The tonB gene product in Escherichia coli. Energy-coupling or molecular processing of permeases?

Commensal E. coli limits Salmonella gut invasion during inflammation by producing toxin-bound siderophores in a tonB-dependent manner

The gastrointestinal tract is densely colonized by a polymicrobial community known as the microbiota which serves as primary line of defence against pathogen invasion. The microbiota can limit gut-luminal pathogen growth at different stages of infection. This can be traced to specific commensal strains exhibiting direct or indirect protective functions. Although these mechanisms hold the potential to develop new approaches to combat enteric pathogens, they remain far from being completely described. In this study, we investigated how a mouse commensal Escherichia coli can outcompete Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Tm). Using a salmonellosis mouse model, we found that the commensal E. coli 8178 strain relies on a trojan horse trap strategy to limit S. Tm expansion in the inflamed gut. Combining mutants and reporter tools, we demonstrated that inflammation triggers the expression of the E. coli 8178 antimicrobial microcin H47 toxin which, when fused to salmochelin siderophores, can specifically alter S. Tm growth. This protective function was compromised upon disruption of the E. coli 8178 tonB-dependent catecholate siderophore uptake system, highlighting a previously unappreciated crosstalk between iron intake and microcin H47 activity. By identifying the genetic determinants mediating S. Tm competition, our work not only provides a better mechanistic understanding of the protective function displayed by members of the gut microbiota but also further expands the general contribution of microcins in bacterial antagonistic relationships. Ultimately, such insights can open new avenues for developing microbiota-based approaches to better control intestinal infections.

Touch and go: tying TonB to transport

The TonB system of Gram-negative bacteria appears to exist for the purpose of transducing the protonmotive force energy from the cytoplasmic membrane, where it is generated, to the outer membrane, where it is needed for active transport of iron siderophores, vitamin B12 and, in pathogens, iron from host-binding proteins. In this review, we bring the reader up to date on the developments in the field since the authors each wrote reviews in this journal in 1990.

In vivo evidence of TonB shuttling between the cytoplasmic and outer membrane in Escherichia coli

Gram-negative bacteria are able to convert potential energy inherent in the proton gradient of the cytoplasmic membrane into active nutrient transport across the outer membrane. The transduction of energy is mediated by TonB protein. Previous studies suggest a model in which TonB makes sequential and cyclic contact with proteins in each membrane, a process called shuttling. A key feature of shuttling is that the amino-terminal signal anchor must quit its association with the cytoplasmic membrane, and TonB becomes associated solely with the outer membrane. However, the initial studies did not exclude the possibility that TonB was artifactually pulled from the cytoplasmic membrane by the fractionation process. To resolve this ambiguity, we devised a method to test whether the extreme TonB amino-terminus, located in the cytoplasm, ever became accessible to the cys-specific, cytoplasmic membrane-impermeant molecule, Oregon Green(R) 488 maleimide (OGM) in vivo. A full-length TonB and a truncated TonB were modified to carry a sole cysteine at position 3. Both full-length TonB and truncated TonB (consisting of the amino-terminal two-thirds) achieved identical conformations in the cytoplasmic membrane, as determined by their abilities to cross-link to the cytoplasmic membrane protein ExbB and their abilities to respond conformationally to the presence or absence of proton motive force. Full-length TonB could be amino-terminally labelled in vivo, suggesting that it was periplasmically exposed. In contrast, truncated TonB, which did not associate with the outer membrane, was not specifically labelled in vivo. The truncated TonB also acted as a control for leakage of OGM across the cytoplasmic membrane. Further, the extent of labelling for full-length TonB correlated roughly with the proportion of TonB found at the outer membrane. These findings suggest that TonB does indeed disengage from the cytoplasmic membrane during energy transduction and shuttle to the outer membrane.

Mechanism of tonB-dependent transport of KP-736, a 1,5-dihydroxy-4-pyridone-substituted cephalosporin, into Escherichia coli K-12 cells

The mechanism of transport of KP-736, a novel cephalosporin with a 1,5-dihydroxy-4-pyridone moiety at the C-7 position, into the Escherichia coli K-12 cell was investigated by determining the susceptibilities of iron transport mutants to KP-736. The tonB mutant showed a higher degree of resistance to KP-736, indicating that KP-736 was incorporated into E. coli cells via the tonB-dependent iron transport system. The product of the exbB gene was also necessary for the maximal antibacterial potency of KP-736. Cir-lacking and Fiu-lacking mutants showed a moderate level of resistance to KP-736. However, mutants lacking any one of the proteins FepA, FecA, FhuA, and FhuE did not show any increased resistance to KP-736. Two types of spontaneous mutants (e.g., KT1004 and KT1011) could be isolated from cir and fiu mutants by selection for KP-736 resistance and showed the same level of resistance to KP-736 as a tonB mutant. KT1004 showed tonB phenotypes, resistance to phage phi 80, and loss of FecA, whereas KT1011 did not. KT1011 lost the ability to express both Cir and Fiu proteins. These results indicate that the Cir and Fiu outer membrane proteins are involved specifically in the tonB-dependent transport process of KP-736. Against OmpF- and OmpC-deficient transformants producing various groups of beta-lactamases, KP-736 was more effective than the other cephalosporins tested.

Mechanisms of TonB-catalyzed iron transport through the enteric bacterial cell envelope

The recent solution of enteric bacterial porin structure, and new insights into the mechanism by which outer membrane receptor proteins recognize and internalize specific ligands, advocates the re-evaluation of TonB-dependent transport physiology. In this minireview we discuss the potential structural features of siderophore receptors and TonB, and use this analysis to evaluate both existing and new models of energy and signal transduction from the inner membrane to the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria.

Iron transport-mediated antibacterial activity of and development of resistance to hydroxamate and catechol siderophore-carbacephalosporin conjugates

Peptides containing residues of N5-acetyl-N5-hydroxy-L-ornithine were evaluated as potential artificial siderophores of beta-lactam-hypersusceptible Escherichia coli X580. Only those peptides which were capable of forming a hexadentate complex around ferric iron, which is analogous to the natural siderophore ferrichrome, were able to reverse the growth inhibition effects of the ferric iron chelator ethylenediamine di(o-hydroxyphenylacetic acid). A synthetic bis(catechol) spermidine derivative, similar to the natural siderophores enterobactin and agrobactin, also exhibited siderophore activity with this strain. Conjugation of the N5-acetyl-N5-hydroxy-L-ornithine tripeptide and the bis(catechol) siderophore to the potent carbacephalosporin loracarbef and closely related analogs provided compounds which exhibited antibacterial activity against E. coli X580. As was observed with the naturally occurring albomycins, the initial bactericidal effect was followed by the appearance of survivors that were resistant to the test compound. An enhanced killing effect was observed when the parent was incubated simultaneously with hydroxamate and catechol siderophore-antibiotic conjugates. Natural and synthetic siderophore growth promotion experiments with survivors resistant to the conjugates strongly suggested that disabled ferrichrome and enterobactin-catechol assimilation mechanisms may be responsible for the observed resistance. One isolated survivor was postulated to be a tonB mutant. The antibacterial activities of the described siderophore-carbacephalosporin conjugates appear to be related to an iron transport assimilation mechanism and would not have been detected during routine MIC testing procedures.

TonB protein of Salmonella typhimurium. A model for signal transduction between membranes

The tonB gene product is required for several outer membrane transport processes in bacteria. The tonB gene from Salmonella typhimurium was sequenced and found to be similar to that of Escherichia coli. The TonB protein is highly proline-rich and includes an unusual segment consisting of multiple X-Pro dipeptide repeats. A synthetic peptide corresponding to this segment has been used to raise anti-TonB antibodies. TonB was shown to be associated with the cytoplasmic membrane, apparently anchored via a single hydrophobic N-terminal segment. Protease accessibility studies, and the use of a series of TonB-beta-lactamase fusions, showed that the rest of the TonB protein is periplasmic. Unusually, export of TonB is not accompanied by cleavage of the N-terminal signal peptide. In the accompanying paper, we show that TonB interacts directly with the outer membrane FhuA (TonA) receptor. Thus, TonB must span the periplasm, providing a link between the cytoplasmic membrane and receptors in the outer membrane. On the basis of these data, and those published by other laboratories, we propose a model whereby TonB serves as a "mechanical" linkage that, by transmitting protein conformational changes from the cytoplasmic membrane across the periplasm, acts as a means of coupling energy to outer membrane transport processes. Such a mechanism has general implications for signal transduction within and between proteins.

Outer membrane peptides of Yersinia pestis mediating siderophore-independent assimilation of iron

It is established that wild-type cells of Yersinia pestis absorb exogenous hemin or Congo red and thus grow as pigmented colonies at 26 degrees C on media containing these chromatophores (Pgm+). Pgm+ isolated are known to possess a siderophore-independent mechanism of iron-transport (required for growth in iron-deficient medium) which is absent in avirulent Pgm- mutants. Production of the bacteriocin pesticin and linked invasins (Pst+) is an additional defined virulence factor of yersiniae; mutation of Pgm+,Pst- organisms to pesticin-resistance (Pstr) results in concomitant conversion to Pgm-. In this study, autoradiograms of two-dimensional gels of [35S]methionine-labeled outer membranes from Pgm- mutants were compared to those of the Pgm+,Pst+ or Pgm+,Pst- parent. An apparently single predominant peptide present in these preparations (greater than 10% of total membrane protein) existed as a family of iron-modifiable 17.9-kDa molecules focusing down to isoelectric points of about 4.6 and up to 5.89. Expression of eight detectable Pst(+)-specific peptides was not significantly influenced by exogenous iron. Pgm+ yersiniae constitutively produced pigmentation-specific peptide F and five iron-repressible peptides termed IrpA to IrpE. Typical spontaneous mutation to Pgm- resulted in loss of peptide F and IrpB-E. A rare Pgm+,Pstr mutant, selected on Congo red agar containing pesticin, also lost IrpB-E but retained peptide F. This isolate, like Pgm- mutants, failed to grow in iron-deficient medium. Regardless of phenotype, all yersiniae utilized hemin, hemopexin, myoglobin, hemoglobin, and ferritin, but not transferrin or lactoferrin, as sole sources of iron.

Genetic organization of multiple fep genes encoding ferric enterobactin transport functions in Escherichia coli

Three genes were shown to provide functions specific for ferric enterobactin transport in Escherichia coli: fepA encoded the outer membrane receptor, fepB produced a periplasmic protein, and the fepC product was presumably a component of a cytoplasmic membrane permease system for this siderophore. A 10.6-kilobase-pair E. coli chromosomal EcoRI restriction fragment containing the fepB and fepC genes was isolated from a genomic library constructed in the vector pBR328. Both cistrons were localized on this clone (pITS24) by subcloning and deletion and insertion mutagenesis to positions that were separated by approximately 2.5 kilobases. Within this region, insertion mutations defining an additional ferric enterobactin transport gene (fepD) were isolated, and polarity effects from insertions into fepB suggested that fepD is encoded downstream on the same transcript. A 31,500-dalton FepC protein and a family of FepB polypeptides ranging from 34,000 to 37,000 daltons were identified in E. coli minicells, but the product of fepD was not detectable by this system. Another insertion mutation between entF and fepC was also shown to disrupt iron transport via enterobactin and thus defined the fepE locus; fepE weakly expressed a 43,000-dalton protein in minicells. It is proposed that these newly identified genes, fepD and fepE, provide functions which act in conjunction with the fepC product to form the ferric enterobactin-specific cytoplasmic membrane permease. An additional 44,000-dalton protein was identified and shown to be expressed from a gene that is situated between fepB and entE and that is transcribed in the direction opposite that of fepB. Although the function of this protein is uncharacterized, its membrane location suggests that it too may function in iron transport.

E-0702, a new cephalosporin, is incorporated into Escherichia coli cells via the tonB-dependent iron transport system

E-0702, a new cephalosporin with a potent antipseudomonal action, was synthesized. In the study of the mode of action of this antibiotic in Escherichia coli, it was found that mutants which acquired resistance to E-0702 were isolated spontaneously and could be shown to be susceptible to its closely related derivatives, E-0702-060 and E-0702-061, and other representative beta-lactam antibiotics. In these mutants, no increased production of beta-lactamase was detectable. No apparent differences between the resistant mutants and the parental strains were observed in the affinity of E-0702 for penicillin-binding proteins. Furthermore, no significant reduction in or loss of both OmpF and OmpC porin proteins in the outer membrane was observed. The mutation was mapped to the tonB gene, which is known to be essential for the iron transport system of bacteria. The bactericidal action of E-0702 was rapidly expressed against iron-starved cells in which the iron transport system was induced, whereas the bactericidal action against iron-supplemented cells was ineffective. It is suggested that E-0702 is incorporated into bacterial cells as a chelator of iron via the tonB-dependent iron transport system, after which its strong and rapid bactericidal action is manifested.

A minimal hypothesis for membrane-linked free-energy transduction. The role of independent, small coupling units

Experimental data are reviewed that are not in keeping with the scheme of 'delocalized' protonic coupling in membrane-linked free-energy transduction. It turns out that there are three main types of anomalies: (i) rates of electron transfer and of ATP synthesis do not solely depend on their own driving force and on delta mu H, (ii) the ('static head') ratio of delta Gp to delta mu H varies with delta mu H and (iii) inhibition of either some of the electron-transfer chains or some of the H+-ATPases, does not cause an overcapacity in the other, non-inhibited proton pumps. None of the earlier free-energy coupling schemes, alternative to delocalized protonic coupling, can account for these three anomalies. We propose to add a fifth postulate, namely that of the coupling unit, to the four existing postulates of 'delocalized protonic coupling' and show that, with this postulate, protonic coupling can again account for most experimental observations. We also discuss: (i) how experimental data that might seem to be at odds with the 'coupling unit' hypothesis can be accounted for and (ii) the problem of the spatial arrangement of the electrical field in the different free-energy coupling schemes.

DNA sequence of the Escherichia coli tonB gene

The nucleotide sequence of a cloned section of the Escherichia coli chromosome containing the tonB gene has been determined. Transcription initiation and termination sites for tonB RNA have been determined by S1 nuclease mapping. The tonB promoter and terminator resemble other E. coli promoters and terminators; the sequence of the tonB terminator region suggests that it may function bidirectionally. The DNA sequence specifies an open translation reading frame between the 5' and 3' RNA termini whose location is consistent with the position of previously isolated tonB::IS1 mutations. The DNA sequence predicts a proline-rich protein with a calculated size of 26.1-26.6 kilodaltons (239-244 amino acids), depending on which of three potential initiation codons is utilized. The predicted NH2 terminus of tonB protein resembles the proteolytically cleaved signal sequences of E. coli periplasmic and outer membrane proteins; the overall hydrophilic character of the protein sequence suggests that the bulk of the tonB protein is not embedded within the inner or outer membrane. A significant discrepancy exists between the calculated size of tonB protein and the apparent size of 36 kilodaltons determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate/polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.