeation and deposition. The in vivo pharmacodynamics activities of the optimized formula were examined on male rats and mice and compared to that of the oral market product.

Results

The optimized bilosomal formula demonstrated to be nonirritant, with noticeably enhanced anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities. Superior in vivo permeation was proved by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM).

Conclusion

The outcomes demonstrated that bilosomes could improve transdermal delivery of lornoxicam.

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Enhancement in antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of tramadol by transdermal proniosome gel

Oral therapy of tramadol, an opiate analgesic, undergoes extensive hepatic metabolism and requires frequent administration. Transdermal therapy by virtue can overcome these issues and can improve the efficacy and reduce abuse liability of tramadol. The aim of this research was to investigate the possibility of transdermal delivery of tramadol by formulating proniosome gel and evaluate its therapeutic potential in vivo. The effect of formulation composition as well as amount of drug on physicochemical characteristics of prepared proniosomes were examined. Best proniosome gel (F4) was selected and evaluated for drug release, stability and transdermal efficacy by ex vivo and in vivo experiments. The vesicles demonstrated optimal properties including spherical shape, nanosize with good entrapment efficiency, adequate zeta potential, higher stability and greater transdermal flux. The amorphization and dispersion of tramadol in the aqueous core of proniosome vesicles was confirmed by differential scanning calorimeter. Release profile of F4 was distinct (P < 0.001) from control and displayed steady and prolonged tramadol release by Fickian diffusion. Transdermal therapy of F4 showed prominent reduction of induced twitches (P < 0.005) in mice and edema (P < 0.05) in rats, as compared to oral tramadol. The improvement in clinical efficacy of tramadol in transdermal therapy is correlated with the pharmacokinetic data observed. In conclusion, the observed improvement in antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects from proniosome carriers signifies its potential to be a suitable alternative to oral therapy of tramadol with greater efficacy.

Enhanced Oral Bioavailability of Etodolac by the Liquisolid Compact Technique: Optimisation, In-Vitro and In-Vivo Evaluation

BACKGROUND

Poor dissolution of Etodolac is one of the major challenges in achieving the desired therapeutic effect in oral therapy.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to assess the potential of the liquisolid compact technique in increasing the rate of dissolution of Etodolac and thus its bioavailability.

METHODS

Liquisolid compacts were prepared using PEG 400, Avicel PH-200 and Aerosil 200 as non-volatile liquid, carrier and coating material, respectively. The optimisation was carried out by applying a 32 full factorial design using Design expert software 11.0.3.0 to examine the effects of independent variables (load factor and carrier: coating ratio) on dependent variables (angle of repose and % cumulative drug release at 30 min [Q <sub>30 min]). Assessment of bioavailability was based on a pharmacokinetic study on rabbits and pharmacodynamics evaluation on rats, respectively.

RESULTS

The formulation M3 was identified as the optimised formulation based on the better flow (lower angle of repose) and a higher rate of dissolution (Q ₃₀ min >95%). The higher dissolution rate could be due to conversion of Etodolac into an amorphous molecularly dispersed state, availability of larger surface area, enhancement of aqueous solubility and enhanced wetting of drug particles. Studies with DSC, XRD, and SEM verified the transformation of Etodolac from crystalline to amorphous state, a key factor responsible for improving the dissolution rate. The pharmacokinetic profile of M3 was prominent, demonstrating higher absorption of Etodolac in comparison to oral suspension and immediate-release conventional tablets in rabbits. Liquisolid formulation exhibited a 27% increment in paw thickness as compared to 57% and 46% increments for oral suspension and immediate-release conventional tablets, respectively, after 7 hrs in the carrageenan-induced paw model in rats.

CONCLUSION

The results indicated the liquisolid compact technique to be a promising strategy to enhance the bioavailability of Etodolac.

Development and Optimization of Naringenin-Loaded Chitosan-Coated Nanoemulsion for Topical Therapy in Wound Healing

The potential role of naringenin (NAR), a natural flavonoid, in the treatment of chronic wound has prompted the present research to deliver the drug in nanoemulsion (NE) form, where synergistic role of chitosan was achieved through development of chitosan-coated NAR NE (CNNE). The NE consisted of Capryol 90, Tween 20 and Transcutol P, which was fabricated by low-energy emulsification method to encapsulate NAR within the oil core. The optimization of the formulated NEs was performed using Box-Behnken statistical design to obtain crucial variable parameters that influence globule size, size distribution and surface charge. Finally, the optimized formulation was coated with different concentrations of chitosan and subsequently characterized in vitro. The size of the CNNE was found to be increased when the drug-loaded formulation was coated with chitosan. Controlled release characteristics depicted 67-81% release of NAR from the CNNE, compared to 89% from the NE formulation. Cytotoxicity study of the formulation was performed in vitro using fibroblast cell line (NIH-3T3), where no inhibition in proliferation of the cells was observed with CNNE. Finally, the wound healing potential of the CNNE was evaluated in an abrasion-created wound model in experimental animals where the animals were treated and compared histologically at 0 and 14 days. Significant improvement in construction of the abrasion wound was observed when the animals were treated with formulated CNNE, whereas stimulation of skin regeneration was depicted in the histological examination. Therefore, it could be summarized that the chitosan coating of the developed NAR NE is a potential platform to accelerate healing of wounds.

Vesicular Emulgel Based System for Transdermal Delivery of Insulin: Factorial Design and in Vivo Evaluation

Transdermal delivery of insulin is a great challenge due to its poor permeability through the skin. The aim of the current investigation was to evaluate the prospective of insulin loaded niosome emulgel as a noninvasive delivery system for its transdermal therapy. A 23 full-factorial design was used to optimize the insulin niosome emulgel by assessing the effect of independent variables (concentration of paraffin oil, Tween 80 and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose) on dependent variables (in vitro release, viscosity and in vitro permeation). The physical characteristics of the prepared formulations were carried out by determining viscosity, particle size, entrapment efficiency, drug loading, drug release and kinetics. In vitro permeation studies were carried out using rat skin membrane. Hypoglycemic activity of prepared formulations was assessed in diabetic-induced rats. It was observed that the independent variables influenced the dependent variables. A significant difference (p < 0.05) in viscosity was noticed between the prepared gels, which in turn influenced the insulin release. The order of permeation is: insulin niosome emulgel > insulin niosome gel > insulin emulgel > insulin gel > insulin niosomes > insulin solution. The enhancement in transdermal flux in insulin niosome emulgel was 10-fold higher than the control (insulin solution). In vivo data significantly demonstrated reduction (p < 0.05) of plasma glucose level (at six hours) by insulin niosome emulgel than other formulations tested. The results suggest that the developed insulin niosome emulgel could be an efficient carrier for the transdermal delivery of insulin.

Mucoadhesive buccal film of almotriptan improved therapeutic delivery in rabbit model

Administration of almotriptan as an oral therapy is largely limited because of poor aqueous solubility and rather low bioavailability. The aim of present investigation was to formulate oral mucoadhesive film of almotriptan to improve the drug delivery and desired therapeutic effects. Placebo films (F1-F8) were prepared by varying the concentrations of Proloc 15 (7.5-15% w/v) and Eudragit RL 100/RS 100 (15-30% w/v) polymers. Physicomechanical and pharmaceutical characteristics of drug loaded films (FA1-FA4) were examined. Selected FA4 film was evaluated in vivo by assessing the pharmacokinetic profile and compared with oral therapy in rabbits. FA1-FA4 films exhibited excellent physicomechanical properties and rapid hydration. A biphasic and considerably greater drug release (p < 0.05) was observed in FA3 and FA4 films contain higher amount of hydrophilic polymer. The rate of permeation of almotriptan was found to be significantly higher in FA4 than FA3 film (p < 0.005). Fourier transform infrared spectral scan indicates no incompatibility exists between the drug and polymers used. Differential scanning calorimetry thermogram represents the evidence of almotriptan amorphization and molecular dispersion of it in the film. Scanning electron microscopy images shows that FA4 possess good morphological features and hence suitable for use in the buccal application. In vivo data demonstrated rapid and efficient absorption (p < 0.005) of almotriptan with greater AUC_0-12 (>2 folds, p < 0.0001) by FA4 film as compared to oral (control). In general, the data established the potential of FA4 film to improve the therapeutic delivery of almotriptan and offers a promising option in migraine therapy.

Nanoemulsion Based Vehicle for Effective Ocular Delivery of Moxifloxacin Using Experimental Design and Pharmacokinetic Study in Rabbits

Nanoemulsion is one of the potential drug delivery strategies used in topical ocular therapy. The purpose of this study was to design and optimize a nanoemulsion-based system to improve therapeutic efficacy of moxifloxacin in ophthalmic delivery. Moxifloxacin nanoemulsions were prepared by testing their solubility in oil, surfactants, and cosurfactants. A pseudoternary phase diagram was constructed by titration technique and nanoemulsions were obtained with four component mixtures of Tween 80, Soluphor^® P, ethyl oleate and water. An experiment with simplex lattice design was conducted to assess the influence of formulation parameters in seven nanoemulsion formulations (MM1–MM7) containing moxifloxacin. Physicochemical characteristics and in vitro release of MM1–MM7 were examined and optimized formulation (MM3) was further evaluated for ex vivo permeation, antimicrobial activity, ocular irritation and stability. Drug pharmacokinetics in rabbit aqueous humor was assessed for MM3 and compared with conventional commercial eye drop formulation (control). MM3 exhibited complete drug release in 3 h by Higuchi diffusion controlled mechanism. Corneal steady state flux of MM3 (~32.01 µg/cm²/h) and control (~31.53 µg/cm²/h) were comparable. Ocular irritation study indicated good tolerance of MM3 and its safety for ophthalmic use. No significant changes were observed in the physicochemical properties of MM3 when stored in the refrigerator for 3 months. The greater aqueous humor concentration (C_max; 555.73 ± 133.34 ng/mL) and delayed T_max value (2 h) observed in MM3 suggest a reduced dosing frequency and increased therapeutic efficacy relative to control. The area under the aqueous humor concentration versus time curve (AUC_{0–8 h}) of MM3 (1859.76 ± 424.51 ng·h/mL) was ~2 fold higher (p < 0.0005) than the control, suggesting a significant improvement in aqueous humor bioavailability. Our findings suggest that optimized nanoemulsion (MM3) enhanced the therapeutic effect of moxifloxacin and can therefore be used as a safe and effective delivery vehicle for ophthalmic therapy.