Differential actions of diacyl- and alkylacylglycerols in priming phospholipase A2, 5-lipoxygenase and acetyltransferase activation in human neutrophils

Dietary gangliosides increase the content and molecular percentage of ether phospholipids containing 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 in weanling rat intestine

This study was conducted to determine whether dietary ganglioside (GG) increases the content of ether phospholipids (EPL) in intestinal mucosa. Weanling Sprague-Dawley rats were fed a semipurified diet consisting of 20% fat as a control diet. Two experimental diets were formulated by adding either 0.1% (w/w fat) GGs (GG diet) or 1.0% (w/w fat) sphingomyelin (SM diet) to the control diet. Fatty acid methyl esters from the alkenylacyl, alkylacyl and diacyl subclasses of phospholipids were measured to determine total and molecular percentage of EPL comprising the choline phosphoglyceride (CPG) and ethanolamine phosphoglyceride (EPG) fraction. Animals fed the GG diet significantly increased total EPL content both in CPG (by 36%) and in EPG (by 66%), and the molecular percentage of EPL in CPG (by 76%) and in EPG (by 59%) compared to animals fed the control diet. Dietary GG-induced increase in EPL resulted in a higher level of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) specifically in 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 compared to control animals, leading to a decrease in the ratio of saturated fatty acids (SFA) to PUFA both in CPG and in EPG. Feeding animals the SM diet showed a higher level of EPL than control animals with a concomitant increase in 22:6n-3 in EPL. The present data demonstrate that dietary GG increases the content and composition of EPL containing PUFA in the weanling rat intestine.

The aminosteroid phospholipase C antagonist U-73122 (1-[6-[[17-beta-3-methoxyestra-1,3,5(10)-trien-17-yl]amino]hexyl]-1H-pyrrole-2,5-dione) potently inhibits human 5-lipoxygenase in vivo and in vitro

U-73122 (1-[6-[[17-beta-3-methoxyestra-1,3,5(10)-trien-17-yl]amino] hexyl]-1H-pyrrole-2,5-dione) is a widely used antagonist of phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C (PLC) and is frequently used to define a role of PLC in receptor-mediated elevation of intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i). In human polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs), U-73122 inhibited increases in [Ca2+]i induced by G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) agonists (N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine or platelet-activating factor; IC50 of approximately 2 to 4 microM), but it failed to suppress responses induced by ionomycin or thapsigargin. 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LO) is a Ca(2+)-regulated enzyme that can be activated in leukocytes by stimuli that elevate [Ca2+]i. Attempts to investigate the involvement of PLC in cellular 5-LO activation revealed that U-73122 suppresses 5-LO product synthesis regardless of the stimulus and independently of Ca2+. Thus, U-73122 blocked 5-LO product synthesis induced by cell stress, involving 5-LO phosphorylation pathways in the absence of Ca2+ with an IC50 of approximately 2 microM. Direct inhibition of 5-LO by U-73122 was evident in PMNL homogenates (IC50 of approximately 2.4 microM), and isolated human recombinant 5-LO enzyme was potently inhibited by U-73122 (IC50 of approximately 30 nM). Thiols (glutathione) strongly blunted the effect of U-73122 on isolated 5-LO. On the other hand, depletion of cellular thiols by N-ethylmaleimide strongly increased the efficacy of U-73122 to inhibit 5-LO in intact cells or corresponding homogenates, suggesting that U-73122 may interfere with sulfhydryl groups on 5-LO. Since 5-LO products induce increases in [Ca2+]i via GPCRs, caution should be used when interpreting data where U-73122 is used as tool to determine a direct role of PLC in receptor-mediated Ca2+ mobilization.

Induction of 5-lipoxygenase activation in polymorphonuclear leukocytes by 1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol

1,2-Diacylglycerols (DAGs) can prime polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNL) for enhanced release of arachidonic acid (AA) and generation of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) products upon subsequent agonist stimulation. Here, we demonstrate that in isolated human PMNL, 1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol (OAG) functions as a direct agonist stimulating 5-LO product formation (up to 42-fold). OAG caused no release of endogenous AA, but in the presence of exogenous AA, the magnitude of 5-LO product synthesis induced by OAG was comparable to that obtained with the Ca(2+)-ionophore A23187. Interestingly, OAG-induced 5-LO product synthesis was not connected with increased 5-LO nuclear membrane association. Examination of diverse glycerides revealed that the sn-2-acetyl-group is important, thus, also 1-O-hexadecyl-2-acetylglycerol (EAG) stimulated 5-LO product formation (up to 8-fold). Treatment of PMNL with OAG did not alter the mobilization of Ca(2+) but removal of intracellular Ca(2+) abolished the upregulatory OAG effects. Notably, the PKC activator phorbol-myristate-acetate hardly increased 5-LO product synthesis and PKC inhibitors failed to suppress the effects of OAG. Although OAG rapidly activated p38 MAPK and p42/44(MAPK), which can stimulate 5-LO for product synthesis, specific inhibitors of these kinases could not prevent 5-LO activation by OAG. Together, OAG acts as a direct agonist for 5-LO product synthesis in PMNL stimulating 5-LO by novel undefined mechanisms.

Evidence for involvement of the epidermal platelet-activating factor receptor in ultraviolet-B-radiation-induced interleukin-8 production

Ultraviolet B radiation has been shown to generate cutaneous inflammation in part through inducing oxidative stress and cytokine production in human keratinocytes. Amongst the proinflammatory cytokines synthesized in response to ultraviolet B radiation is the potent chemoattractant interleukin-8. Though the lipid mediator platelet-activating factor (PAF) is synthesized in response to oxidative stress, and keratinocytes express PAF receptors linked to cytokine biosynthesis, it is not known whether PAF is involved in ultraviolet-B-induced epidermal cell cytokine production. These studies examined the role of the PAF system in ultraviolet-B-induced epidermal cell interleukin-8 biosynthesis using a novel model system created by retroviral-mediated transduction of the PAF-receptor-negative human epidermal cell line KB with the human PAF receptor. Treatment of PAF-receptor-expressing KB cells with the metabolically stable PAF receptor agonist carbamoyl-PAF resulted in increased interleukin-8 mRNA and protein, indicating that activation of the epidermal PAF receptor was linked to interleukin-8 production. Ultraviolet B irradiation of PAF-receptor-expressing KB cells resulted in significant increases in both interleukin-8 mRNA and protein in comparison to ultraviolet-B-treated control KB cells. Pretreatment with PAF receptor antagonists inhibited both carbamoyl-PAF-induced and ultraviolet-B-induced interleukin-8 production in the PAF-receptor-positive cells, but not in control KB cells. Similarly, treatment of the PAF-receptor-expressing primary cultures of human keratinocytes or the human epidermal cell line A-431 with carbamoyl-PAF or ultraviolet B radiation resulted in interleukin-8 production that was partially inhibited by PAF receptor antagonists. These studies suggest that the epidermal PAF receptor may be a pharmacologic target for ultraviolet B radiation in skin and thus may act to augment ultraviolet-B-mediated production of cytokines such as interleukin-8.

Phospholipase D, tumor promoters, proliferation and prostaglandins

Phosphatidylcholine hydrolysis by phospholipase D is a widespread response to cellular stimulation. However, the downstream signaling events subsequent to phosphatidylcholine hydrolysis are just beginning to be determined. Initially it was proposed that diglyceride formation by phospholipase D and phosphatidate phosphohydrolase resulted in long-term stimulation of protein kinase C. However, recent studies indicate that phosphatidic acid is the relevant signaling molecule in some signaling pathways. The present review will summarize studies of phospholipase D in the response of cells to the tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate, which causes cells to mimic the phenotype of oncogenic transformation. The role of phospholipase D in stimulation of Raf-1 and prostaglandin H synthase type-2 is emphasized.

Phospholipase A2: its usefulness in laboratory diagnostics

Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of membrane phospholipids. This article reviews the source and structure of PLA2, the involvement of the enzyme in various biological and pathological phenomena, and the usefulness of PLA2 assays in laboratory diagnostics. Of particular importance is the role of PLA2 in the cellular production of mediators of inflammatory response to various stimuli. Assays for PLA2 activity and mass concentration are discussed, and the results of enzyme determinations in plasma from patients with different pathological conditions are presented. The determination of activity and mass concentration in plasma is particularly useful in the diagnosis and prognosis of pancreatitis, multiple organ failure, septic shock, and rheumatoid arthritis. A very important result is the demonstration that PLA2 is an acute phase protein, like CRP. Indeed, there is a close correlation between PLA2 mass concentration and CRP levels in several pathological conditions. Although the determination of C-reactive protein is much easier to perform and is routinely carried out in most clinical laboratories, the assessment of PLA2 activity or mass concentration has to be considered as a reliable approach to obtain a deeper understanding of some pathological conditions and may offer additional information concerning the prognosis of several disorders.

Subcellular localization of enzyme activities involved in the metabolism of platelet-activating factor in rainbow trout leukocytes

The subcellular distribution of an alkyllyso-GPC: acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.67) and transacylase, two important enzyme activities involved in the remodeling pathway for the biosynthesis of platelet-activating factor (1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, PAF) have been examined in leukocytes isolated from the pronephros of the rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Contrary to mammalian systems, in which the acetyltransferase is localized to intracellular membranes, the subcellular distribution of an acetyltransferase activity in rainbow trout leukocytes was localized to the plasma membrane. Analysis of the acetyltransferase products by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) confirmed synthesis of two subclasses of PAF, 1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine and 1-acyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine. The transacylase activity in this study was detected in membrane fractions in two domains of the intermediate density region which also contained the NADH dehydrogenase activity, a marker enzyme for the endoplasmic reticulum. Acylation of lysoPAF (1-O-alkyl-2-lyso-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) exhibited approximately 95% specificity for omega-3 fatty acids. Acylation patterns were not significantly different in either domain of the endoplasmic reticulum. A model is proposed herein for the metabolism of PAF in rainbow trout leukocytes.

Oxidative stress can activate the epidermal platelet-activating factor receptor

Platelet-activating factor (1-alkyl-2-acetyl-glycero-phosphocholine) is a lipid mediator that has been implicated in keratinocyte function and cutaneous inflammation. Keratinocytes both synthesize platelet-activating factor and express functional platelet-activating factor receptors linked to calcium mobilization. Oxidative stress to various cells including keratinocytes can also result in the mobilization of intracellular Ca2+, a known stimulus for platelet-activating factor biosynthesis. The ability of the epidermal platelet-activating factor receptors to modulate oxidant-induced signaling was investigated using a unique model system created by retroviral-mediated transduction of the platelet-activating factor receptor-negative epithelial cell line KB with the platelet-activating factor receptor. Treatment of KB cells with the lipid pro-oxidant tert-butyl hydroperoxide induced transient increases in intracellular Ca2+ in a concentration-dependent fashion. Expression of the platelet-activating factor receptor in KB cells lowered the threshold for tert-butyl hydroperoxide-induced Ca2+ flux by an order of magnitude (10 microM in control KB versus 1 microM in KB cells expressing the platelet-activating factor receptors) and increased the peak change in intracellular Ca2+ concentration in response to this lipid hydroperoxide. This augmentation of tert-butyl hydroperoxide-induced Ca2+ mobilization was inhibited by pretreatment with the two competitive platelet-activating factor receptor antagonists CV-6209 and WEB 2086, as well as by the antioxidants vitamin E and 1,1,3,3-tetramethyl-2-thiourea. KB cells synthesized platelet-activating factor and the platelet-activating factor receptor agonist 1-palmitoyl-2-acetyl-glycero-phosphocholine in response to tert-butyl hydroperoxide treatment, suggesting the augmentation of oxidative stress-induced signaling seen in platelet-activating factor receptor-expressing cells was due in part to endogenous platelet-activating factor biosynthesis. These studies suggest involvement of the epidermal platelet-activating factor receptors in oxidant-mediated signaling.

Differential activation of human neutrophil cytosolic phospholipase A2 and secretory phospholipase A2 during priming by 1,2-diacyl- and 1-O-alkyl-2-acylglycerols

We have shown previously that both 1,2-diacylglycerol (AAG) and 1-O-alkyl-2-acylglycerol (EAG) prime neutrophil release of arachidonic acid via uncharacterized phospholipases A2. Therefore, we investigated the actions of EAG and AAG specifically on neutrophil cytosolic (cPLA2) and secretory (sPLA2) phospholipase A2s. We hypothesized that AAG as a protein kinase activator would activate cPLA2 via phosphorylation events. EAG is antagonistic to the AAG activation of PKC, thus it was not expected to act via phosphorylation of cPLA2. Neutrophils were primed with either AAG or EAG and then stimulated with fMLP. When neutrophils were primed with 5-20 microM 1,2-diacylglycerol, a shift was observed in cPLA2 migration on SDS-PAGE gels, consistent with phosphorylation of the protein. This gel shift was not seen after exposure to EAG. AAG also caused a parallel increase in enzymatic activity of cPLA2 that was not seen with EAG. We also investigated whether either diglyceride would cause similar priming or direct secretion of sPLA2. Both AAG and EAG directly caused significant secretion of neutrophil sPLA2. EAG also increased the release of sPLA2 in cells subsequently stimulated with fMLP. Thus, AAG activated cPLA2 and stimulated secretion of sPLA2. In contrast, EAG did not activate cPLA2, but directly activated secretion of sPLA2. We also demonstrated that human synovial fluid sPLA2 increased AA release from resting and fMLP-stimulated neutrophils. Given that diglycerides prime for release of AA, PAF, and LTB4, these current data support the hypothesis that such priming may be mediated by phosphorylation dependent (cPLA2) or phosphorylation independent (e.g. secretion of sPLA2) events.

Activation of the Epidermal Platelet-Activating Factor Receptor Results in Cytokine and Cyclooxygenase-2 Biosynthesis

Recent studies suggest that the lipid mediator platelet-activating factor (PAF) is involved in keratinocyte function and skin inflammation. Indeed, PAF is found in association with inflammatory skin diseases, intradermal injections of PAF induce inflammation, and keratinocytes express functional PAF receptors (PAF-R). One mechanism by which the keratinocyte PAF-R could contribute to epidermal functions and inflammatory states would be through the synthesis of inflammatory regulators, such as PAF, PGs, and cytokines. The ability of the epidermal PAF-R to induce the synthesis of these immunomodulators was tested using a model system created by transduction of the PAF-R-negative human epidermal cell line KB with the PAF-R. Activation of this epidermal PAF-R resulted in arachidonic acid release, and the biosynthesis of PAF and PGE2. In addition, the KB PAF-R triggered increased levels of mRNA and protein for the inducible isozyme of cyclooxygenase (COX-2) as well as IL-6 and IL-8, both of which have been implicated in skin inflammatory processes. Studies with the human keratinocyte-derived epidermal cell line HaCaT revealed that activation of the endogenous PAF-R led to the increased accumulation of COX-2, IL-6, and IL-8 mRNA similar to that seen with the KB PAF-R model system. Finally, treatment of HaCaT keratinocytes with IL-8 resulted in PAF biosynthesis, indicating the existence of a positive feedback loop between IL-8 and PAF in epidermal cells. These studies suggest involvement of PAF and the PAF-R in the epidermal cytokine network.

Mechanisms of formation and function of eosinophil lipid bodies: inducible intracellular sites involved in arachidonic acid metabolism

Lipid bodies, inducible lipid-rich cytoplasmic inclusions, are characteristically abundant in cells associated with inflammation, including eosinophils. Here we reviewed the formation and function of lipid bodies in human eosinophils. We now have evidence that the formation of lipid bodies is not attributable to adverse mechanisms, but is centrally mediated by specific signal transduction pathways. Arachidonic acid and other cis fatty acids by an NSAID-inhibitable process, diglycerides, and PAF by a 5-lipoxygenase dependent pathway are potent stimulators of lipid body induction. Lipid body formation develops rapidly by processes that involve PKC, PLC, and de novo mRNA and protein synthesis. These structures clearly serve as repositories of arachidonyl-phospholipids and are more than inert depots. Specific enzymes, including cytosolic phospholipase A2, MAP kinases, lipoxygenases and cyclooxygenases, associate with lipid bodies. Lipid bodies appear to be dynamic, organelle-like structures involved in intracellular pathways of lipid mobilization and metabolism. Indeed, increases in lipid body numbers correlated with enhanced production of both lipoxygenase- and cyclooxygenase-derived eicosanoids. We hypothesize that lipid bodies are distinct inducible sites for generating eicosanoids as paracrine mediators with varied activities in inflammation. The capacity of lipid body formation to be specifically and rapidly induced in leukocytes enhances eicosanoid mediator formation, and conversely pharmacologic inhibition of lipid body induction represents a potential novel and specific target for anti-inflammatory therapy.

Identification and pharmacological characterization of platelet-activating factor and related 1-palmitoyl species in human inflammatory blistering diseases

Through its pro-inflammatory effects on leukocytes, endothelial cells, and keratinocytes, the lipid mediator platelet-activating factor (PAF) has been implicated in cutaneous inflammation. Although the 1-alkyl PAF species has been considered historically the most abundant and important ligand for the PAF receptor (PAF-R), other putative ligands for this receptor have been described including 1-acyl analogs of sn-2 acetyl glycerophosphocholines. Previous bioassays have demonstrated a PAF-like activity in lesions of the autoimmune blistering disease bullous pemphigoid. To assess the actual sn-2 acetyl glycerophosphocholine species that result in this PAF agonistic activity, we measured PAF and related sn-2 acetyl GPCs in fresh blister fluid samples from bullous pemphigoid and noninflammatory (suction-induced) bullae by mass spectrometry. We report the presence of 1-hexadecyl as well as the 1-acyl PAF analog 1-palmitoyl-2-acetyl glycerophosphocholine (PAPC) in inflammatory blister fluid samples. Because PAPC is the most abundant sn-2 acetyl glycerophosphocholine species found in all samples examined, the pharmacological effects of this species with respect to the PAF-R were determined using a model system created by transduction of a PAF-R-negative epidermoid cell line with the PAF-R. Radioligand binding and intracellular calcium mobilization studies indicated that PAPC is approximately 100x less potent than PAF. Though a weak agonist, PAPC could induce PAF biosynthesis and PAF-R desensitization. Finally, intradermal injections of PAF and PAPC into the ventral ears of rats demonstrated that PAPC was 100x less potent in vivo. These studies suggest possible involvement of PAF and related species in inflammatory bullous diseases.

Expression of the platelet-activating factor receptor results in enhanced ultraviolet B radiation-induced apoptosis in a human epidermal cell line

Recent studies have demonstrated that ultraviolet B radiation (UVB) damages human keratinocytes in part by inducing oxidative stress and cytokine production. Severe UVB damage to the keratinocyte can also result in apoptosis or programmed cell death. Although the lipid mediator platelet-activating factor (PAF) is synthesized in response to epidermal cell damage and epidermal cells express PAF receptors, it is not known whether PAF is involved in UVB-induced epidermal cell apoptosis. These studies examined the role of the PAF system in UVB-induced epidermal cell apoptosis using a novel model system created by retroviral-mediated transduction of the PAF receptor-negative human epidermal cell line KB with the human PAF receptor (PAF-R). Expression of the PAF-R in KB cells did not affect base-line growth or apoptosis, yet resulted in a decrease in the lag time between treatment of the cells and the induction of apoptosis following irradiation with 400 J/m2 UVB. This effect was inhibited by pretreatment with the PAF-R antagonists WEB 2086 and A-85783, confirming involvement of the PAF-R in this process. At lower doses (100-200 J/m2) of UVB, only KB cells that expressed the PAF-R became apoptotic. Treatment of PAF-R-expressing KB clones with the metabolically stable PAF-R agonist 1-hexadexyl-2-N-methylcarbamoyl-3-glycerophosphocholine (CPAF) alone did not induce apoptosis but augmented the degree of apoptosis observed if CPAF was used in combination with lower doses (200 J/m2) of UVB irradiation. Interestingly, UVB irradiation was found to stimulate PAF synthesis only in PAF-R-expressing KB cell clones. The antioxidants N-acetyl cysteine, 1,1,3,3-tetramethyl-2-thiourea, and vitamin E inhibited both UVB-induced PAF biosynthesis as well as the augmentation of UVB-induced apoptosis in PAF-R-expressing KB clones, suggesting the possibility that UVB stimulates the production of oxidized lipid species with PAF-R agonistic activity in this model system. Thus, these studies indicate that a component of UVB-induced epidermal cell cytotoxicity can be modulated by PAF-R activation through the production of PAF and PAF-like species.

Secretory and cytosolic phospholipases A2 are activated during TNF priming of human neutrophils

Cytokines alter neutrophil (PMN) function during inflammation, and Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) in vitro primes PMN such that receptor-mediated stimulation causes markedly enhanced release of arachidonic acid. We hypothesized that two Ca(2+)-dependent PLA2's in PMN might be activated during priming of the cell, thus affecting arachidonate release. A low molecular weight, secretory PLA2 was identified by enzymatic activity in the cell free supernates of primed or stimulated PMN, and in PMN disrupted by nitrogen cavitation. The enzymatic activity was calcium-dependent, acid stable, destroyed by dithiothreitol, and blocked by anti-sPLA2 antibodies. TNF caused secretion of sPLA2 and also caused an increase in cell-associated sPLA2 enzymatic activity. Activation and release were maximal with fMLP stimulation of TNF-primed PMN. Neutrophils also contained a cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2) characterized by enzymatic activity which was calcium dependent, enhanced by dithiothreitol, and blocked by anti-cPLA2 antibody. TNF caused a doubling of cPLA2 enzymatic activity which was associated with phosphorylation of the enzyme as judged by a migration shift on Western blots. Thus, TNF priming of human PMN caused marked increase in fMLP stimulated AA release in parallel to enhanced activity of two different PLA2's.

Eosinophil lipid bodies: specific, inducible intracellular sites for enhanced eicosanoid formation

The specific intracellular sites at which enzymes act to generate arachidonate-derived eicosanoid mediators of inflammation are uncertain. We evaluated the formation and function of cytoplasmic lipid bodies. Lipid body formation in eosinophils was a rapidly (<1 h) inducible response which was platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor-mediated, involved signaling through protein kinase C, and required new protein synthesis. In intact and enucleated eosinophils, the PAF-induced increases in lipid body numbers correlated with enhanced production of both lipoxygenase- and cyclooxygenase-derived eicosanoids. All principal eosinophil eicosanoid-forming enzymes, 5-lipoxygenase, leukotriene C4 synthase, and cyclooxygenase, were immunolocalized to native as well as newly induced lipid bodies in intact and enucleated eosinophils. Thus, lipid bodies are structurally distinct, inducible, nonnuclear sites for enhanced synthesis of paracrine eicosanoid mediators of inflammation.

Comparison of alkylacylglycerol vs. diacylglycerol as activators of mitogen-activated protein kinase and cytosolic phospholipase A2 in human neutrophil priming

In human neutrophils, the choline-containing phosphoglycerides contain almost equal amounts of alkylacyl- and diacyl-linked subclasses. In contrast to phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis which yields diacylglycerol, hydrolysis of choline-containing phosphoglycerides by phospholipase D coupled with phosphohydrolase yields both alkylacyl- and diacylglycerol. While diacylglycerol activates protein kinase C, alkylacylglycerol does not, and its role is unclear. Yet previous studies have shown that exogenous alkylacyl- and diacylglycerols can prime for the release of radiolabeled arachidonic acid (AA) in intact neutrophils stimulated by formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine. We have now examined the effects of both diacylglycerol (1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol; OAG) and alkylacylglycerol (1-O-hexadecyl-2-acetylglycerol; EAG) on the activation of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase and the 85-kDa cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) in human neutrophils. We observed that while OAG could effectively activate p42 and p44 MAP kinases along with cPLA2 in a time- and concentration-dependent manner, EAG could not. A novel p40 MAP kinase isoform is also present and activated in response to OAG treatment; the behavior of this MAP kinase isoform is discussed. The activation of cPLA2 and MAP kinase by 20 microM OAG could be inhibited by pretreatment with 1 microM GF-109203X, a selective inhibitor of protein kinase C. Although only OAG activated cPLA2, both OAG and EAG primed for the release of AA mass as determined by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. The priming of AA release by OAG may be explained by the phosphorylation of cPLA2 through the activation of protein kinase C linked to MAP kinase. However, priming by EAG appears to involve a separate mechanism that is dependent on a different PLA2. Our results support a role for phospholipase D-derived products modulating the activation of cPLA2, further supporting the idea of cross-talk among various phospholipases.

Induction of cytosolic phospholipase A2 activity by phosphatidic acid and diglycerides in permeabilized human neutrophils: interrelationship between phospholipases D and A2

Relationships between phospholipases are poorly understood, but phosphatidic acid (PA) and diglycerides (DGs), produced by phospholipase D (PLD) and phosphatidate phosphohydrolase actions, might function as second messengers coupling cell stimulation to cellular responses. This study investigates the role of PLD-mediated PA and DG formation in inducing phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activity in intact human neutrophils (PMNs) and in PMNs permeabilized with Staphylococcus aureus alpha-toxin. PMNs were labelled with [3H]arachidonic acid (AA) to assess AA release and metabolism and diacylglycerol formation, or with [3H]1-O-hexadecyl-2-lyso-glycerophosphatidylcholine for the determination of platelet-activating factor (PAF), PA and alkylacylglycerol production. In intact PMNs primed with tumour necrosis factor alpha before stimulation with N-formyl-Met-Leu-Phe, AA release and metabolism and PAF formation increased in parallel with enhanced PA and DG formation, and inhibition of PA and DG production led to a decrease in both AA release and PAF accumulation. In alpha-toxin-permeabilized PMNs, AA release and PAF production result from the specific activation of cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2). In this system, PA and DG formation were always present when cPLA2 activation occurred; blocking PA and DG production inhibited AA release and PAF accumulation. Adding either PA or DG back to permeabilized cells (with endogenous PA and DG formation blocked) led to a partial restoration of AA release and PAF formation; a combination of PA and DGs reconstituted full cPLA2 activity. These results strongly suggest that products of PLD participate in activating cPLA2 in PMNs.

Leukotriene B4 and platelet activating factor production in permeabilized human neutrophils: role of cytosolic PLA2 in LTB4 and PAF generation

The specific type of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) involved in formation of leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and platelet activating factor (PAF) in inflammatory cells has been controversial. In a recent report we characterized activation of the 'cytosolic' form of PLA2 (cPLA2) in human neutrophils (PMN) permeabilized with Staphylococcus aureus alpha-toxin under conditions where the secretory form of PLA2 (sPLA2) was inactive. In the current study, generation of both LTB4 and PAF in porated PMN are demonstrated. PMN, prelabeled with [3H]arachidonic acid (3H-AA, to assess AA release and LTB4 production) or with 1-O-[9',10'-3H]hexadecyl-2-lyso-glycero-3-phosphocholine (3H-lyso-PAF, for determination of lyso-PAF and PAF formation), were permeabilized with alpha-toxin in a 'cytoplasmic' buffer supplemented with acetyl CoA. Maximum production of both PAF and LTB4 required addition of 500 nM Ca2+, G-protein activation induced with 10 microM GTP gamma S, and stimulation with the chemotactic peptide, N-formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (FMLP, 1 microM); LTB4 production was confirmed by radioimmunoassay. Removal of acetyl CoA from the system had little effect on LTB4 generation but blocked PAF production with a concomitant increase in lyso-PAF formation LTB4 and PAF production occurred in parallel over time and at differing ATP and Ca2+ concentrations. Further work demonstrated that: (i) maximum production of both inflammatory mediators required a hydrolyzable form of ATP; (ii) blocking phosphorylation with staurosporin inhibited production of both; (iii) the reducing agent, dithiotreitol, had little affect on LTB4 formation but slightly enhanced PAF generation. This study clearly shows that cPLA2 activation can provide precursors for both LTB4 and PAF, that maximum PAF and LTB4 formation occur under conditions that induced optimal cPLA2 activation, that a close coupling between LTB4 and PAF formation exists, and that, after substrate generation, no additional requirements are necessary for LTB4 and PAF generation in the permeabilized PMN system.

CD11b/CD18-dependent stimulation of leukotriene B4 synthesis by human neutrophils (PMN) is synergistically enhanced by tumour necrosis factor alpha and low dose diacylglycerol

Unopsonised zymosan particles bind to the CD11b/CD18 integrin on human neutrophils (PMN) and are phagocytosed. Binding stimulates the release of leukotriene (LT) B4. The present study examined the effect on this interaction of two agents that 'prime' PMN for augmented responses to a variety of agonists. The cell permeable diacyl glycerol, 1,2-dioctanoyl-glycerol (DiC8) and TNF alpha each increased CD11b/CD18 expression on PMN [maximal at 10-9 M TNF alpha or 10-8 M DiC8]. There was a decrease, however, in CD11b/CD18 expression above 10-8 M DiC8, which was not observed at high concentrations of TNF alpha. Pre-treatment with either DiC8 or TNF alpha dose-dependently augmented the zymosan-stimulated release of LTB4 from PMN. DiC8 and TNF alpha in combination, however, synergistically increased LTB4 release. In contrast, at concentrations above 10-8 M DiC8, whether in the presence or absence of TNF alpha, LTB4 release was inhibited and this was ameliorated by protein kinase C inhibitors. The response to neither TNF alpha nor DiC8 (below 10-8 M) was kinase inhibitor sensitive. Doses of DAG, which activate protein kinase C, inhibit CD11b/CD18-dependent responses by down-regulating receptor expression. In contrast, the mechanisms of TNF alpha and low dose DAG 'priming' are not clear but are independent of PKC activation. The synergy between these two priming agents, however, suggests independent, complementary signalling pathways that provide a novel, potentially important mechanism for the control of PMN CD11b/CD18 integrin-dependent activation.

Mechanisms of platelet-activating factor-induced lipid body formation: requisite roles for 5-lipoxygenase and de novo protein synthesis in the compartmentalization of neutrophil lipids

Lipid bodies, lipid rich cytoplasmic inclusions, are characteristically abundant in vivo in leukocytes associated with inflammation. Because lipid bodies are potential reservoirs of esterified arachidonate and sites at which eicosanoid-forming enzymes may localize, we evaluated mechanisms of lipid body formation in neutrophils (PMN). Among receptor-mediated agonists, platelet activating factor (PAF), but not C5a, formyl-methyl-phenylalanine, interleukin 8, or leukotriene (LT) B4, induced the rapid formation of lipid bodies in PMN. This action of PAF was receptor mediated, as it was dose dependently inhibited by the PAF receptor antagonist WEB 2086 and blocked by pertussis toxin. Lipid body induction by PAF required 5-lipoxygenase (LO) activity and was inhibited by the 5-lipoxygenase-activating protein antagonist MK 886 and the 5-LO inhibitor zileuton, but not by cyclooxygenase inhibitors. Corroborating the dependency of PAF-induced lipid body formation on 5-LO, PMN and macrophages from wild-type mice, but not from 5-LO genetically deficient mice, formed lipid bodies on exposure to PAF both in vitro and in vivo within the pleural cavity. The 5-LO product inducing lipid body formation was not LTB4 but was 5(S)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid [5(S)-HETE], which was active at 10-fold lower concentrations than PAF and was also inhibited by pertussis toxin but not by zileuton or WEB 2086. Furthermore, 5-HETE was equally effective in inducing lipid body formation in both wild-type and 5-LO genetically deficient mice. Both PAF- and 5(S)-HETE-induced lipid body formation were inhibited by protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors staurosporine and chelerythrine, the phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitors D609 and U-73122, and by actinomycin D and cycloheximide. Prior stimulation of human PMN with PAF to form lipid bodies enhanced eicosanoid production in response to submaximal stimulation with the calcium ionophore A23187; and the levels of both prostaglandin (PG) E2 and LTB4 correlated with the number of lipid bodies. Furthermore, pretreatment of cells with actinomycin D or cycloheximide inhibited not only the induction of lipid body formation by PAF, but also the PAF-induced "priming" for enhanced PGE2 and LTB4 in PMN. Thus, the compartmentalization of lipids to form lipid bodies in PMN is dependent on specific cellular responses that can be PAF receptor mediated, involves signaling through 5-LO to form 5-HETE and then through PKC and PLC, and requires new protein synthesis. Since increases in lipid body numbers correlated with priming for enhanced PGE2 and LTB4 production in PMN, the induction of lipid bodies may have a role in the formation of eicosanoid mediators by leukocytes involved in inflammation.

Activation of cytosolic phospholipase A2 in permeabilized human neutrophils

Neutrophils (PMN) contain two types of phospholipase A2 (PLA2), a 14 kDa 'secretory' Type II PLA2 (sPLA2) and an 85 kDa 'cytosolic' PLA2 (cPLA2), that differ in a number of key characteristics: (1) cPLA2 prefers arachidonate (AA) as a substrate but hydrolyzes all phospholipids; sPLA2 is not AA specific but prefers ethanolamine containing phosphoacylglycerols. (2) cPLA2 is active at nM calcium (Ca2+) concentrations; sPLA2 requires microM Ca2+ levels. (3) cPLA2 activity is regulated by phosphorylation; sPLA2 lacks phosphorylation sites. (4) cPLA2 is insensitive to reduction; sPLA2 is inactivated by agents that reduce disulfide bonds. We utilized PMN permeabilized with Staphylococcus aureus alpha-toxin to determine whether one or both forms of PLA2 were activated in porated cells under conditions designed to differentiate between the two enzymes. PMN were labeled with [3H]AA to measure release from phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylinositol; gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was utilized to determine total AA release (mainly from phosphatidylethanolamine) and to assess oleate and linoleate mass. A combination of 500 nM Ca2+, a guanine nucleotide, and stimulation with n-formyl-met-leu-phe (FMLP) were necessary to induce maximal AA release in permeabilized PMN measured by either method; AA was preferentially released. [3H]AA and AA mass release occurred in parallel over time. A hydrolyzable form of ATP was necessary for maximum AA release and staurosporin inhibited PLA2 activation. Dithiothreitol treatment had little affect on [3H]AA release and metabolism but inhibited AA mass release. Assay of cell supernatants after cofactor addition did not detect sPLA2 activity and the cytosolic buffer utilized did not support activity of recombinant sPLA2. These results strongly suggested that cPLA2 was the enzyme activated in the permeabilized cell model and this is the first report which unambiguously demonstrates AA release in response to activation of a specific type of PLA2 in PMN.

CoA-independent transacylase activity is increased in human neutrophils after treatment with tumor necrosis factor alpha

CoA-independent transacylase (CoA-IT) appears to play a critical role in lipid mediator generation by rapidly moving arachidonate (AA) between phospholipid pools during cell activation. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) pretreatment of human neutrophils increases agonist-induced production of inflammatory mediators. The current study tested if the TNF-induced increase in lipid mediator production may be, in part, due to altered CoA-IT activity. Neutrophils were treated with TNF (250 U/ml, 30 min), homogenates prepared, and CoA-IT activity measured by the ability of these homogenates to acylate 1-[3H]alkyl-2-lyso-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (GPC). There was an increased CoA-IT activity, from 9.1 +/- 1.1 to 13.7 +/- 1.4 pmol/mg per min in control vs. TNF-treated samples, respectively. Varying the concentration of 1-alkyl-2-lyso-GPC revealed an increased CoA-IT activity in microsomes that was due to an increased Vmax, from 26 to 54 pmol/mg per min. The ability of TNF to increase CoA-IT activity was concentration-dependent, with maximal response observed at 25 U/ml. This effect on CoA-IT appears to be specific, in that TNF treatment of neutrophils had no effect on CoA-dependent acylation of 1-acyl-2-lyso-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, using either AA-CoA or linolenoyl-CoA as substrates. In the intact cell, the movement of [3H]AA from other phospholipids into PE in fMLP-stimulated neutrophils was greatly enhanced after TNF treatment, demonstrating a functional consequence of increased CoA-IT activity. In addition, TNF treatment doubled platelet-activating factor production in response to the chemotactic peptide fMLP, as measured by [3H]acetate incorporation, while the response to A23187 remained unchanged. Taken together, these results provide the first evidence of modulation of CoA-IT activity by a proinflammatory cytokine and suggest that one mechanism for augmented lipid mediator formation is through increases in CoA-IT activity.

Separation of agonist-stimulated arachidonate mobilization from subsequent leukotriene B4 synthesis in human neutrophils: different effects of oleoylacetylglycerol and phorbol myristate acetate as priming agents

Preincubation of human neutrophils with phorbol esters or soluble diglycerides enhances subsequent f-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLP)-stimulated arachidonate mobilization and leukotriene B4 (LTB4) synthesis. We have recently reported that 1,3-dioctanoylglycerol (1,3-diC8) is equipotent with 1,2-sn-dioctanoylglycerol (1,2-diC8) as priming agent, thus suggesting that the priming effects of diacylglycerols are protein kinase C (PKC) independent (Rosenthal et al., 1993, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1177:79-86). In order to further investigate this question, the present study has directly compared the effects of oleoylacetylglycerol (OAG) and the PKC activator, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), on agonist-stimulated lipid metabolism. The results indicate that both OAG and PMA dose dependently enhance f-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLP)-stimulated release of [3H]arachidonate. Optimal concentrations of OAG (5 microns) and PMA (10 nM) are equipotent in increasing fMLP-stimulated arachidonate mobilization as quantitated either with total radioactivity or by mass measurements of free arachidonate. By contrast OAG is sixfold more effective than PMA in enhancing synthesis of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) metabolites by mass and two to threefold more effective than PMA in enhancing synthesis of [3H]eicosanoids. Furthermore, OAG, but not PMA, enhances fMLP-stimulated synthesis of platelet-activating factor. By contrast, PMA directly stimulates [3H]arachidonate mobilization, while OAG (20 microM) does not; despite these differences, the combined effects of PMA + OAG on subsequent agonist-stimulated arachidonate release are not greater than those of PMA alone. In cells challenged with subthreshold concentrations (< 0.1 microM) of the calcium ionophore A23187, both OAG and PMA stimulate [3H]arachidonate release but not [3H]LTB4 synthesis. These findings suggest that OAG does not directly activate 5-LO, but instead couples arachidonate mobilization to leukotriene synthesis in a PKC-independent manner.

Diacylglycerol and alkylacylglycerol stimulate ram sperm phospholipase A2

1. We have investigated the susceptibility of ram sperm phospholipase A2 (PLA2) to stimulation by diacyl- and alkylacylglycerols and by monoacyl- and monoalkylglycerols. 2. PLA2 activity in sonicates from ram spermatozoa was enhanced when 1-stearoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycerol, the diacylglycerol usually generated by polyphosphoinositide breakdown, was added to a radioactive phosphatidylcholine substrate; the effect was time- and Ca(2+)-dependent. 3. Both diacyl- and alkylacylglycerol considerably enhanced PLA2 activity; 1-O-hexadecyl-2-O-methyl-rac-glycerol, however, only showed slight stimulatory ability. 4. The monoradylglycerols 1-monohexadecanoyl-rac-glycerol, 2-monohexadecanoylglycerol, and 1-O-hexadecyl-sn-glycerol had very little effect on the enzyme's activity. 5. Exposure of spermatozoa to 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG) or 1-O-hexadecyl-2-acetyl-rac-glycerol (1-O-C16/2-C2), when cells were stimulated with the ionophore A23187 and Ca2+, resulted in higher PLA2 activity in sperm sonicates. Furthermore, parallel experiments showed that exocytosis was enhanced if spermatozoa were treated with A23187/Ca2+ and either OAG or 1-O-C16/2-C2. Since both diacyl- and alkylacylglycerols increased PLA2 activity and exocytosis, stimulation of PLA2 activity by these diglycerides may take place independently from protein kinase C activation.

Diradylglycerols stimulate phospholipase A2 and subsequent exocytosis in ram spermatozoa. Evidence that the effect is not mediated via protein kinase C

We tested the hypothesis that the role of diacylglycerol (DAG) in sperm acrosomal exocytosis is related to the activation of phospholipase A2, and that this effect is not mediated via protein kinase C. Treatment of [14C]arachidonic acid-labelled ram spermatozoa with Ca2+ and the ionophore A23187 stimulated both liberation of arachidonic acid and acrosomal exocytosis. No changes in [14C]DAG or [14C]monoacylglycerol were found after stimulation of spermatozoa, thus suggesting that arachidonic acid may be released exclusively via phospholipase A2. An increase in the endogenous levels of diradylglycerols (DRGs), resulting from exposure either to the DAG kinase inhibitor R 59022 or to exogenous 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol or 1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol, led to an increase in both phospholipase A2 activity and exocytosis when cells were stimulated with A23187 and Ca2+. Addition of DRGs that do not stimulate protein kinase C(1,3-dioctanoylglycerol, 1-O-hexadecyl-2-acetyl-rac-glycerol) also resulted in an increase in phospholipase A2 activity and exocytosis. On the other hand, phorbol esters (phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate; phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate) did not enhance enzyme activity or exocytosis. Finally, exposure to 1-O-hexadecyl-2-O-methyl-rac-glycerol, a compound known to inhibit protein kinase C, did not affect phospholipase A2 activity or acrosomal exocytosis. We therefore conclude that in spermatozoa the messenger role of DAG is related to the activation of phospholipase A2, which in turn would generate an array of metabolites directly or indirectly involved in bringing about exocytosis of the acrosome.

1,3-Dioctanoylglycerol modulates arachidonate mobilization in human neutrophils and its inhibition by PGBx: evidence of a protein-kinase-C-independent role for diacylglycerols in signal transduction

Preincubation of human neutrophils with 1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol (OAG) enhances subsequent f-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLP)-stimulated arachidonate mobilization. We have recently demonstrated that preincubation of neutrophils with OAG also reverses inhibition of A23187 stimulated [3H]arachidonate mobilization by the phospholipase A2 inhibitors, PGBx and aristolochic acid. The present study has compared the effects of 1,2-sn-dioctanoylglycerol (1,2-diC8) and 1,3-dioctanoylglycerol (1,3-diC8) on these cellular events. Dose-dependent priming (ED50 < 2.5 microM) of fMLP-stimulated [3H]arachidonate mobilization is obtained with both 1,2-diC8 and 1,3-diC8. Both diC8s also enhance fMLP-stimulated synthesis of leukotriene B4, 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid and platelet-activating factor, and generation of superoxide. Furthermore, both 1,2-diC8 and 1,3-diC8 reverse the effects of PGBx on A23187-stimulated [3H]arachidonate mobilization and platelet-activating factor synthesis. By contrast, higher concentrations (5-10 microM) of 1,2-diC8, but not 1,3-diC8, directly stimulate both [3H] arachidonate mobilization and superoxide generation. Since 1,3-diC8 does not activate protein kinase C (PKC), these results suggest that PKC is involved in direct activation of neutrophils by diacylglycerols but not in priming. Furthermore, reversal of the inhibitory effects of PGBx by diacylglycerols also appears to involve a PKC-independent mechanism.

The effects of the phospholipase A2 inhibitors aristolochic acid and PGBx on A23187-stimulated mobilization of arachidonate in human neutrophils are overcome by diacylglycerol or phorbol ester

Aristolochic acid and PGBx, two structurally unrelated, protein-targeted inhibitors of isolated phospholipases A2, are effective antagonists of calcium ionophore A23187-stimulated mobilization of [3H]arachidonate from human neutrophils. We now report that preincubation of neutrophils with oleoylacetylglycerol (OAG, 15 microM) substantially reverses the inhibitory effect of 200 microM aristolochic acid (from 70 to 24% inhibition). Similarly, OAG increases the IC50 for PGBx from 2.5 to greater than 20 microM. The effects of OAG on inhibition by either aristolochic acid or PGBx are dose-dependent, with an ED50 of 2.5 microM. Protection against inhibition by either aristolochic acid or PGBx is also observed with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA, ED50 3 nM), but not 4-alpha-phorbol didecanoate. Aristolochic acid and PGBx do not inhibit PMA-stimulated superoxide generation, and are thus not protein kinase C inhibitors. Furthermore, neither aristolochic acid nor PGBx inhibit diglyceride generation through the phospholipase D/phosphatidate phosphohydrolase pathway. A23187-stimulated [3H]arachidonate mobilization is increased by 20-50% when neutrophils are preincubated with OAG or PMA. The present results indicate that OAG and PMA also modulate the A23187-stimulated [3H]arachidonate mobilization so as to render it less sensitive to inhibitors of phospholipase A2.