Torsionally tuned cruciform and Z-DNA probes for measuring unrestrained supercoiling at specific sites in DNA of living cells

Z-nucleic acid sensor ZBP1 in sterile inflammation

Z-DNA binding protein 1 (ZBP1), a cytosolic nucleic acid sensor for Z-form nucleic acids (Z-NA), can detect both exogenous and endogenous nucleic acids. Upon sensing of self Z-NA or exposure to diverse noxious stimuli, ZBP1 regulates inflammation by activating nuclear factor kappa B and interferon regulating factor 3 signaling pathways. In addition, ZBP1 promotes the assembly of ZBP1 PANoptosome, which initiates caspase 3-mediated apoptosis, mixed lineage kinase domain like pseudokinase (MLKL)-mediated necroptosis, and gasdermin D (GSDMD)-mediated pyroptosis (PANoptosis), leading to the release of various damage-associated molecular patterns. Thereby, ZBP1 is implicated in the development and progression of diverse sterile inflammatory diseases. This review outlines the expression, structure, and function of ZBP1, along with its dual roles in controlling inflammation and cell death to orchestrate innate immunity in sterile inflammation, especially autoimmune diseases, and cancers. ZBP1 has emerged as an attractive therapeutic target for various sterile inflammatory diseases.

DNA minicircles capable of forming a variety of non-canonical structural motifs

Although more than 10% of the human genome has the potential to fold into non-B DNA, the formation of non-canonical structural motifs as part of long dsDNA chains are usually considered as unfavorable from a thermodynamic point of view. However, recent experiments have confirmed that non-canonical motifs do exist and are non-randomly distributed in genomic DNA. This distribution is highly dependent not only on the DNA sequence but also on various other factors such as environmental conditions, DNA topology and the expression of specific cellular factors in different cell types. In this study, we describe a new strategy used in the preparation of DNA minicircles containing different non-canonical motifs which arise as a result of imperfect base pairing between complementary strands. The approach exploits the fact that imperfections in the pairing of complementary strands thermodynamically weaken the dsDNA structure at the expense of enhancing the formation of non-canonical motifs. In this study, a completely different concept of stable integration of a non-canonical motif into dsDNA is presented. Our approach allows the integration of various types of non-canonical motifs into the dsDNA structure such as hairpin, cruciform, G-quadruplex and i-motif forms but also combinations of these forms. Small DNA minicircles have recently become the subject of considerable interest in both fundamental research and in terms of their potential therapeutic applications.

Interaction of the Escherichia coli HU Protein with Various Topological Forms of DNA

E. coli histone-like protein HU has been shown to interact with different topological forms of DNA. Using radiolabeled HU, we examine the effects of DNA supercoiling on HU-DNA interactions. We show that HU binds preferentially to negatively supercoiled DNA and that the affinity of HU for DNA increases with increases in the negative superhelical density of DNA. Binding of HU to DNA is most sensitively influenced by DNA supercoiling within a narrow but physiologically relevant range of superhelicity (σ = -0.06-0). Under stoichiometric binding conditions, the affinity of HU for negatively supercoiled DNA (σ = -0.06) is more than 10 times higher than that for relaxed DNA at physiologically relevant HU/DNA mass ratios (e.g., 1:10). This binding preference, however, becomes negligible at HU/DNA mass ratios higher than 1:2. At saturation, HU binds both negatively supercoiled and relaxed DNA with similar stoichiometries, i.e., 5-6 base pairs per HU dimer. In our chemical crosslinking studies, we demonstrate that HU molecules bound to negatively supercoiled DNA are more readily crosslinked than those bound to linear DNA. At in vivo HU/DNA ratios, HU appears to exist predominantly in a tetrameric form on negatively supercoiled DNA and in a dimeric form on linear DNA. Using a DNA ligase-mediated nick closure assay, we show that approximately 20 HU dimers are required to constrain one negative supercoil on relaxed DNA. Although fewer HU dimers may be needed to constrain one negative supercoil on negatively supercoiled DNA, our results and estimates of the cellular level of HU argue against a major role for HU in constraining supercoils in vivo. We discuss our data within the context of the dynamic distribution of the HU protein in cells, where temporal and local changes of DNA supercoiling are known to take place.

Alternative DNA Structures In Vivo: Molecular Evidence and Remaining Questions

Duplex DNA naturally folds into a right-handed double helix in physiological conditions. Some sequences of unusual base composition may nevertheless form alternative structures, as was shown for many repeated sequences in vitro However, evidence for the formation of noncanonical structures in living cells is difficult to gather. It mainly relies on genetic assays demonstrating their function in vivo or through genetic instability reflecting particular properties of such structures. Efforts were made to reveal their existence directly in a living cell, mainly by generating antibodies specific to secondary structures or using chemical ligands selected for their affinity to these structures. Among secondary structure-forming DNAs are G-quadruplexes, human fragile sites containing minisatellites, AT-rich regions, inverted repeats able to form cruciform structures, hairpin-forming CAG/CTG triplet repeats, and triple helices formed by homopurine-homopyrimidine GAA/TTC trinucleotide repeats. Many of these alternative structures are involved in human pathologies, such as neurological or developmental disorders, as in the case of trinucleotide repeats, or cancers triggered by translocations linked to fragile sites. This review will discuss and highlight evidence supporting the formation of alternative DNA structures in vivo and will emphasize the role of the mismatch repair machinery in binding mispaired DNA duplexes, triggering genetic instability.

Interaction of a photosensitizer methylene blue with various structural forms (cruciform, bulge duplex and hairpin) of designed DNA sequences

Functionally important, local structural transitions in DNA generate various alternative conformations. Cruciform is one of such alternative DNA structures, usually targeted in genomes by various proteins. Symmetry elements in sequence as inverted repeats are the key factor for cruciform formation, facilitated by the presence of the AT-rich regions. Here, we used biophysical and biochemical techniques such as Gel electrophoresis, Circular dichroism (CD), and UV-thermal melting analysis to explore the structural status of the designed DNA sequences, which had potential to form cruciform structures under physiological conditions. The gel electrophoresis analysis revealed that the designed 53-mer DNA oligonucleotide sequence CR forms an intermolecular bulge duplex with flanking ends, while another sequence CRC adopts an intramolecular hairpin structure with flanking ends. Their equimolar complex (CRCRC) bestowed much-retarded migration due to the formation of a quite intriguing cruciform structure. CD studies confirmed that all the alternative structures (cruciform, bulge duplex, and hairpin with flanking ends) exhibit characteristics of B-DNA type conformation. A triphasic UV-thermal melting curve displayed by the complex formed by the equimolar ratio (CRCRC) is also suggestive of the formation of the cruciform structure. The interaction studies of CR, CRC, and their equimolar complex (1:1) with a photosensitizer methylene blue (MB) indicated that MB could not stabilize the discrete structures formed by CR and CRC sequences, however, the cruciform structure showed a quite significant increment in the melting temperature. Such studies facilitate our understanding of various secondary structures possibly present inside the cell and their interactions with drug/dye molecules.

Complex DNA structures trigger copy number variation across the Plasmodium falciparum genome

Antimalarial resistance is a major obstacle in the eradication of the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Genome amplifications, a type of DNA copy number variation (CNV), facilitate overexpression of drug targets and contribute to parasite survival. Long monomeric A/T tracks are found at the breakpoints of many Plasmodium resistance-conferring CNVs. We hypothesize that other proximal sequence features, such as DNA hairpins, act with A/T tracks to trigger CNV formation. By adapting a sequence analysis pipeline to investigate previously reported CNVs, we identified breakpoints in 35 parasite clones with near single base-pair resolution. Using parental genome sequence, we predicted the formation of stable hairpins within close proximity to all future breakpoint locations. Especially stable hairpins were predicted to form near five shared breakpoints, establishing that the initiating event could have occurred at these sites. Further in-depth analyses defined characteristics of these 'trigger sites' across the genome and detected signatures of error-prone repair pathways at the breakpoints. We propose that these two genomic signals form the initial lesion (hairpins) and facilitate microhomology-mediated repair (A/T tracks) that lead to CNV formation across this highly repetitive genome. Targeting these repair pathways in P. falciparum may be used to block adaptation to antimalarial drugs.

Computational Approaches to Predict the Non-canonical DNAs

Background:

Although most nucleotides in the genome form canonical double-stranded B-DNA, many repeated sequences transiently present as non-canonical conformations (non-B DNA) such as triplexes, quadruplexes, Z-DNA, cruciforms, and slipped/hairpins. Those noncanonical DNAs (ncDNAs) are not only associated with many genetic events such as replication, transcription, and recombination, but are also related to the genetic instability that results in the predisposition to disease. Due to the crucial roles of ncDNAs in cellular and genetic functions, various computational methods have been implemented to predict sequence motifs that generate ncDNA.

Objective:

Here, we review strategies for the identification of ncDNA motifs across the whole genome, which is necessary for further understanding and investigation of the structure and function of ncDNAs.

Conclusion:

There is a great demand for computational prediction of non-canonical DNAs that play key functional roles in gene expression and genome biology. In this study, we review the currently available computational methods for predicting the non-canonical DNAs in the genome. Current studies not only provide an insight into the computational methods for predicting the secondary structures of DNA but also increase our understanding of the roles of non-canonical DNA in the genome.

DNA cruciform arms nucleate through a correlated but asynchronous cooperative mechanism

Inverted repeat (IR) sequences in DNA can form noncanonical cruciform structures to relieve torsional stress. We use Monte Carlo simulations of a recently developed coarse-grained model of DNA to demonstrate that the nucleation of a cruciform can proceed through a cooperative mechanism. First, a twist-induced denaturation bubble must diffuse so that its midpoint is near the center of symmetry of the IR sequence. Second, bubble fluctuations must be large enough to allow one of the arms to form a small number of hairpin bonds. Once the first arm is partially formed, the second arm can rapidly grow to a similar size. Because bubbles can twist back on themselves, they need considerably fewer bases to resolve torsional stress than the final cruciform state does. The initially stabilized cruciform therefore continues to grow, which typically proceeds synchronously, reminiscent of the S-type mechanism of cruciform formation. By using umbrella sampling techniques, we calculate, for different temperatures and superhelical densities, the free energy as a function of the number of bonds in each cruciform arm along the correlated but asynchronous nucleation pathways we observed in direct simulations.

Stabilised DNA secondary structures with increasing transcription localise hypermutable bases for somatic hypermutation in IGHV3-23

Somatic hypermutation (SHM) mediated by activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) is a transcription-coupled mechanism most responsible for generating high affinity antibodies. An issue remaining enigmatic in SHM is how AID is preferentially targeted during transcription to hypermutable bases in its substrates (WRC motifs) on both DNA strands. AID targets only single stranded DNA. By modelling the dynamical behaviour of IGHV3-23 DNA, a commonly used human variable gene segment, we observed that hypermutable bases on the non-transcribed strand are paired whereas those on transcribed strand are mostly unpaired. Hypermutable bases (both paired and unpaired) are made accessible to AID in stabilised secondary structures formed with increasing transcription levels. This observation provides a rationale for the hypermutable bases on both the strands of DNA being targeted to a similar extent despite having differences in unpairedness. We propose that increasing transcription and RNAP II stalling resulting in the formation and stabilisation of stem-loop structures with AID hotspots in negatively supercoiled region can localise the hypermutable bases of both strands of DNA, to AID-mediated SHM.

Folded DNA in action: hairpin formation and biological functions in prokaryotes

Structured forms of DNA with intrastrand pairing are generated in several cellular processes and are involved in biological functions. These structures may arise on single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) produced during replication, bacterial conjugation, natural transformation, or viral infections. Furthermore, negatively supercoiled DNA can extrude inverted repeats as hairpins in structures called cruciforms. Whether they are on ssDNA or as cruciforms, hairpins can modify the access of proteins to DNA, and in some cases, they can be directly recognized by proteins. Folded DNAs have been found to play an important role in replication, transcription regulation, and recognition of the origins of transfer in conjugative elements. More recently, they were shown to be used as recombination sites. Many of these functions are found on mobile genetic elements likely to be single stranded, including viruses, plasmids, transposons, and integrons, thus giving some clues as to the manner in which they might have evolved. We review here, with special focus on prokaryotes, the functions in which DNA secondary structures play a role and the cellular processes giving rise to them. Finally, we attempt to shed light on the selective pressures leading to the acquisition of functions for DNA secondary structures.

Cellular pathways controlling integron cassette site folding

By mobilizing small DNA units, integrons have a major function in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance among bacteria. The acquisition of gene cassettes occurs by recombination between the attI and attC sites catalysed by the IntI1 integron integrase. These recombination reactions use an unconventional mechanism involving a folded single-stranded attC site. We show that cellular bacterial processes delivering ssDNA, such as conjugation and replication, favour proper folding of the attC site. By developing a very sensitive in vivo assay, we also provide evidence that attC sites can recombine as cruciform structures by extrusion from double-stranded DNA. Moreover, we show an influence of DNA superhelicity on attC site extrusion in vitro and in vivo. We show that the proper folding of the attC site depends on both the propensity to form non-recombinogenic structures and the length of their variable terminal structures. These results draw the network of cell processes that regulate integron recombination.

Gel mobilities of linking-number topoisomers and their dependence on DNA helical repeat and elasticity

Agarose-gel electrophoresis has been used for more than thirty years to characterize the linking-number (Lk) distribution of closed-circular DNA molecules. Although the physical basis of this technique remains poorly understood, the gel-electrophoretic behavior of covalently closed DNAs has been used to determine the local unwinding of DNA by proteins and small-molecule ligands, characterize supercoiling-dependent conformational transitions in duplex DNA, and to measure helical-repeat changes due to shifts in temperature and ionic strength. Those results have been analyzed by assuming that the absolute mobility of a particular topoisomer is mainly a function of the integral number of superhelical turns, and thus a slowly varying function of plasmid molecular weight. In examining the mobilities of Lk topoisomers for a series of plasmids that differ incrementally in size over more than one helical turn, we found that the size-dependent agarose-gel mobility of individual topoisomers with identical values of Lk (but different values of the excess linking number, DeltaLk) vary dramatically over a duplex turn. Our results suggest that a simple semi-empirical relationship holds between the electrophoretic mobility of linking-number topoisomers and their average writhe in solution.

Chromosome aberrations resulting from double-strand DNA breaks at a naturally occurring yeast fragile site composed of inverted ty elements are independent of Mre11p and Sae2p

Genetic instability at palindromes and spaced inverted repeats (IRs) leads to chromosome rearrangements. Perfect palindromes and IRs with short spacers can extrude as cruciforms or fold into hairpins on the lagging strand during replication. Cruciform resolution produces double-strand breaks (DSBs) with hairpin-capped ends, and Mre11p and Sae2p are required to cleave the hairpin tips to facilitate homologous recombination. Fragile site 2 (FS2) is a naturally occurring IR in Saccharomyces cerevisiae composed of a pair of Ty1 elements separated by approximately 280 bp. Our results suggest that FS2 forms a hairpin, rather than a cruciform, during replication in cells with low levels of DNA polymerase. Cleavage of this hairpin results in a recombinogenic DSB. We show that DSB formation at FS2 does not require Mre11p, Sae2p, Rad1p, Slx4p, Pso2p, Exo1p, Mus81p, Yen1p, or Rad27p. Also, repair of DSBs by homologous recombination is efficient in mre11 and sae2 mutants. Homologous recombination is impaired at FS2 in rad52 mutants and most aberrations reflect either joining of two broken chromosomes in a "half crossover" or telomere capping of the break. In support of hairpin formation precipitating DSBs at FS2, two telomere-capped deletions had a breakpoint near the center of the IR. In summary, Mre11p and Sae2p are not required for DSB formation at FS2 or the subsequent repair of these DSBs.

Checkpoint responses to unusual structures formed by DNA repeats

DNA sequences that are prone to adopting non-B DNA secondary structures are associated with hotspots of genomic instability. The fine mechanisms by which alternative DNA structures induce phenomena such as repeat expansions, chromosomal fragility, or gross chromosomal rearrangements are under intensive studies. It is well established that DNA damage checkpoint responses play a crucial role in maintaining a stable genome. It is far less clear, however, whether and how the checkpoint machinery responds to alternative DNA structures. This review discusses the role of the interplay between DNA damage checkpoints and alternative DNA structures in genome maintenance.

A Z-DNA sequence reduces slipped-strand structure formation in the myotonic dystrophy type 2 (CCTG) x (CAGG) repeat

All DNA repeats known to undergo expansion leading to human neurodegenerative disease can form one, or several, alternative conformations, including hairpin, slipped strand, triplex, quadruplex, or unwound DNA structures. These alternative structures may interfere with the normal cellular processes of transcription, DNA repair, replication initiation, or polymerase elongation and thereby contribute to the genetic instability of these repeat tracts. We show that (CCTG) x (CAGG) repeats, in the first intron of the ZNF9 gene associated with myotonic dystrophy type 2, form slipped-strand DNA structures in a length-dependent fashion upon reduplexing. The threshold for structure formation on reduplexing is between 36 and 42 repeats in length. Alternative DNA structures also form in (CCTG)(58) x (CAGG)(58) and larger repeat tracts in plasmids at physiological superhelical densities. This represents an example of a sequence that forms slipped-strand DNA from the energy of DNA supercoiling. Moreover, Z-DNA forms in a (TG) x (CA) tract within the complex repeat sequence 5' of the (CCTG)(n) x (CAGG)(n) repeat in the ZNF9 gene. Upon reduplexing, the presence of the flanking sequence containing the Z-DNA-forming tract reduced the extent of slipped-strand DNA formation by 62% for (CCTG)(57) x (CAGG)(57) compared with 58 pure repeats without the flanking sequence. This finding suggests that the Z-DNA-forming sequence in the DM2 gene locus may have a protective effect of reducing the potential for slipped-strand DNA formation in (CCTG)(n) x (CAGG)(n) repeats.

Secondary structures as predictors of mutation potential in the lacZ gene of Escherichia coli

Four independent nonsense mutations were engineered into the Escherichia coli chromosomal lacZ gene, and reversion rates back to LacZ(+) phenotypes were determined. The mutation potential of bases within putative DNA secondary structures formed during transcription was predicted by a sliding-window analysis that simulates successive folding of the ssDNA creating these structures. The relative base mutabilities predicted by the mfg computer program correlated with experimentally determined reversion rates in three of the four mutants analysed. The nucleotide changes in revertants at one nonsense codon site consisted of a triple mutation, presumed to occur by a templated repair mechanism. Additionally, the effect of supercoiling on mutation was investigated and, in general, reversion rates increased with higher levels of negative supercoiling. Evidence indicates that predicted secondary structures are in fact formed in vivo and that directed mutation in response to starvation stress is dependent upon the exposure of particular bases, the stability of the structures in which these bases are unpaired and the level of DNA supercoiling within the cell.

The effect of promoter strength, supercoiling and secondary structure on mutation rates in Escherichia coli

Four mutations resulting in opal stop codons were individually engineered into a plasmid-borne chloramphenicol-resistance (cat) gene driven by the lac promoter. These four mutations were located at different sites in secondary structures. The mutations were analysed with the computer program mfg, which predicted their relative reversion frequencies. Reversion frequencies determined experimentally correlated with the mutability of the bases as predicted by mfg. To examine the effect of increased transcription on reversion frequencies, the lac promoter was replaced with the stronger tac promoter, which resulted in 12- to 30-fold increases in reversion rates. The effect of increased and decreased supercoiling was also investigated. The cat mutants had higher reversion rates in a topA mutant strain with increased negative supercoiling compared with wild-type levels, and the cat reversion rates were lower in a topA gyrB mutant strain with decreased negative supercoiling, as predicted.

Cruciform extrusion propensity of human translocation-mediating palindromic AT-rich repeats

There is an emerging consensus that secondary structures of DNA have the potential for genomic instability. Palindromic AT-rich repeats (PATRRs) are a characteristic sequence identified at each breakpoint of the recurrent constitutional t(11;22) and t(17;22) translocations in humans, named PATRR22 (∼600 bp), PATRR11 (∼450 bp) and PATRR17 (∼190 bp). The secondary structure-forming propensity in vitro and the instability in vivo have been experimentally evaluated for various PATRRs that differ regarding their size and symmetry. At physiological ionic strength, a cruciform structure is most frequently observed for the symmetric PATRR22, less often for the symmetric PATRR11, but not for the other PATRRs. In wild-type E. coli, only these two PATRRs undergo extensive instability, consistent with the relatively high incidence of the t(11;22) in humans. The resultant deletions are putatively mediated by central cleavage by the structure-specific endonuclease SbcCD, indicating the possibility of a cruciform conformation in vivo. Insertion of a short spacer at the centre of the PATRR22 greatly reduces both its cruciform extrusion in vitro and instability in vivo. Taken together, cruciform extrusion propensity depends on the length and central symmetry of the PATRR, and is likely to determine the instability that leads to recurrent translocations in humans.

Palindrome-mediated chromosomal translocations in humans

Recently, it has emerged that palindrome-mediated genomic instability contributes to a diverse group of genomic rearrangements including translocations, deletions, and amplifications. One of the best studied examples is the recurrent t(11;22) constitutional translocation in humans that has been well documented to be mediated by palindromic AT-rich repeats (PATRRs) on chromosomes 11q23 and 22q11. De novo examples of the translocation are detected at a high frequency in sperm samples from normal healthy males, but not in lymphoblasts or fibroblasts. Cloned breakpoint sequences preferentially form a cruciform configuration in vitro. Analysis of the junction fragments implicates frequent double-strand-breaks (DSBs) at the center of both palindromic regions, followed by repair through the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway. We propose that the PATRR adopts a cruciform structure in male meiotic cells, creating genomic instability that leads to the recurrent translocation.

Palindromes and genomic stress fractures: bracing and repairing the damage

DNA palindromes are a source of instability in eukaryotic genomes but remain under-investigated because they are difficult to study. Nonetheless, progress in the last year or so has begun to form a coherent picture of how DNA palindromes cause damage in eukaryotes and how this damage is opposed by cellular mechanisms. In yeast, the features of double strand DNA interruptions that appear at palindromic sites in vivo suggest that a resolvase-type activity creates the fractures by attacking a palindrome after it extrudes into a cruciform structure. Induction of DNA breaks in this fashion could be deterred through a Center-Break palindrome revision process as investigated in detail in mice. The MRX/MRN likely plays a pivotal role in prevention of palindrome-induced genome damage in eukaryotes.

Sticky DNA: in vivo formation in E. coli and in vitro association of long GAA*TTC tracts to generate two independent supercoiled domains

The expanded GAA*TTC repeat sequence associated with Friedreich's ataxia (FRDA) adopts non-B DNA structures, (triplexes and sticky DNA). Sticky DNA is formed in plasmids by the association of two long GAA*TTC tracts at lengths that are found in the sequence of the frataxin gene in patients. Most FRDA patients have expanded GAA*TTC repeats (up to 1700 triplets), which inhibit the transcription of the gene, thus diminishing the synthesis of frataxin, a mitochondrial protein involved in iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis. Negative supercoiling and MgCl(2) (or MnCl(2)) are required to stabilize sticky DNA (a dumbbell-shaped structure) in plasmids with a pair of repeat tracts where n> or =60 in the direct repeat orientation in vitro. Since the triplet repeat sequences (TRS) were symmetrically positioned in the plasmids and because a number of unique restriction sites were present in the vector, studies were conducted to evaluate the influence of selectively linearizing one or the other supercoiled domains created by the DNA*DNA associated region, i.e. the stable complex at the pair of TRS's. The two domains behave independently, thus confirming the association of the two tracts and the dumbbell-shaped plasmid in our model for sticky DNA. Linking number investigations were performed on a family of plasmids harboring different lengths (30, 60, or 176 repeats), orientations and number of tracts (one or two) of a GAA*TTC repeat in Escherichia coli to evaluate the in vivo role, if any, of sticky DNA. Unexpectedly, this non-B DNA conformation elicited the formation of a TRS-length dependent change in the global topology of the plasmids, indicative of an apparent compression of the primary helices. Thus, linking number determinations confirm that sticky DNA has an important consequence in vivo.

DNA transitions induced by binding of PARP-1 to cruciform structures in supercoiled plasmids

BACKGROUND

Poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase-1 (PARP-1) binds to single and double-stranded breaks in DNA, but less well known is its affinity for undamaged DNA. Previously, we have shown that PARP-1 also binds to the hairpin structures in DNA models. The mechanism underlying these interactions remains to be defined.

METHODS

We analyzed atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of complex of PARP-1 proteins with supercoiled plasmids containing cruciform structures. Using volume measurement analysis of molecules of PARP-1, we determined the numbers of PARP-1 molecules interacting with supercoiled DNA plasmids containing one cruciform structure. We also determined the extent of supercoiling of plasmids.

RESULTS

Our observations show that PARP-1 binds to sequences that transition from B-DNA to cruciform structures. PARP-1 is present at the ends of hairpin arms, sites containing a 4-base single-stranded DNA. Furthermore, interaction of PARP-1 with supercoiled plasmids leads to a more relaxed plasmid-DNA conformation.

CONCLUSIONS

Binding of PARP-1 to cruciform DNA offers insight into possible mechanisms underlying with changes in DNA conformation. These observations may offer insight into mechanisms involving DNA conformation related to process such as DNA repair and transcription.

Interaction of the Zalpha domain of human ADAR1 with a negatively supercoiled plasmid visualized by atomic force microscopy

Interest to the left-handed DNA conformation has been recently boosted by the findings that a number of proteins contain the Zalpha domain, which has been shown to specifically recognize Z-DNA. The biological function of Zalpha is presently unknown, but it has been suggested that it may specifically direct protein regions of Z-DNA induced by negative supercoiling in actively transcribing genes. Many studies, including a crystal structure in complex with Z-DNA, have focused on the human ADAR1 Zalpha domain in isolation. We have hypothesized that the recognition of a Z-DNA sequence by the Zalpha(ADAR1) domain is context specific, occurring under energetic conditions, which favor Z-DNA formation. To test this hypothesis, we have applied atomic force microscopy to image Zalpha(ADAR1) complexed with supercoiled plasmid DNAs. We have demonstrated that the Zalpha(ADAR1) binds specifically to Z-DNA and preferentially to d(CG)(n) inserts, which require less energy for Z-DNA induction compared to other sequences. A notable finding is that site-specific Zalpha binding to d(GC)(13) or d(GC)(2)C(GC)(10) inserts is observed when DNA supercoiling is insufficient to induce Z-DNA formation. These results indicate that Zalpha(ADAR1) binding facilities the B-to-Z transition and provides additional support to the model that Z-DNA binding proteins may regulate biological processes through structure-specific recognition.

Influence of global DNA topology on cruciform formation in supercoiled DNA

DNA supercoiling plays an important role in many genetic processes such as replication, transcription, and recombination. Supercoiling provides energy for helix un-pairing and drives the formation of alternative DNA structural transitions, like cruciforms. Supercoiling also allows distant DNA regions to be brought into close proximity through the formation of inter-wound supercoils. Recently, we showed that the inverted repeat-to-cruciform transition acts as a molecular switch, influencing the global topology of a topological plasmid domain. As alternative DNA structures can affect global topology, a corollary hypothesis might be that the localization of a specific DNA sequence within a topological domain may affect the energetics required for formation of an alternative DNA structure. Here, we test this hypothesis and show that the localization of an inverted repeat to an apical position increases the rate of cruciform formation and reduces the superhelical energy required to drive the transition. For this, we created a series of plasmids containing an inverted repeat and an A-tract bent DNA sequence. The A-tract forms a permanent 180 degrees bend irrespective of DNA topology. The inverted repeat and the bent sequence were placed either at six o'clock or nine o'clock positions with respect to each other. Using 2D agarose gel electrophoresis, we show that the six o'clock construct extrudes the cruciform at a lower superhelical density than a control plasmid without the bend. Atomic force microscopy shows that the nine o'clock construct has the propensity to form branched molecules with the cruciform at the end of one branch. These results demonstrate that the localization of sequences within specific regions of a topological domain can affect the energetics of structural transitions as well as the branching structure of the domain. As structural transitions can be involved in biological processes, localization of alternative conformation-forming sequences to specific locations within a domain provides an additional means for gene regulation.

14-3-3sigma is a cruciform DNA binding protein and associates in vivo with origins of DNA replication

A human cruciform binding protein (CBP) was previously shown to bind to cruciform DNA in a structure-specific manner and be a member of the 14-3-3 protein family. CBP had been found to contain the 14-3-3 isoforms beta, gamma, epsilon, and zeta. Here, we show by Western blot analysis that the CBP-cruciform DNA complex eluted from band-shift polyacrylamide gels also contains the 14-3-3sigma isoform, which is present in HeLa cell nuclear extracts. An antibody specific for the 14-3-3sigma isoform was able to interfere with the formation of the CBP-cruciform DNA complex. The effect of the same anti-14-3-3sigma antibody in the in vitro replication of p186, a plasmid containing the minimal replication origin of the monkey origin ors8, was also analyzed. Pre-incubation of total HeLa cell extracts with this antibody decreased p186 in vitro replication to approximately 30% of control levels, while non-specific antibodies had no effect. 14-3-3sigma was found to associate in vivo with the monkey origins of DNA replication ors8 and ors12 in a cell cycle-dependent manner, as assayed by a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay that involved formaldehyde cross-linking, followed by immunoprecipitation with anti-14-3-3sigma antibody and quantitative PCR. The association of 14-3-3sigma with the replication origins was maximal at the G(1)/S phase. The results indicate that 14-3-3sigma is an origin binding protein involved in the regulation of DNA replication via cruciform DNA binding.

Targeted transposition by the V(D)J recombinase

Cleavage by the V(D)J recombinase at a pair of recombination signal sequences creates two coding ends and two signal ends. The RAG proteins can integrate these signal ends, without sequence specificity, into an unrelated target DNA molecule. Here we demonstrate that such transposition events are greatly stimulated by--and specifically targeted to--hairpins and other distorted DNA structures. The mechanism of target selection by the RAG proteins thus appears to involve recognition of distorted DNA. These data also suggest a novel mechanism for the formation of alternative recombination products termed hybrid joints, in which a signal end is joined to a hairpin coding end. We suggest that hybrid joints may arise by transposition in vivo and propose a new model to account for some recurrent chromosome translocations found in human lymphomas. According to this model, transposition can join antigen receptor loci to partner sites that lack recombination signal sequence elements but bear particular structural features. The RAG proteins are capable of mediating all necessary breakage and joining events on both partner chromosomes; thus, the V(D)J recombinase may be far more culpable for oncogenic translocations than has been suspected.

The human cruciform-binding protein, CBP, is involved in DNA replication and associates in vivo with mammalian replication origins

We previously identified and purified from human (HeLa) cells a 66-kDa cruciform-binding protein, CBP, with binding specificity for cruciform DNA regardless of its sequence. DNA cruciforms have been implicated in the regulation of initiation of DNA replication. CBP is a member of the 14-3-3 family of proteins, which are conserved regulatory molecules expressed in all eukaryotes. Here, the in vivo association of CBP/14-3-3 with mammalian origins of DNA replication was analyzed by studying its association with the monkey replication origins ors8 and ors12, as assayed by a chromatin immunoprecipitation assay and quantitative PCR analysis. The association of the 14-3-3beta, -epsilon, -gamma, and -zeta isoforms with these origins was found to be approximately 9-fold higher, compared with other portions of the genome, in logarithmically growing cells. In addition, the association of these isoforms with ors8 and ors12 was also analyzed as a function of the cell cycle. Higher binding of 14-3-3beta, -epsilon, -gamma, and -zeta isoforms with ors8 and ors12 was found at the G(1)/S border, by comparison with other stages of the cell cycle. The CBP/14-3-3 cruciform binding activity was also found to be maximal at the G(1)/S boundary. The involvement of 14-3-3 in mammalian DNA replication was analyzed by studying the effect of anti-14-3-3beta, -epsilon, -gamma, and -zeta antibodies in the in vitro replication of p186, a plasmid containing the minimal replication origin of ors8. Anti-14-3-3epsilon, -gamma, and -zeta antibodies alone or in combination inhibited p186 replication by approximately 50-80%, while anti-14-3-3beta antibodies had a lesser effect ( approximately 25-50%). All of the antibodies tested were also able to interfere with CBP binding to cruciform DNA. The results indicate that CBP/14-3-3 is an origin-binding protein, acting at the initiation step of DNA replication by binding to cruciform-containing molecules, and dissociates after origin firing.

Evidence for two mechanisms of palindrome-stimulated deletion in Escherichia coli: single-strand annealing and replication slipped mispairing

Spontaneous deletion mutations often occur at short direct repeats that flank inverted repeat sequences. Inverted repeats may initiate genetic rearrangements by formation of hairpin secondary structures that block DNA polymerases or are processed by structure-specific endonucleases. We have investigated the ability of inverted repeat sequences to stimulate deletion of flanking direct repeats in Escherichia coli. Propensity for cruciform extrusion in duplex DNA correlated with stimulation of flanking deletion, which was partially sbcD dependent. We propose two mechanisms for palindrome-stimulated deletion, SbcCD dependent and SbcCD independent. The SbcCD-dependent mechanism is initiated by SbcCD cleavage of cruciforms in duplex DNA followed by RecA-independent single-strand annealing at the flanking direct repeats, generating a deletion. Analysis of deletion endpoints is consistent with this model. We propose that the SbcCD-independent pathway involves replication slipped mispairing, evoked from stalling at hairpin structures formed on the single-stranded lagging-strand template. The skew of SbcCD-independent deletion endpoints with respect to the direction of replication supports this hypothesis. Surprisingly, even in the absence of palindromes, SbcD affected the location of deletion endpoints, suggesting that SbcCD-mediated strand processing may also accompany deletion unassociated with secondary structures.

Recombinant human DNA (cytosine-5) methyltransferase. III. Allosteric control, reaction order, and influence of plasmid topology and triplet repeat length on methylation of the fragile X CGG.CCG sequence

Steady-state kinetic analyses revealed that the methylation reaction of the human DNA (cytosine-5) methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) is repressed by the N-terminal domain comprising the first 501 amino acids, and that repression is relieved when methylated DNA binds to this region. DNMT1 lacking the first 501 amino acids retains its preference for hemimethylated DNA. The methylation reaction proceeds by a sequential mechanism, and either substrate (S-adenosyl-l-methionine and unmethylated DNA) may be the first to bind to the active site. However, initial binding of S-adenosyl-l-methionine is preferred. The binding affinities of DNA for both the regulatory and the catalytic sites increase in the presence of methylated CpG dinucleotides and vary considerably (more than one hundred times) according to DNA sequence. DNA topology strongly influences the reaction rates, which increased with increasing negative superhelical tension. These kinetic data are consistent with the role of DNMT1 in maintaining the methylation patterns throughout development and suggest that the enzyme may be involved in the etiology of fragile X, a syndrome characterized by de novo methylation of a greatly expanded CGG.CCG triplet repeat sequence.

Long palindromic sequences induce double-strand breaks during meiosis in yeast

Inverted-repeated or palindromic sequences have been found to occur in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes. Such repeated sequences are usually short and present at several functionally important regions in the genome. However, long palindromic sequences are rare and are a major source of genomic instability. The palindrome-mediated genomic instability is believed to be due to cruciform or hairpin formation and subsequent cleavage of this structure by structure-specific nucleases. Here we present both genetic and physical evidence that long palindromic sequences (>50 bp) generate double-strand breaks (DSBs) at a high frequency during meiosis in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The palindrome-mediated DSB formation depends on the primary sequence of the inverted repeat and the location and length of the repeated units. The DSB formation at the palindrome requires all of the gene products that are known to be responsible for DSB formation at the normal meiosis-specific sites. Since DSBs are initiators of nearly all meiotic recombination events, most of the palindrome-induced breaks appear to be repaired by homologous recombination. Our results suggest that short palindromic sequences are highly stable in vivo. In contrast, long palindromic sequences make the genome unstable by inducing DSBs and such sequences are usually removed from the genome by homologous recombination events.

Eukaryotic DNA replication

One of the fundamental characteristics of life is the ability of an entity to reproduce itself, which stems from the ability of the DNA molecule to replicate itself. The initiation step of DNA replication, where control over the timing and frequency of replication is exerted, is poorly understood in eukaryotes in general, and in mammalian cells in particular. The cis-acting DNA element defining the position and providing control over initiation is the replication origin. The activation of replication origins seems to be dependent on the presence of both a particular sequence and of structural determinants. In the past few years, the development of new methods for identification and mapping of origins of DNA replication has allowed some understanding of the fundamental elements that control the replication process. This review summarizes some of the major findings of this century, regarding the mechanism of DNA replication, emphasizing what is known about the replication of mammalian DNA. J. Cell. Biochem. Suppls. 32/33:1-14, 1999.

Large-scale effects of transcriptional DNA supercoiling in vivo

The scale of negative DNA supercoiling generated by transcription in Top(+) Escherichia coli cells was assessed from the efficiency of cruciform formation upstream of a regulated promoter. An increase in negative supercoiling upon promoter induction led to cruciform formation, which was quantitatively measured by chemical probing of intracellular DNA. By placing a cruciform-forming sequence at varying distances from the promoter, we found that the half-dissociation length of transcription supercoiling wave is approximately 800 bp. This is the first proof that transcription can affect DNA structure on such a remarkably large scale in vivo. Moreover, cooperative binding of the cI repressor to the upstream promoter DNA did not preclude efficient diffusion of transcriptional supercoiling. Finally, our plasmids appeared to contain discrete domains of DNA supercoiling, defined by the features and relative orientation of different promoters.

Transcriptional state of the mouse mammary tumor virus promoter can affect topological domain size in vivo

Unrestrained DNA supercoiling and the number of topological domains were measured within a 1.8 megabase pair chromosomal region consisting of about 200 tandem repeats of a mouse mammary tumor virus promoter-driven ha-v-ras gene. When uninduced, unrestrained negative supercoiling was organized into 32-kilobase pair (kb) topological domains. Upon induction, DNA supercoiling throughout the region was completely relaxed. Supercoiling was detected, however, when elongation was blocked before or following induction. The formation of transcription initiation complexes upon addition of dexamethasone decreased the domain size to 16 kb. During transcription the domain size was 9 kb, the length of one repeat. These results suggest that topological domain boundaries can be "functional" in nature, being established by the formation of activated and elongating transcription complexes.

Psoralen cross-linking as probe of torsional tension and topological domain size in vivo

DNA within a cell is organized with unrestrained torsional tension, and each molecule is divided into multiple individual topological domains. Psoralen photobinding can be used as an assay for supercoiling and topological domain size in living cells. Psoralen photobinds to DNA at a rate nearly linearly proportional to superhelical density. Comparison of the rate of photobinding to supercoiled and relaxed DNA in cells provides a measure of superhelical density. For this, in vivo superhelical tension is relaxed by the introduction of nicks by either ionizing radiation or photolysis of bromodeoxyuridine in the DNA. Since nicks are introduced in a random fashion, the distribution of nicks is described by a Poisson distribution. Thus, after nicking, the fraction of topological domains containing no nicks is described by the zero term of the Poisson distribution. From measurement of the number of nicks introduced in the DNA and the fraction of torsional tension remaining, an average topological domain size can be estimated. Using this logic, procedures were designed and described for measuring supercoiling and domain size at specific sites in eukaryotic genomes.

Position-dependent methylation and transcriptional silencing of transgenes in inverted T-DNA repeats: implications for posttranscriptional silencing of homologous host genes in plants

Posttranscriptional silencing of chalcone synthase (Chs) genes in petunia transformants occurs by introducing T-DNAs that contain a promoter-driven or promoterless Chs transgene. With the constructs we used, silencing occurs only by T-DNA loci which are composed of two or more T-DNA copies that are arranged as inverted repeats (IRs). Since we are interested in the mechanism by which these IR loci induce silencing, we have analyzed different IR loci and nonsilencing single-copy (S) T-DNA loci with respect to the expression and methylation of the transgenes residing in these loci. We show that in an IR locus, the transgenes located proximal to the IR center are much more highly methylated than are the distal genes. A strong silencing locus composed of three inverted T-DNAs bearing promoterless Chs transgenes was methylated across the entire locus. The host Chs genes in untransformed plants were moderately methylated, and no change in methylation was detected when the genes were silenced. Run-on transcription assays showed that promoter-driven transgenes located proximal to the center of a particular IR are transcriptionally more repressed than are the distal genes of the same IR locus. Transcription of the promoterless Chs transgenes could not be detected. In the primary transformant, some of the IR loci were detected together with an unlinked S locus. We observed that the methylation and expression characteristics of the transgenes of these S loci were comparable to those of the partner IR loci, suggesting that there has been cross talk between the two types of loci. Despite the similar features, S loci are unable to induce silencing, indicating that the palindromic arrangement of the Chs transgenes in the IR loci is critical for silencing. Since transcriptionally silenced transgenes in IRs can trigger posttranscriptional silencing of the host genes, our data are most consistent with a model of silencing in which the transgenes physically interact with the homologous host gene(s). The interaction may alter epigenetic features other than methylation, thereby impairing the regular production of mRNA.

Factors affecting inverted repeat stimulation of recombination and deletion in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Inverted DNA repeats are an at-risk motif for genetic instability that can induce both deletions and recombination in yeast. We investigated the role of the length of inverted repeats and size of the DNA separating the repeats for deletion and recombination. Stimulation of both deletion and recombination was directly related to the size of inverted repeats and inversely related to the size of intervening spacers. A perfect palindrome, formed by two 1.0-kb URA3-inverted repeats, increased intra- and interchromosomal recombination in the adjacent region 2,400-fold and 17,000-fold, respectively. The presence of a strong origin of replication in the spacer reduced both rates of deletion and recombination. These results support a model in which the stimulation of deletion and recombination by inverted repeats is initiated by a secondary structure formed between single-stranded DNA of inverted repeats during replication.

The ribosomal S16 protein of Escherichia coli displaying a DNA-nicking activity binds to cruciform DNA

We have recently shown that the ribosomal S16 protein of Escherichia coli is a magnesium-dependent DNase which introduces nicks into supercoiled DNA molecules [Oberto, J., Bonnefoy, E., Mouray, E., Pellegrini, O., Wikstrom, P. M. & Rouvière-Yaniv, J. (1996) Mol. Microbiol. 19, 1319-1330]. In this work we analysed the DNA-binding and DNA-nicking properties of S16 using two different approaches. Gel-retardation assays showed that S16 is a structure-specific DNA-binding protein displaying a preferential binding for cruciform DNA structures. This specific binding to cruciform DNA was further investigated using a supercoiled plasmid carrying the origin of replication of E. coli (oriC) which is an (A+T)-rich DNA region with abundant palindromic sequences susceptible of forming cruciform-like structures in vivo. We show that the nicks introduced by S16 in oriC are not randomly positioned but are precisely localised near such palindromic sequences. In addition, the nicking activity of S16 appeared to be sequence dependent since the cuts introduced by S16 occurred next to an adenine, in most cases an unpaired adenine, usually followed by a GTT sequence. Overall these experiments indicate that S16 requires a cruciform-like DNA structure to bind DNA and the presence of a particular sequence in order to introduce specific single-stranded cuts into a DNA molecule.

In vivo supercoiling of plasmid and chromosomal DNA in an Escherichia coli hns mutant

We have used trimethylpsoralen to measure localized levels of unconstrained DNA supercoiling in vivo. The data provide direct evidence that plasmid and chromosomal DNA supercoiling is altered in vivo in an hns mutant. This increase in supercoiling is independent of transcription or changes in the activity of topoisomerase I. These data have implications for the mechanisms by which the chromatin-associated protein H-NS may influence chromosome organization and gene expression.

Stability of an inverted repeat in a human fibrosarcoma cell

Deletions and rearrangements of DNA sequences within the genome of human cells result in mutations associated with human disease. We have developed a selection system involving a neo gene containing a DNA sequence inserted into the NcoI site that can be used to quantitatively assay deletion of this sequence from the chromosome. The spontaneous deletion from the neo gene of a 122 bp inverted repeat occurred at a rate of 2.1 x 10(-8) to <3.1 x 10(-9) revertants/cell/generation in three different cell lines. Deletion of the 122 bp inverted repeat occurred between 6 bp flanking direct repeats. Spontaneous deletion of a 122 bp non-palindromic DNA sequence flanked by direct repeats was not observed, indicating a rate of deletion of <3.1 x 10(-9) revertants/cell/generation. This result demonstrates that a 122 bp inverted repeat can exhibit a low level of instability in some locations in the chromosome of a human cell line.

Superhelical torsion controls DNA interstrand cross-linking by antitumor cis- diamminedichloroplatinum(II)

Negatively supercoiled, relaxed and linearized forms of pSP73 DNA were modified in cell-free medium by cis-diamminedichloroplatinum(II) (cisplatin). The frequency of interstrand cross-links (ICLs) formed in these DNAs has been determined by: (i) immunochemical analysis; (ii) an assay employing NaCN as a probe of DNA ICLs of cisplatin; (iii) gel electrophoresis under denaturing conditions. At low levels of the modification of DNA (<1 Pt atom fixed per 500 bp) the number of ICLs formed by cisplatin was radically enhanced in supercoiled in comparison with linearized or relaxed DNA. At these low levels of modification, the frequency of ICLs in supercoiled DNA was enhanced with increasing level of negative supercoiling or with decreasing level of modification. In addition, the replication mapping of DNA ICLs of cisplatin was consistent with these lesions being preferentially formed in negatively supercoiled DNA between guanine residues in both the 5'-d(GC)-3' and the 5'-d(CG)-3' sites. Among the DNA adducts of cisplatin the ICL has the markedly greatest capability to unwind the double helix. We suggest that the formation of ICLs of cisplatin is thermodynamically more favored in negatively supercoiled DNA owing mainly to the relaxation of supercoils.

Inverted repeats, stem-loops, and cruciforms: significance for initiation of DNA replication

Inverted repeats occur nonrandomly in the DNA of most organisms. Stem-loops and cruciforms can form from inverted repeats. Such structures have been detected in pro- and eukaryotes. They may affect the supercoiling degree of the DNA, the positioning of nucleosomes, the formation of other secondary structures of DNA, or directly interact with proteins. Inverted repeats, stem-loops, and cruciforms are present at the replication origins of phage, plasmids, mitochondria, eukaryotic viruses, and mammalian cells. Experiments with anti-cruciform antibodies suggest that formation and stabilization of cruciforms at particular mammalian origins may be associated with initiation of DNA replication. Many proteins have been shown to interact with cruciforms, recognizing features like DNA crossovers, four-way junctions, and curved/bent DNA of specific angles. A human cruciform binding protein (CBP) displays a novel type of interaction with cruciforms and may be linked to initiation of DNA replication.

Pausing of DNA synthesis in vitro at specific loci in CTG and CGG triplet repeats from human hereditary disease genes

Several human hereditary neuromuscular disease genes are associated with the expansion of CTG or CGG triplet repeats. The DNA syntheses of CTG triplets ranging from 17 to 180 and CGG repeats from 9 to 160 repeats in length were studied in vitro. Primer extensions using the Klenow fragment of DNA polymerase I, the modified T7 DNA polymerase (Sequenase), or the human DNA polymerase beta paused strongly at specific loci in the CTG repeats. The pausings were abolished by heating at 70 degrees C. As the length of the triplet repeats in duplex DNA, but not in single-stranded DNA, was increased, the magnitude of pausing increased. The location of the pause sites was determined by the distance between the site of primer hybridization and the beginning of the triplet repeats. CGG triplet repeats also showed similar, but not identical, patterns of pausings. These results indicate that appropriate lengths of the triplets adopt a non-B conformation(s) that blocks DNA polymerase progression; the resultant idling polymerase may catalyze slippages to give expanded sequences and hence provide the molecular basis for this non-Mendelian genetic process. These mechanisms, if present in human cells, may be related to the etiology of certain neuromuscular diseases such as myotonic dystrophy and Fragile X syndrome.

Differential DNA secondary structure-mediated deletion mutation in the leading and lagging strands

The frequencies of deletion of short sequences (mutation inserts) inserted into the chloramphenicol acetyl-transferase (CAT) gene were measured for pBR325 and pBR523, in which the orientation of the CAT gene was reversed, in Escherichia coli. Reversal of the CAT gene changes the relationship between the transcribed strand and the leading and lagging strands of the DNA replication fork in pBR325-based plasmids. Deletion of these mutation inserts may be mediated by slipped misalignment during DNA replication. Symmetrical sequences, in which the same potential DNA structural misalignment can form in both the leading and lagging strands, exhibited an approximately twofold difference in the deletion frequencies upon reversal of the CAT gene. Sequences that contained an inverted repeat that was asymmetric with respect to flanking direct repeats were designed. With asymmetric mutation inserts, different misaligned structural intermediates could form in the leading and lagging strands, depending on the orientation of the insert and/or of the CAT gene. When slippage could be stabilized by a hairpin in the lagging strand, thereby forming a three-way junction, deletion occurred by up to 50-fold more frequently than when this structure formed in the leading strand. These results support the model that slipped misalignment involving DNA secondary structure occurs preferentially in the lagging strand during DNA replication.

Occurrence of potential cruciform and H-DNA forming sequences in genomic DNA

We have used computer-assisted methods to search large amounts of the human, yeast and Escherichia coli genomes for inverted repeat (IR) and mirror repeat (MR) DNA sequence patterns. In highly supercoiled DNA some IRs can form cruciforms, while some MRs can form intramolecular triplexes, or H-DNA. We find that total IR and MR sequences are highly enriched in both eukaryotic genomes. In E. coli, however, only total IRs are enriched, while total MRs only occur as frequently as in random sequence DNA. We then used a set of experimentally derived criteria to predict which of the total IRs and MRs are most likely to form cruciforms or H-DNA in supercoiled DNA. We show that strong cruciform forming sequences occur at a relatively high frequency in yeast (1/19 700 bp) and humans (1/41 800 bp), but that H-DNA forming sequences are abundant only in humans (1/49 400 bp). Strong cruciform and H-DNA forming sequences are not abundant in the E.coli genome. These results suggest that cruciforms and H-DNA may have a functional role in eukaryotes, but probably not prokaryotes.