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Time Flies-Age Grading of Adult Flies for the Estimation of the Post-Mortem Interval. Diagnostics (Basel) 2021; 11:diagnostics11020152. [PMID: 33494172 PMCID: PMC7909779 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics11020152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The estimation of the minimum time since death is one of the main applications of forensic entomology. This can be done by calculating the age of the immature stage of necrophagous flies developing on the corpse, which is confined to approximately 2–4 weeks, depending on temperature and species of the first colonizing wave of flies. Adding the age of the adult flies developed on the dead body could extend this time frame up to several weeks when the body is in a building or closed premise. However, the techniques for accurately estimating the age of adult flies are still in their beginning stages or not sufficiently validated. Here we review the current state of the art of analysing the aging of flies by evaluating the ovarian development, the amount of pteridine in the eyes, the degree of wing damage, the modification of their cuticular hydrocarbon patterns, and the increasing number of growth layers in the cuticula. New approaches, including the use of age specific molecular profiles based on the levels of gene and protein expression and the application of near infrared spectroscopy, are introduced, and the forensic relevance of these methods is discussed.
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2
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Butterworth NJ, Wallman JF, Drijfhout FP, Johnston NP, Keller PA, Byrne PG. The evolution of sexually dimorphic cuticular hydrocarbons in blowflies (Diptera: Calliphoridae). J Evol Biol 2020; 33:1468-1486. [PMID: 32722879 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) are organic compounds found on the cuticles of all insects which can act as close-contact pheromones, while also providing a hydrophobic barrier to water loss. Given their widespread importance in sexual behaviour and survival, CHCs have likely contributed heavily to the adaptation and speciation of insects. Despite this, the patterns and mechanisms of their diversification have been studied in very few taxa. Here, we perform the first study of CHC diversification in blowflies, focussing on wild populations of the ecologically diverse genus Chrysomya. We convert CHC profiles into qualitative and quantitative traits and assess their inter- and intra-specific variation across 10 species. We also construct a global phylogeny of Chrysomya, onto which CHCs were mapped to explore the patterns of their diversification. For the first time, we demonstrate that blowflies express an exceptional diversity of CHCs, which have diversified in a nonphylogenetic and punctuated manner, are species-specific and sexually dimorphic. It is likely that both ecological and sexual selection have shaped these patterns of CHC diversification, and our study now provides a comprehensive framework for testing such hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan J Butterworth
- Centre for Sustainable Ecosystem Solutions, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - James F Wallman
- Centre for Sustainable Ecosystem Solutions, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.,School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Falko P Drijfhout
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Keele, UK
| | - Nikolas P Johnston
- Centre for Sustainable Ecosystem Solutions, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Paul A Keller
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, Molecular Horizons, University of Wollongong and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Phillip G Byrne
- Centre for Sustainable Ecosystem Solutions, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
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3
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Butterworth NJ, Drijfhout FP, Byrne PG, Keller PA, Wallman JF. Major Transitions in Cuticular Hydrocarbon Expression Coincide with Sexual Maturity in a Blowfly (Diptera: Calliphoridae). J Chem Ecol 2020; 46:610-618. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-020-01194-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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4
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Butterworth NJ, Byrne PG, Keller PA, Wallman JF. Body Odor and Sex: Do Cuticular Hydrocarbons Facilitate Sexual Attraction in the Small Hairy Maggot Blowfly? J Chem Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-018-0943-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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5
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Moore HE, Butcher JB, Day CR, Drijfhout FP. Adult fly age estimations using cuticular hydrocarbons and Artificial Neural Networks in forensically important Calliphoridae species. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 280:233-244. [PMID: 29107219 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Blowflies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) are forensically important as they are known to be one of the first to colonise human remains. The larval stage is typically used to assist a forensic entomologists with adult flies rarely used as they are difficult to age because they remain morphologically similar once they have gone through the initial transformation upon hatching. However, being able to age them is of interest and importance within the field. This study examined the cuticular hydrocarbons (CHC) of Diptera: Calliphoridae species Lucilia sericata, Calliphora vicina and Calliphora vomitoria. The CHCs were extracted from the cuticles of adult flies and analysed using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The chemical profiles were examined for the two Calliphora species at intervals of day 1, 5, 10, 20 and 30 and up to day 10 for L. sericata. The results show significant chemical changes occurring between the immature and mature adult flies over the extraction period examined in this study. With the aid of a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), samples were seen to cluster, allowing for the age to be established within the aforementioned time frames. The use of ANNs allowed for the automatic classification of novel samples with very good performance. This was a proof of concept study, which developed a method allowing to age post-emergence adults by using their chemical profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah E Moore
- Cranfield Forensic Institute, Cranfield University, Shrivenham, Swindon, SN6 8LA, UK.
| | - John B Butcher
- School of Computing and Mathematics, Keele University, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Charles R Day
- School of Computing and Mathematics, Keele University, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Falko P Drijfhout
- Chemical Ecology Group, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
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6
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Moore HE, Pechal JL, Benbow ME, Drijfhout FP. The potential use of cuticular hydrocarbons and multivariate analysis to age empty puparial cases of Calliphora vicina and Lucilia sericata. Sci Rep 2017; 7:1933. [PMID: 28512294 PMCID: PMC5434061 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-01667-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Cuticular hydrocarbons (CHC) have been successfully used in the field of forensic entomology for identifying and ageing forensically important blowfly species, primarily in the larval stages. However in older scenes where all other entomological evidence is no longer present, Calliphoridae puparial cases can often be all that remains and therefore being able to establish the age could give an indication of the PMI. This paper examined the CHCs present in the lipid wax layer of insects, to determine the age of the cases over a period of nine months. The two forensically important species examined were Calliphora vicina and Lucilia sericata. The hydrocarbons were chemically extracted and analysed using Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry. Statistical analysis was then applied in the form of non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis (NMDS), permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) and random forest models. This study was successful in determining age differences within the empty cases, which to date, has not been establish by any other technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah E Moore
- Cranfield Forensic Institute, Cranfield University, Shrivenham, Swindon, SN6 8LA, UK
| | - Jennifer L Pechal
- Department of Entomology, 243 Natural Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - M Eric Benbow
- Department of Entomology, 243 Natural Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA.,Department of Osteopathic Medical Specialties, 243 Natural Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA.,Ecology, Evolutionary Biology, and Behavior Program, 243 Natural Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Falko P Drijfhout
- Department of Chemical Ecology, School of Chemical and Physical Science, Keele University, ST5 5BG, England, UK.
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7
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Bernhardt V, Hannig L, Kinast R, Verhoff MA, Rothweiler F, Zehner R, Amendt J. Quantitative pteridine fluorescence analysis: A possible age-grading technique for the adult stages of the blow fly Calliphora vicina (Diptera: Calliphoridae). JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 98:356-359. [PMID: 28267461 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2017.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Age estimation of adult flies could extend the possible window of time for calculating the minimal postmortem interval (PMImin) by means of entomological methods. Currently, this is done by estimating the time required by necrophagous Diptera to reach certain juvenile developmental landmarks, and the method only works until the end of metamorphosis and emergence of the adult fly. Particularly at indoor crime scenes, being able to estimate the age of trapped adult flies would be an important tool with which to extend the calculable PMI beyond the developmental period. Recently, several promising age-dependent morphological and physiological characteristics of adult insects have been investigated in medical and forensic entomology, but the results are still preliminary and restricted to a few species. We examined adults of the forensically relevant blow fly species Calliphora vicina and investigated the fluorescence levels of pteridine, a group of metabolites that accumulates in the eyes during aging. From Day 1 to Day 25 post-emergence, flies were kept at three different temperature regimes (20°C, 25°C, and fluctuating temperatures in the context of a field study) and 12:12 L:D. From Day 1 until Day 7, the fluorescence of pteridine was determined on a daily basis, and thereafter, every three days. The achieved fly age was multiplied with the relevant temperature and converted into accumulated degree-days (ADD). The fluorescence level of pteridine increased linear with increasing ADD (females: R2=0.777; males: R2=0.802). The difference between sexes was significant (p<0.001). Neither head weight nor temperature had an effect on pteridine fluorescence. Because the variation in pteridine fluorescence increased with increasing ADD, it seems favorable to combine several aging methods for more precise results. In context, we emphasize that different body parts of the same specimen can be used to analyze cuticular hydrocarbons (legs), pteridine fluorescence (head/eyes), and gonotrophic stage (female abdomen).
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Bernhardt
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Kennedyallee 104, D-60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
| | - Laura Hannig
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Kennedyallee 104, D-60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Ronja Kinast
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Kennedyallee 104, D-60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Marcel A Verhoff
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Kennedyallee 104, D-60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Florian Rothweiler
- Institute of Medical Virology, Komturstrasse 3a, D-60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Richard Zehner
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Kennedyallee 104, D-60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Jens Amendt
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Kennedyallee 104, D-60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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8
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Paula MC, Antonialli-Junior WF, Mendonça A, Michelutti KB, Eulalio ADMM, Cardoso CAL, de Lima T, Von Zuben CJ. Chemotaxonomic Profile and Intraspecific Variation in the Blow Fly of Forensic Interest Chrysomya megacephala (Diptera: Calliphoridae). JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2017; 54:14-23. [PMID: 28082627 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjw142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2016] [Accepted: 08/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Necrophagous insects such as blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) are considered crucial in forensic entomology. Identification at species level and determination of larval stage are the basis for estimation of postmortem interval (PMI). Insect evidence can also be used in the determination of crime scenes, since body displacement is common. The aim of this study was to determine the chemotaxonomic profile and intraspecific variability of the forensically important blow fly Chrysomya megacephala (F. 1794). Adults were collected in the municipalities of Dourados-MS (Brazil) and Rio Claro-SP (Brazil), and then transferred to the laboratory for oviposition and development of the immature stages. Chemical analysis of cuticular compounds was performed by gas chromatography. Cuticular chemical profiles varied significantly between the two populations, as well as between developmental stages, supporting the use of these compounds as a complementary tool to help identify the species and its stages, along with geographical variability. This could greatly accelerate forensic investigations, eliminating the need to allow the fly larvae to develop until adult stage in order to confirm the species identity and sample origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele C Paula
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Entomologia e Conservação da Biodiversidade, Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados, Dourados, MS, Brazil (; ; )
- Laboratório de Ecologia Comportamental, Universidade Estadual de Mato Grosso do Sul, Dourados, MS, Brazil
| | - William F Antonialli-Junior
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Entomologia e Conservação da Biodiversidade, Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados, Dourados, MS, Brazil (; ; )
- Laboratório de Ecologia Comportamental, Universidade Estadual de Mato Grosso do Sul, Dourados, MS, Brazil
- Universidade Estadual de Mato Grosso do Sul, Dourados, MS, Brazil
| | - Angélica Mendonça
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Entomologia e Conservação da Biodiversidade, Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados, Dourados, MS, Brazil (; ; )
- Laboratório de Ecologia Comportamental, Universidade Estadual de Mato Grosso do Sul, Dourados, MS, Brazil
| | - Kamylla B Michelutti
- Laboratório de Ecologia Comportamental, Universidade Estadual de Mato Grosso do Sul, Dourados, MS, Brazil
- Universidade Estadual de Mato Grosso do Sul, Dourados, MS, Brazil
| | | | | | - Thiago de Lima
- Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio de Mesquita Filho", Rio Claro-SP, Brazil (; )
| | - Cláudio J Von Zuben
- Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio de Mesquita Filho", Rio Claro-SP, Brazil (; )
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9
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Braga MV, Pinto ZT, Queiroz MMDC, Blomquist GJ. Effect of age on cuticular hydrocarbon profiles in adult Chrysomya putoria (Diptera: Calliphoridae). Forensic Sci Int 2016; 259:e37-47. [PMID: 26775199 PMCID: PMC5295841 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Revised: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A species-specific complex mixture of highly stable cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) covers the external surface of all insects. Components can be readily analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to obtain a cuticular hydrocarbon profile, which may be used as an additional tool for the taxonomic differentiation of insect species and also for the determination of the age and sex of adult and immature forms. We used GC-MS to identify and quantify the CHCs of female and male Chrysomya putoria (Wiedemann, 1818) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) from one to five days old. CHCs ranged from C21 to C35 for females and from C21 to C37 in males. Major compounds were the same for both sexes and were 2-MeC28, C29:1, n-C29, 15-,13-MeC29, 2-MeC30, C31:1, n-C31 and 15-,13-MeC31. The relative abundance of each component, however, varied with age. Cluster Analysis using Bray-Curtis measure for abundance showed that cuticular hydrocarbon profiles are a strong and useful tool for the determination of age in adult C. putoria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Vianna Braga
- Laboratório de Entomologia Médica e Forense, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Pav. Herman Lent, sala 14, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21045-900, Brazil.
| | - Zeneida Teixeira Pinto
- Laboratório de Educação Ambiental e em Saúde, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Pav. Lauro Travassos, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21045-900, Brazil.
| | - Margareth Maria de Carvalho Queiroz
- Laboratório de Entomologia Médica e Forense, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Pav. Herman Lent, sala 14, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21045-900, Brazil; Mestrado Profissional em Ciências Ambientais, Universidade Severino Sombra, Av. Expedicionário Oswaldo de Almeida Ramos, 280, Vassouras, RJ 27700-000, Brazil.
| | - Gary James Blomquist
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, CABNR, University of Nevada, Reno, MS330, 1664 North Virginia St, Office 162/145 Howard Medical Building, Reno, NV, USA.
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10
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Pechal JL, Moore H, Drijfhout F, Benbow ME. Hydrocarbon profiles throughout adult Calliphoridae aging: A promising tool for forensic entomology. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 245:65-71. [PMID: 25447177 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Revised: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) are typically the first insects to arrive at human remains and carrion. Predictable succession patterns and known larval development of necrophagous insects on vertebrate remains can assist a forensic entomologist with estimates of a minimum post-mortem interval (PMImin) range. However, adult blow flies are infrequently used to estimate the PMImin, but rather are used for a confirmation of larval species identification. Cuticular hydrocarbons have demonstrated potential for estimating adult blow fly age, as hydrocarbons are present throughout blow fly development, from egg to adult, and are stable structures. The goal of this study was to identify hydrocarbon profiles associated with the adults of a North American native blow fly species, Cochliomyia macellaria (Fabricius) and a North American invasive species, Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart). Flies were reared at a constant temperature (25°C), a photoperiod of 14:10 (L:D) (h), and were provided water, sugar and powdered milk ad libitum. Ten adult females from each species were collected at day 1, 5, 10, 20, and 30 post-emergence. Hydrocarbon compounds were extracted and then identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. A total of 37 and 35 compounds were detected from C. macellaria and Ch. rufifacies, respectively. There were 24 and 23 n-alkene and methyl-branched alkane hydrocarbons from C. macellaria and Ch. rufifacies, respectively (10 compounds were shared between species), used for statistical analysis. Non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis and permutational multivariate analysis of variance were used to analyze the hydrocarbon profiles with significant differences (P<0.001) detected among post-emergence age cohorts for each species, and unique hydrocarbon profiles detected as each adult blow fly species aged. This work provides empirical data that serve as a foundation for future research into improving PMImin estimates made by forensic practitioners and potentially increase the use of adult insects during death investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Pechal
- Department of Entomology, 243 Natural Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
| | - Hannah Moore
- School of Physical and Geographical Sciences, Keele University, ST5 5BG Staffordshire, UK.
| | - Falko Drijfhout
- School of Physical and Geographical Sciences, Keele University, ST5 5BG Staffordshire, UK.
| | - M Eric Benbow
- Department of Entomology and Department of Osteopathic Medical Specialties, 243 Natural Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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11
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Xu H, Ye GY, Xu Y, Hu C, Zhu GH. Age-dependent changes in cuticular hydrocarbons of larvae in Aldrichina grahami (Aldrich) (Diptera: Calliphoridae). Forensic Sci Int 2014; 242:236-241. [PMID: 25087108 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2013] [Revised: 06/21/2014] [Accepted: 07/04/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Necrophagous flies, comprising the first wave of insects present in a cadaver, provide a great potential for more accurate determination of the late postmortem interval (PMI) based on their age. Cuticular hydrocarbons (CHs) are a promising age indicator in some insect species, especially for the larvae of necrophagous flies. Gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were used to characterize the age-dependent, quantitative changes in CHs of larval Aldrichina grahami (Aldrich) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) at 24°C. The majority of low-molecular-weight alkanes (≤C25) and almost all of the alkenes decreased in abundance with larval development. By contrast, the abundance of high-molecular-weight alkanes of chain length greater than C25 gradually increased with age. For several peaks, including peak 28 (pentacosene a), peak 31 (n-C25), peak 43 (n-C27) and peak 68 (n-C31), a highly significant correlation was found between peak ratio (n-C29 divided by each chromatographic peak) and chronological age of the larvae. A mathematical model, derived from multivariate linear regression analysis, was developed for determining age of the larvae based on age-dependent changes in CHs. The estimated larval age based on the CHs had a good linear correlation with the chronological age (R(2)>0.9). These results indicate that CHs has a great potential for determining the age of fly larvae, and concomitantly for the PMI in forensic investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Xu
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515031, China
| | - Gong-Yin Ye
- Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Ying Xu
- The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the SATCM Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201210, China; Shanghai R&D Center for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Cui Hu
- Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Guang-Hui Zhu
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515031, China; Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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12
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Butcher J, Moore H, Day C, Adam C, Drijfhout F. Artificial neural network analysis of hydrocarbon profiles for the ageing of Lucilia sericata for post mortem interval estimation. Forensic Sci Int 2013; 232:25-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Revised: 06/01/2013] [Accepted: 06/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
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13
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Aw WC, Ballard JWO. The effects of temperature and diet on age grading and population age structure determination in Drosophila. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 59:994-1000. [PMID: 23892055 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2013.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2013] [Revised: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 07/15/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The age structure of natural population is of interest in physiological, life history and ecological studies but it is often difficult to determine. One methodological problem is that samples may need to be invasively sampled preventing subsequent taxonomic curation. A second problem is that it can be very expensive to accurately determine the age structure of given population because large sample sizes are often necessary. In this study, we test the effects of temperature (17 °C, 23 °C and 26 °C) and diet (standard cornmeal and low calorie diet) on the accuracy of the non-invasive, inexpensive and high throughput near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) technique to determine the age of Drosophila flies. Composite and simplified calibration models were developed for each sex. Independent sets for each temperature and diet treatments with flies not involved in calibration model were then used to validate the accuracy of the calibration models. The composite NIRS calibration model was generated by including flies reared under all temperatures and diets. This approach permits rapid age measurement and age structure determination in large population of flies as less than or equal to 9 days, or more than 9 days old with 85-97% and 64-99% accuracy, respectively. The simplified calibration models were generated by including flies reared at 23 °C on standard diet. Low accuracy rates were observed when simplified calibration models were used to identify (a) Drosophila reared at 17 °C and 26 °C and (b) 23 °C with low calorie diet. These results strongly suggest that appropriate calibration models need to be developed in the laboratory before this technique can be reliably used in field. These calibration models should include the major environmental variables that change across space and time in the particular natural population to be studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen C Aw
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
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14
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The antifungal activity of the cuticular and internal fatty acid methyl esters and alcohols in Calliphora vomitoria. Parasitology 2013; 140:972-85. [PMID: 23561808 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182013000267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY The composition of the fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) and alcohol fractions of the cuticular and internal lipids of Calliphora vomitoria larvae, pupae and male/female adults was obtained by separating these two fractions by HPLC-LLSD and analysing them quantitatively using GC-MS. Analysis of the cuticular lipids of the worldwide, medically important ectoparasite C. vomitoria revealed 6 FAMEs with odd-numbered carbon chains from C15:0 to C19:0 in the larvae, while internal lipids contained 9 FAMEs ranging from C15:1 to C19:0. Seven FAMEs from C15:0 to C19:0 were identified in the cuticular lipids of the pupae, whereas the internal lipids of the pupae contained 10 FAMEs from C13:0 to C19:0. The cuticular lipids of males and females and also the internal lipids of males contained 5, 7 and 6 FAMEs from C15:0 to C19:0 respectively. Seven FAMEs from C13:0 to C19:0 were identified in the internal lipids of females, and 7, 6, 5 and 3 alcohols were found in the cuticular lipids of larvae, pupae, males and females respectively. Only saturated alcohols with even-numbered carbon chains were present in these lipids. Only 1 alcohol (C22:0) was detected in the internal lipids of C. vomitoria larvae, while just 4 alcohols from - C18:0 to C24:0 - were identified in the internal lipids of pupae, and males and females. We also identified glycerol and cholesterol in the larvae, pupae, males and females of C. vomitoria. The individual alcohols and FAMEs, as well as their mixtures isolated from the cuticular and internal lipids of larvae, pupae, males and females of C. vomitoria, demonstrated antimicrobial activity against entomopathogenic fungi.
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Gołębiowski M, Cerkowniak M, Boguś MI, Włóka E, Dawgul M, Kamysz W, Stepnowski P. Free fatty acids in the cuticular and internal lipids of Calliphora vomitoria and their antimicrobial activity. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 59:416-429. [PMID: 23419415 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2013.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2012] [Revised: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 02/06/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The cuticular and internal lipid composition in Calliphora vomitoria larvae, pupae, and male and female adults was studied. The free fatty acid (FA) compositions of the lipids were chemically characterized using gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-electron impact mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Analyses of cuticular extracts from larvae, pupae, and male and female adults revealed that the carbon numbers of the acids ranged from C7:0 to C22:0, from C8:0 to C24:0, from C7:0 to C24:0 and from C7:0 to C22:0 respectively. The internal lipids of C. vomitoria larvae, pupae, male and female adults contained FAs ranging from C8:0 to C20:0, from C9:0 to C22:0, from C8:0 to C24:0 and from C9:0 to C22:0 respectively. Nine FAs with odd-numbered carbon chains from C7:0 to C21:0 were identified in the cuticular lipids of the larvae. The internal lipids of C. vomitoria larvae contained 8 odd-numbered FAs ranging from C9:0 to C19:0. Eight odd-numbered FAs from C9:0 to C21:0 were identified in the cuticular and internal lipids of pupae, while nine such FAs were found in the cuticular lipids of male and female adults. The internal lipids of adult males and females respectively contained nine and seven odd-numbered FAs, while both larvae and pupae contained eight such compounds. Eight unsaturated FAs were identified in the cuticular lipids of larvae, adult males and females and also in the internal lipids of females. Seven unsaturated FAs were identified in the cuticular lipids of pupae. The internal lipids of larvae, pupae and males contained 10, 11 and 12 unsaturated FAs respectively. Developmental changes were found both in the amounts of extracted cuticular and internal FAs and in their profiles. Four cuticular FAs (C7:0, C9:0, C10:0 and C15:1), identified as being male-specific, were either absent in the female cuticle or present there only in trace amounts. Cuticular and internal extracts obtained from larvae, pupae, adult males and females were tested for their potential antimicrobial activity. The minimal inhibitory concentrations of extracts against reference strains of bacteria and fungi were determined. Antimicrobial activity was the strongest against Gram-positive bacteria; Gram-negative bacteria, on the other hand, turned out to be resistant to all the lipids tested. Overall, the activities of the internal lipids were stronger. All the lipid extracts were equally effective against all the fungal strains examined. In contrast, crude extracts containing both cuticular and internal lipids displayed no antifungal activity against the entomopathogenic fungus Conidiobolus coronatus, which efficiently killed adult flies, but not larvae or pupae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Gołębiowski
- Institute for Environmental and Human Health Protection, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdańsk, ul. Sobieskiego 18/19, 80-952 Gdańsk, Poland.
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Ablard K, Gries R, Khaskin G, Schaefer PW, Gries G. Does the Stereochemistry of Methylated Cuticular Hydrocarbons Contribute to Mate Recognition in the Egg Parasitoid Wasp Ooencyrtus kuvanae? J Chem Ecol 2012; 38:1306-17. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-012-0189-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2012] [Revised: 08/14/2012] [Accepted: 08/31/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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17
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Volatile organic compounds released by blowfly larvae and pupae: New perspectives in forensic entomology. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 219:215-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2011] [Revised: 12/14/2011] [Accepted: 01/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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18
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Arienti M, Antony C, Wicker-Thomas C, Delbecque JP, Jallon JM. Ontogeny of Drosophila melanogaster female sex-appeal and cuticular hydrocarbons. Integr Zool 2011; 5:272-82. [PMID: 21392345 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-4877.2010.00213.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The chemical communication system in Drosophila melanogaster Meigen, 1830 plays a major role in courtship and consists of the male-specific cis-Vaccenyl acetate and sex-specific contact pheromones, cuticular hydrocarbons (CHC), which build up during ontogeny (first 4 days). They replace longer CHCs, common to both sexes and present only after the imaginal eclosion. A detailed quantitative description of the evolution of cuticular unsaturated hydrocarbons with age is presented here for males and females of different D. melanogaster strains, which have been bred in well controlled environments. Monoenes appear in both sexes at around 12 h, before female dienes. The present paper argues that this is likely linked to the switching on of a new set of genes. Ecdysone, which is more abundant in females than in males during this critical period, might control this switch. Parallel behavioral studies show that whereas female of all ages trigger early mature male courtship steps like wing vibration, only females older than 1 day trigger late courtship steps like attempted copulation. This supports the hypothesis that late male courtship steps might be triggered by the CHCs, which build up after this age, especially female-specific (Z,Z)-7,11 - and (Z,Z)-5,9-dienes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Arienti
- University of Paris South 11, Center of Neurosciences of Paris South, Orsay, France
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Trabalon M. Agonistic interactions, cuticular and hemolymphatic lipid variations during the foraging period in spider females Brachypelma albopilosa (Theraphosidae). JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 57:735-743. [PMID: 21338607 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2011.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2010] [Revised: 02/11/2011] [Accepted: 02/14/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Agonistic behaviour and lipid state were examined in tarantula Brachypelma albopilosa females during the foraging period. Modulation of the agonistic behaviour of females was not connected to their body size. Results show that the agonistic pattern of females differed significantly from the predation pattern at the behavioural and lipid levels. Aggressive-foraging females had low predation behaviour. Quantitative lipid changes were observed in relation to agonistic behaviour and predation. The total lipid index was studied by colorimetric methods, and lipid compounds were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in cuticle and hemolymph of females. The lipid components were free fatty acids, methyl esters, cholesterol, and long-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons. Methyl esters were much more abundant in cuticular lipids; unsaturated free fatty acids (linoleic and oleic acids) and methyl esters (methyl linoleate and methyl stearate) predominated in the hemolymph. Spider aggression was positively correlated with lipid concentration (cholesterol, fatty acids, methyl esters and hydrocarbons) in the hemolymph and the levels of cuticular fatty acids. Lipid levels are hypothesized to have evolved as a regulatory factor of predation and agonistic behaviours in tarantula females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Trabalon
- Physiologie du Comportement, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université H. Poincaré, B.P. 70239, 54506 Vandoeuvre-Les-Nancy, France.
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Villet MH, Amendt J. Advances in Entomological Methods for Death Time Estimation. FORENSIC PATHOLOGY REVIEWS 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-249-6_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Roux O, Gers C, Legal L. Ontogenetic study of three Calliphoridae of forensic importance through cuticular hydrocarbon analysis. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY 2008; 22:309-317. [PMID: 19120957 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2915.2008.00752.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The ontogeny of the cuticular hydrocarbons of three dipterans of importance to forensic entomology, Calliphora vomitoria (Linné), Calliphora vicina (Robineau-Desvoidy) and Protophormia terraenovae (Robineau-Desvoidy) (Diptera: Calliphoridae), was explored using gas chromatography analysis. The stages examined ranged from eggs to 8-day-old adults. Cuticular hydrocarbon profiles revealed that odd linear alkanes dominate in all three species. Short-chain carbon compounds in larvae and post-feeding larvae were seen to evolve to long-chain carbon compounds in pupae and adults. Discriminant analysis of cuticular hydrocarbon profiles showed a clear differentiation among the different stages (larvae, post-feeding larvae, pupae and adults) and within stages, according to the age of individuals. This study concluded that the postmortem interval can be determined from the composition of cuticular waxes in Calliphoridae in forensic situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Roux
- ECOLAB, UMR 5245, CNRS, UPS, INPT, 118, Route de Narbonne, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse F-31062, France
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Sex Pheromone of the American Warble Fly, Dermatobia hominis: The Role of Cuticular Hydrocarbons. J Chem Ecol 2008; 34:636-46. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-008-9473-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2007] [Revised: 03/24/2008] [Accepted: 03/28/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Zhu GH, Ye GY, Hu C, Xu XH, Li K. Development changes of cuticular hydrocarbons in Chrysomya rufifacies larvae: potential for determining larval age. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY 2006; 20:438-44. [PMID: 17199755 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2915.2006.00651.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Age determination is the basis of determining the postmortem interval using necrophagous fly larvae. To explore the potential of using cuticular hydrocarbons for determining the ages of fly larvae, changes of cuticular hydrocarbons in developing larvae of Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) were investigated using gas chromatography with flame-ionization detection and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. This study showed that the larvae produced cuticular hydrocarbons typical of insects. Most of the hydrocarbons identified were alkanes with the carbon chain length of 21-31, plus six kinds of alkenes. The hydrocarbon composition of the larvae correlated with age. The statistical results showed that simple peak ratios of n-C29 divided by another eight selected peaks increased significantly with age; their relationships with age could be modelled using exponential or power functions with R(2) close to or > 0.80. These results suggest that cuticular hydrocarbon composition is a useful indicator for determining the age of larval C. rufifacies, especially for post-feeding larvae, which are difficult to differentiate by morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- G H Zhu
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China.
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25
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Roux O, Gers C, Legal L. When, during ontogeny, waxes in the blowfly (Calliphoridae) cuticle can act as phylogenetic markers. BIOCHEM SYST ECOL 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bse.2005.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Ejima A, Smith BP, Lucas C, Levine JD, Griffith LC. Sequential learning of pheromonal cues modulates memory consolidation in trainer-specific associative courtship conditioning. Curr Biol 2005; 15:194-206. [PMID: 15694302 PMCID: PMC2805828 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2004] [Revised: 11/26/2004] [Accepted: 11/29/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Associative memory formation requires that animals choose predictors for experiences they need to remember. When an artificial odor is paired with an aversive experience, that odor becomes the predictor. In more natural settings, however, animals can have multiple salient experiences that need to be remembered and prioritized. The mechanisms by which animals deal with multiple experiences are incompletely understood. RESULTS Here we show that Drosophila males can be trained to discriminate between different types of female pheromones; they suppress courtship specifically to the type of female that was associated with unsuccessful courtship. Such "trainer-specific" learning is mediated by hydrocarbon olfactory cues and modifies the male's processing of those cues. Animals that are unable to use olfactory cues can still learn by using other sensory modalities, but memory in this case is not specific to the trainer female's maturation state. Concurrent and serial presentation of different pheromones demonstrates that the ability to consolidate memory of pheromonal cues can be modified by the temporal order in which they appear. CONCLUSION Suppression of memory by new learning demonstrates that the dynamics of memory consolidation are subject to plasticity in Drosophila. This type of metaplasticity is essential for navigation of experience-rich natural environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aki Ejima
- Department of Biology and Volen Center for Complex Systems, Brandeis University MS008, 415 South Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454-9110
| | - Benjamin P.C. Smith
- Department of Biology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, 3359 Mississauga Road North, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Christophe Lucas
- Department of Biology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, 3359 Mississauga Road North, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Joel D. Levine
- Department of Biology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, 3359 Mississauga Road North, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Leslie C. Griffith
- Department of Biology and Volen Center for Complex Systems, Brandeis University MS008, 415 South Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454-9110
- Correspondence:
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Mpuru S, Blomquist GJ, Schal C, Roux M, Kuenzli M, Dusticier G, Clément JL, Bagnères AG. Effect of age and sex on the production of internal and external hydrocarbons and pheromones in the housefly, Musca domestica. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2001; 31:139-155. [PMID: 11164336 DOI: 10.1016/s0965-1748(00)00098-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The epicuticular and internal waxes of male and female houseflies were examined by capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry at closely timed intervals from emergence until day-6 of adulthood. New components identified included tricosan-10-one, 9,10-epoxyheptacosane, heptacosen-12-one, a series of odd-carbon numbered dienes from C31 to C39, several positional isomers of monoenes including (Z)-9- and 7-pentacosene and a number of methyl- and dimethylalkanes. (Z)-9-tricosene appears in internal lipids prior to appearing on the surface of the insect, suggesting that it is transported in the hemolymph to its site of deposition on the epicuticle. The large increases in the amount of (Z)-9-tricosene in females from day-2 until day-6 is compensated for by a concomitant decrease in (Z)-9-heptacosene. The C23 epoxide and ketone only appear in females after the production of (Z)-9-tricosene is induced, and are only abundant in epicuticular waxes, suggesting they are formed after (Z)-9-tricosene is transported to the cells which are involved in taking them to the surface of the insect. Mathematical analysis indicated that the time shift between internal production and external accumulation in females is more than 24 h. The divergence between male and female lipid production occurs at an early stage, when insects are less than one day old.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Mpuru
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, NE 89557-0014, USA
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