2017 Position Paper of the Italian Society for Cardiovascular Prevention (SIPREC) for an Updated Clinical Management of Hypercholesterolemia and Cardiovascular Risk: Executive Document

Influence of Persistently Elevated LDL Values on Carotid Intima Media Thickness in Elite Athletes

INTRODUCTION

Carotid IMT is a recognized marker for early atherosclerotic changes and a predictor of future CV events. Previous studies showed 11% increased risk of myocardial infarction with each 0.1 mm incremental increase of carotid IMT. In general population, LDL cholesterol levels are positively correlated with carotid IMT in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies while its role in elite athletes remains understudied.

AIM

This study aimed to investigate the correlation between persistent lipid profile alterations and early markers of atherosclerosis, specifically carotid IMT, in a cohort of elite athletes.

METHODS

We included 302 athletes serially evaluated for a prolonged time period. Anthropometric data, blood tests for lipid profiles, and carotid IMT measurements were collected. Dyslipidemia was defined as LDL ≥ 116 mg/dL, and persistent elevation when LDL values remained above the threshold limits in at least three pre-participation screenings. Categorical variables were expressed as frequencies and percentages and were compared using Fisher's exact test or Chi-square test, as appropriate.

RESULTS

91 athletes (30.1%) had persistently elevated LDL levels. Dyslipidemic athletes were older (30.7 ± 5.7 vs. 29.1 ± 4.1 years, p = 0.008), had higher BMI (p = 0.032), and a higher prevalence of obesity (5.5% vs. 0.5%, p = 0.004) compared to those with normal lipid profiles. Additionally, they had higher total cholesterol (p < 0.0001) and triglycerides (p < 0.0001) but similar HDL levels (p = 0.213). Globally, athletes with altered LDL profiles over long-time period showed higher IMT (0.60 ± 0.10 mm vs. 0.57 ± 0.07 mm, p = 0.014). In particular, longer exposure to elevated LDL was significantly associated with increased IMT (0.61 ± 0.12 mm vs. 0.57 ± 0.06 mm, p = 0.035).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights the association between persistently elevated LDL-C and increased carotid IMT in elite athletes, with longer exposure time correlating with more pronounced carotid changes. These findings underscore the importance of regular monitoring of blood lipid profiles and carotid IMT measurements as a non-invasive, cost-effective method to prevent atherosclerotic vascular disease.

Differences Between Afro-Caribbean and White Caucasian Olympic Athletes in Plasma Lipids Profile: A Cross-Sectional Single Center Study

INTRODUCTION

Ethnic and gender differences in plasma lipid composition have been widely reported among the general population, but there are scarce data on athletes.

AIM

To assess ethnic and gender differences in lipid profile across a large cohort of Olympic athletes practicing different sport disciplines METHODS: We enrolled 1165 Olympic athletes divided into power, endurance, and mixed disciplines according to European Society of Cardiology classification. Sixty-two (5.3%) were Afro-Caribbean. Body composition and fat mass percentage were measured. Blood samples were collected and lipid profile was investigated.

RESULTS

Compared to Caucasians, Afro-Caribbeans had better lipid profile characterized by lower LDL (90 ± 25 mg/dL vs. 97.1 ± 26.2 mg/dL, p = 0.032) lower LDL/HDL ratio (1.39 ± 0.5 vs. 1.58 ± 0.6, p = 0.012), lower non-HDL-cholesterol (102.5 ± 27.4 mg/dL vs. 111.5 ± 28.5 mg/dL, p = 0.015) and lower TC/HDL (2.59 ± 0.6 vs. 2.82 ± 0.7, p = 0.010). Female Afro-Caribbeans showed lower TG/HDL ratio (p = 0.045) and TC/HDL ratio (p = 0.028), due to higher HDL (p = 0.005) compared to male Afro-Caribbeans. In Caucasian athletes, females showed even more evident differences with lower TC, LDL, and higher HDL with subsequent lower ratios compared to men. Moreover, endurance Caucasian athletes had lower LDL (p = 0.003) and TG (p = 0.017) plasmatic levels and higher HDL levels compared to non-endurance Caucasian athletes (p< 0.0001) CONCLUSIONS: Ethnicity and gender have a significant influence on plasmatic lipid balance in elite athletes and Afro-Caribbeans have favorable lipid profiles compared to Caucasians. Moreover, endurance sports, particularly in Caucasian athletes, are associated with better lipid profile compared to other type of sports.

Reduction of High Cholesterol Levels by a Preferably Fixed-Combination Strategy as the First Step in the Treatment of Hypertensive Patients with Hypercholesterolemia and High/Very High Cardiovascular Risk: A Consensus Document by the Italian Society of Hypertension

The primary and secondary prevention strategies of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) largely rely on the management of arterial hypertension and hypercholesterolemia, two major risk factors possibly linked in pathophysiological terms by the renin-angiotensin system activation and that often coexist in the same patient synergistically increasing cardiovascular risk. The classic pharmacologic armamentarium to reduce hypercholesterolemia has been based in the last two decades on statins, ezetimibe, and bile acid sequestrants. More recently numerous novel, additive resources targeting different pathways in LDL cholesterol metabolism have emerged. They include drugs targeting the proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) (inhibitory antibodies; small-interfering RNAs), the angiopoietin-like protein 3 (inhibitory antibodies), and the ATP-citrate lyase (the inhibitory oral prodrug, bempedoic acid), with PCSK9 inhibitors and bempedoic acid already approved for clinical use. With the potential of at least halving LDL cholesterol levels faster and more effectively with the addition of ezetimibe than with high-intensity statin alone, and even more with the addition of the novel available drugs, this document endorsed by the Italian Society of Hypertension proposes a novel paradigm for the treatment of the hypertensive patient with hypercholesterolemia at high and very high ASCVD risk. Our proposal is based on the use as a first-line of a preferably fixed combination of lipid-lowering drugs, under the motto “Our goal: achieve control. No setback: combine and check”.

Case Report: Liver Transplantation in Homozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia (HoFH)-Long-Term Follow-Up of a Patient and Literature Review

Homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HoFH) is a rare inherited metabolic disorder, frequently leading to an early cardiovascular death if not adequately treated. Since standard medications usually fail to reduce LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) levels satisfactorily, LDL-apheresis is a mainstay of managing HoFH patients but, at the same time, very burdensome and suboptimally effective. Liver transplantation (LT) has been previously shown to be a promising alternative. We report on a 14 year-long follow-up after LT in a HoFH patient. At the age of 4, the patient was referred to our institution because of the gradually increasing number of xanthomas on the knees, elbows, buttocks, and later the homozygous mutation c.1754T>C (p.Ile585Thr) on the LDL-receptor gene was confirmed. Despite subsequent intensive treatment with the combination of diet, statins, bile acid sequestrant, probucol, and LDL-apheresis, the patient developed valvular aortic stenosis and aortic regurgitation by 12 years. At 16 years, the patient successfully underwent deceased-donor orthotopic LT. Nine years post-LT, we found total regression of the cutaneous xanthomas and atherosclerotic plaques and with normal endothelial function. Fourteen years post-LT, his clinical condition remained stable, but LDL-C levels have progressively risen. In addition, a systematic review of the literature and guidelines on the LT for HoFH patients was performed. Six of the 17 identified guidelines did not take LT as a treatment option in consideration at all. But still the majority of guidelines suggest LT as an exceptional therapeutic option or as the last resort option when all the other treatment options are inadequate or not tolerated. Most of the observed patients had some kind of cardiovascular disease before the LT. In 76% of LT, the cardiovascular burden did not progress after LT. According to our experience and in several other reported cases, the LDL-C levels are slowly increasing over time post LT. Most of the follow-up data were short termed; only a few case reports have followed patients for 10 or more years after LT. LT is a feasible therapeutic option for HoFH patients, reversing atherosclerotic changes uncontrollable by conservative therapy, thus importantly improving the HoFH patient's prognosis and quality of life.

Impact of Lipid-Lowering Therapy on Mortality According to the Baseline Non-HDL Cholesterol Level: A Meta-Analysis

INTRODUCTION

Previous report showed that more intensive lipid-lowering therapy was associated with less mortality when baseline LDL-C levels were > 100 mg/dL. Non-HDL-C is a better predictor of cardiovascular risk than simpler LDL-C.

AIM

The objective of this meta-analysis was to define the impact of lipid-lowering therapy on the reduction of total and cardiovascular mortality by different baseline levels of non-HDL-C.

METHODS

We performed a meta-analysis including randomized, controlled clinical trials of lipid-lowering therapy, reporting mortality with a minimum of 6 months of follow-up, searching in PubMed/Medline, EMBASE and Cochrane Clinical Trials databases. The random-effects model and meta-regression were performed.

RESULTS

Twenty nine trials of lipid-lowering drugs, including 233,027 patients, were considered eligible for the analyses. According to the baseline non-HDL-C level, the results on cardiovascular mortality were: (1) ≥ 190 mg/dL: OR 0.63 (95% CI 0.53-0.76); (2) 160-189 mg/dL: OR 0.82 (95% CI 0.75-0.89); (3) 130-159 mg/dL: OR 0.71 (95% CI 0.52-0.98); (4) < 130 mg/dL: OR 0.95 (95% CI 0.87-1.05). When evaluating mortality from any cause, the results were the following: (1) ≥ 190 mg/dL: OR 0.70 (95% CI 0.61-0.82); (2) 160-189 mg/dL: OR 0.91 (95% CI 0.83-0.98); (3) 130-159 mg/dL; OR 0.88 (95% CI 0.77-1.00); (4) < 130 mg/dL: OR 0.98 (95% CI 0.91-1.06). The meta-regression analysis showed a significant association between baseline non-HDL-C and mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

In these meta-analyses, lipid-lowering therapy was associated with reduction in the risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality when baseline non-HDL-C levels were above than 130 mg/dL.

Efficacy and Safety of Berberine Alone or Combined with Statins for the Treatment of Hyperlipidemia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials

To systematically evaluate the efficacy and safety of berberine for the treatment of hyperlipidemia, six electronic literature databases including SinoMed, CNKI, WanFang Data, PubMed, Embase and The Cochrane Library were searched to collect clinical randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of berberine alone or combined with statins for the treatment of hyperlipidemia from the inception to 8 March 2018. Two reviewers independently screened literature, extracted data and assessed the risk of bias of included RCTs. Then, meta-analysis was performed by using RevMan 5.3 software. A total of 11 RCTs involving 1386 patients were finally included. The results of meta-analysis showed that compared with the placebo group, berberine could significantly reduce the total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein levels and elevate the high density lipoprotein level ([Formula: see text]). Compared with the simvastatin group, berberine was effective only in reducing the level of triglyceride ([Formula: see text], 95% CI: [Formula: see text]0.66, [Formula: see text]0.07, [Formula: see text]). There, however, was no statistical significance between the BBR group and simvastatin group in the low density lipoprotein and high density lipoprotein levels. Compared with the simvastatin group, berberine plus simvastatin was more effective in reducing the level of triglyceride ([Formula: see text], 95% CI: [Formula: see text]0.46, [Formula: see text]0.20, [Formula: see text]) and total cholesterol ([Formula: see text], 95% CI: [Formula: see text]0.60, [Formula: see text]0.12, [Formula: see text]). In terms of adverse reactions, the incidence of adverse reactions including transaminase elevation and muscle aches was lower in the berberine alone or combined with simvastatin group than that in the control group, while the instance of constipation was higher. This study suggests that berberine is effective for hyperlipidemia. The quality and quantity of included studies, however, were dissatisfactory, which might decrease the reliability of the results. Higher quality studies are needed to provide more high quality evidence.

Executive Summary of the 2018 Joint Consensus Document on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Italy

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death, disability and hospitalization in Italy. Primary prevention strategies are able to prevent clinically evident CVDs, mostly by early identifying asymptomatic, otherwise healthy individuals at risk of developing CVDs. A more modern approach recommended for effective CVD prevention is based on "4P", that is: Predictive, Preventive, Personalized and Participative. This executive document reflects the key points of a consensus paper on CV prevention in Italy, realized though the contribution of different Italian Scientific Societies and the National Research Council, and coordinated by the Italian Society of Cardiovascular Prevention (SIPREC), published in 2018. The need for such document relies on the difficulty to apply "sic et simpliciter" European guidelines, to which this document is largely inspired, to national, regional and local realities, in this Mediterranean country, namely Italy. Indeed, our Country has specific features in terms of demography, socio-cultural habits, distribution and prevalence of risk factors, organization, policy and access to National Health Service compared to other European countries.