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Strangward P, Haley MJ, Shaw TN, Schwartz JM, Greig R, Mironov A, de Souza JB, Cruickshank SM, Craig AG, Milner DA, Allan SM, Couper KN. A quantitative brain map of experimental cerebral malaria pathology. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006267. [PMID: 28273147 PMCID: PMC5358898 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The murine model of experimental cerebral malaria (ECM) has been utilised extensively in recent years to study the pathogenesis of human cerebral malaria (HCM). However, it has been proposed that the aetiologies of ECM and HCM are distinct, and, consequently, no useful mechanistic insights into the pathogenesis of HCM can be obtained from studying the ECM model. Therefore, in order to determine the similarities and differences in the pathology of ECM and HCM, we have performed the first spatial and quantitative histopathological assessment of the ECM syndrome. We demonstrate that the accumulation of parasitised red blood cells (pRBCs) in brain capillaries is a specific feature of ECM that is not observed during mild murine malaria infections. Critically, we show that individual pRBCs appear to occlude murine brain capillaries during ECM. As pRBC-mediated congestion of brain microvessels is a hallmark of HCM, this suggests that the impact of parasite accumulation on cerebral blood flow may ultimately be similar in mice and humans during ECM and HCM, respectively. Additionally, we demonstrate that cerebrovascular CD8+ T-cells appear to co-localise with accumulated pRBCs, an event that corresponds with development of widespread vascular leakage. As in HCM, we show that vascular leakage is not dependent on extensive vascular destruction. Instead, we show that vascular leakage is associated with alterations in transcellular and paracellular transport mechanisms. Finally, as in HCM, we observed axonal injury and demyelination in ECM adjacent to diverse vasculopathies. Collectively, our data therefore shows that, despite very different presentation, and apparently distinct mechanisms, of parasite accumulation, there appear to be a number of comparable features of cerebral pathology in mice and in humans during ECM and HCM, respectively. Thus, when used appropriately, the ECM model may be useful for studying specific pathological features of HCM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Strangward
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J. Haley
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Tovah N. Shaw
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Jean-Marc Schwartz
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel Greig
- Immunology Unit, Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Aleksandr Mironov
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - J. Brian de Souza
- Immunology Unit, Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sheena M. Cruickshank
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Alister G. Craig
- Department of Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Danny A. Milner
- Department of Pathology, The Brigham & Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Stuart M. Allan
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin N. Couper
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Pimenta PFP, Orfano AS, Bahia AC, Duarte APM, Ríos-Velásquez CM, Melo FF, Pessoa FAC, Oliveira GA, Campos KMM, Villegas LM, Rodrigues NB, Nacif-Pimenta R, Simões RC, Monteiro WM, Amino R, Traub-Cseko YM, Lima JBP, Barbosa MGV, Lacerda MVG, Tadei WP, Secundino NFC. An overview of malaria transmission from the perspective of Amazon Anopheles vectors. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2015; 110:23-47. [PMID: 25742262 PMCID: PMC4371216 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760140266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In the Americas, areas with a high risk of malaria transmission are mainly located in the Amazon Forest, which extends across nine countries. One keystone step to understanding the Plasmodium life cycle in Anopheles species from the Amazon Region is to obtain experimentally infected mosquito vectors. Several attempts to colonise Anopheles species have been conducted, but with only short-lived success or no success at all. In this review, we review the literature on malaria transmission from the perspective of its Amazon vectors. Currently, it is possible to develop experimental Plasmodium vivax infection of the colonised and field-captured vectors in laboratories located close to Amazonian endemic areas. We are also reviewing studies related to the immune response to P. vivax infection of Anopheles aquasalis, a coastal mosquito species. Finally, we discuss the importance of the modulation of Plasmodium infection by the vector microbiota and also consider the anopheline genomes. The establishment of experimental mosquito infections with Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium yoelii and Plasmodium berghei parasites that could provide interesting models for studying malaria in the Amazonian scenario is important. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of the parasites in New World vectors is crucial in order to better determine the interaction process and vectorial competence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo FP Pimenta
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou-Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, MG,
Brasil
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM,
Brasil
| | | | - Ana C Bahia
- Instituto Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Ana PM Duarte
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou-Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, MG,
Brasil
| | | | - Fabrício F Melo
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou-Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, MG,
Brasil
| | | | | | - Keillen MM Campos
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM,
Brasil
| | | | | | | | - Rejane C Simões
- Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Manaus, AM, Brasil
| | - Wuelton M Monteiro
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM,
Brasil
| | - Rogerio Amino
- Unité de Biologie et Génétique du Paludisme, Institut Pasteur, Paris,
France
| | | | - José BP Lima
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM,
Brasil
- Instituto Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Maria GV Barbosa
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM,
Brasil
| | - Marcus VG Lacerda
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM,
Brasil
- Instituto Leônidas e Maria Deane-Fiocruz, Manaus, AM, Brasil
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Lo TM, Coetzee M. Marked biological differences between insecticide resistant and susceptible strains of Anopheles funestus infected with the murine parasite Plasmodium berghei. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:184. [PMID: 23782642 PMCID: PMC3691588 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Anopheles funestus is one of the major malaria vectors in Africa but research on this species has been restricted due to the lack of viable laboratory colonies. The vectorial capacity of natural populations of An. funestus is well known but its ability to host Plasmodium in the laboratory and the development cycle of the parasite within this mosquito species was, until very recently, unknown. In this study we compared laboratory strains of An. funestus that were resistant and susceptible to pyrethroid insecticides, for their receptiveness to infection with Plasmodium berghei and compared development times with other vector species available in our laboratory. Methods The murine parasite P. berghei was used to infect two base An. funestus colonies (FANG and FUMOZ) and two selected sub-colonies with different degrees of pyrethroid resistance (FUMOZ-BS susceptible and FUMOZ-R resistant). Results were compared with the G3 strain of An. gambiae. Results While all colonies were able to support the parasite, the development time in An. funestus was generally longer than that recorded in the laboratory strain of An. gambiae. Infected females were able to initiate new rounds of infection when feeding on healthy mice. The pyrethroid resistant strain FUMOZ-R supported the lowest numbers of oocysts and sporozoites while the insecticide susceptible strain FUMOZ-BS produced one of the highest sporozoite indices ever documented in P. berghei research. The FUMOZ base colony, exhibiting partial insecticide resistance was the median in terms of infection intensity. The oocyst number in all colonies did not fully correlate with the sporozoite index, indicating possible factors influencing the sporozoites’ transit from the midgut to the salivary glands. Conclusions The presence of both insecticide resistance and limited parasite infection phenotypes in the same individuals suggests there may be association between the two mechanisms, but further elucidation is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Mike Lo
- Wits Research Institute for Malaria, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Abstract
Here we describe a series of methods that can be used to assess the activities of "vaccines," drugs, and genetically modified vectors, for their abilities to inhibit transmission of Plasmodium from its vertebrate to its mosquito hosts. The selection of method to be used is determined by the purpose of the experiment, which can include the determination of the site/time of activity, and/or the potential reduction in transmission achieved.
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KHAN RASULA, FALLIS AM. Life Cycles ofLeucocytozoon dubreuiliMathis and Leger, 1911 and L.fringillinarumWoodcock, 1910 (Haemosporidia: Leucocytozoidae)*. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1970.tb04742.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Takagi T, Waki S, Kogure S, Sugioka Y, Suzuki M. A marker epitope of attenuated Plasmodium berghei. Parasitol Res 1988; 74:436-40. [PMID: 2457900 DOI: 10.1007/bf00535143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodium berghei XAT is an irradiation-induced, permanent attenuated derivative from high-virulence P. berghei NK65. Monoclonal antibodies against XAT were developed. By immunofluorescence screening, one monoclonal antibody was identified that was reactive with XAT at the schizont stage but not with NK65 nor with any other stage of intra-erythrocytic development of either parasite. The monoclonal antibody precipitated a 240-kD molecule from metabolically labeled XAT antigens. This molecule was thought to be a marker epitope of the attenuated parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Takagi
- Department of Parasitology, Gunma University School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
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Melendez E, Krettli AU. Effects of levamisole on experimental infections by Plasmodium berghei in mice. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 1987; 20:193-7. [PMID: 3333878 DOI: 10.1590/s0037-86821987000400002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Levamisole (phenylimidothiazol), considered a strong immunostimulant, when administered to healthy Swiss mice did not cause a significant increase in -the weight of their thymus, liver and spleen, even though the drug was used at different times before removing such organs. High doses ofdrug used in the 4-day prophylactic scheme had no antimalarial effect. However, when given to malaria infected mice 24 hours before, at the same time, and 24 hours after the inoculation of a chloroquine-sensitive or a chloroquine-resistant strain of Plasmodium berghei small doses of the drug induced a somewhat decreased parasitemia, the dose of 1 mg/kg body weight before the inoculum being the best scheme. The mortality rates by malaria in the levamisole treated groups were also delayed although all mice finally died. The data suggest that levamisole may display a stimulant effect on the depressed immune response caused by malaria.
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Alvares AP, Ueng TH, Scheibel LW, Hollingdale MR. Impairment of hepatic cytochrome P-450-dependent monooxygenases by the malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1984; 13:277-82. [PMID: 6396516 DOI: 10.1016/0166-6851(84)90119-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The effect of Plasmodium berghei infection on hepatic monooxygenase activities and cytochrome P-450 contents was investigated in mice. NIH/NMRI or A/J mice infected with active P. berghei showed 30-40% decreases in hepatic cytochrome P-450 contents and the ability to metabolize the test substrates, ethylmorphine and benzo(a)pyrene. These decreases were observed during the erythrocytic stage of the infection, but not during the initial exoerythrocytic stage, or after heat-inactivated sporozoites were injected. These results strongly suggest that malaria infections may significantly impair the capacity of the liver to metabolize drugs, carcinogens, and other foreign compounds.
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Rest JR, Wright DH. Electron microscopy of cerebral malaria in golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) infected with Plasmodium berghei. J Pathol 1979; 127:115-20. [PMID: 381611 DOI: 10.1002/path.1711270303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Transmission and scanning electron microscopy of hamster cerebral malaria show that haemorrhages occur following vessel necrosis in animals with low parasitaemias. There is no concurrent thrombosis nor packing of capillaries with parasitised erythrocytes. Small vessels contain numerous monocytes which have phagocytosed erythrocytes and smaller particles of similar electron density. The monocytes attach to and migrate through the endothelium but then remain in close proximity to the vessels. Irregular dense deposits are present in the basement membrane of some animals 14 days after infection. These may be immune complexes. The pathogenesis of cerebral malaria is discussed in relation to these findings.
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Killick-Kendrick R. Parasitic protozoa of the blood of rodents: a revision of Plasmodium berghei. Parasitology 1974; 69:225-37. [PMID: 4214369 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182000048071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Lowland populations of the Plasmodium berghei group are compared with strains from the highlands of Katanga, Republic of Zaire, and it is concluded that the former warrant separate specific status. It is proposed that Plasmodium berghei yoelii of the Central African Republic be raised to a species, P. yoelii, and the lowland subspecies from the CAR, Brazzaville and Nigeria be moved to this species as P. y. yoelii, P. y. killicki and P. y. nigeriensis. P. berghei from Katanga would then revert to a monotypic species.Differences between P. berghei and P. yoelii are in distribution, hosts, optimum temperatures of sporogony, sizes of mature oocysts and of sporozoites, rates of growth and minimum maturation times of tissue schizonts in the liver of the white rat, the forms of six enzymes and the DNA.Differences between three subspecies of P. yoelii are in distribution, the sizes of mature oocysts and of sporozoites, sizes of tissue schizonts in the liver of the white rat, the effect of tissue forms on the nuclei of infected parenchymal cells and the electrophoretic forms of the enzyme GDH.
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Yoeli M. An experimental approach to the demonstration of a single generation of exo-erythrocytic schizonts in Plasmodium berghei. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1974; 68:306-10. [PMID: 4609378 DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(74)90038-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
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Yoeli M. Plasmodium berghei: mechanisms and sites of resistance to sporogonic development in different mosquitoes. Exp Parasitol 1973; 34:448-58. [PMID: 4149337 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4894(73)90104-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Killick-Kendrick R. Parasitic protozoa of the blood of rodents. I. The life-cycle and zoogeography of Plasmodium berghei nigeriensis subsp. nov. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 1973; 67:261-77. [PMID: 4586820 DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1973.11686887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Abstract
Administration of suspensions of Plasmodium berghei sporozoites by the oral route to groups of susceptible animals (A/J mice, young rats, hamsters, and Thamnomys) resulted in high rates of infection (66 to 100 percent). Control animals each given a suspension of 200,000 to 500,000 erythrocytes infected with P. berghei by the same oral route did not develop parasitemia. Direct intubation of sporozoite suspensions into the stomach failed to produce parasitemia. In vitro studies showed that sporozoites kept in medium M 199 acidified to pH 3.6 (the acid environment of the rat stomach) for 5 to 15 mtinutes lost their viability and infectivity. We believe that sporozoites of P. berghei find their way to the bloodstream during their brief sojourn in the esophagus.
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Landau I, Michel JC, Adam JP, Boulard Y. The life cycle of Plasmodium vinckei lentum subsp. nov. in the laboratory; comments on the nomenclature of the murine malaria parasites. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 1970; 64:315-23. [PMID: 5500105 DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1970.11686698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Yoeli M, Sklarsh J. The course of simultaneously inoculated, concomitant infections with Plasmodium vinckei and Plasmodium berghei in white mice. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1970; 64:271-5. [PMID: 5449052 DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(70)90134-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
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Abstract
A study on transfer of drug resistance between species of malaria parasites was carried out in mixed infections ofP. bergheiandP. vinckei. The biological characters which served as contrasting markers for separation of the two species were the inability of the ‘old’ blood-passaged strain ofP. vinckeito develop in suitable mosquito vectors and its failure to produce parasitaemia in the adult golden hamster. Facility of sporogonic development and cyclical transmission and a pronounced virulence for the adult hamster marked the N.K. 65 strain ofP. berghei.Development of a maximal and stable resistance to 200 mg/kg pyrimethamine in theP. vinckeistrain was achieved by a gradual increase in drug level in successive blood transfers.Mixed, simultaneous infections of pyrimethamine-resistantP. vinckeiand sensitiveP. bergheiwere experimentally induced in white mice. Subinoculations of the mixed infection at the height of parasitaemia was carried out in adult hamsters. Suppression of theP. vinckeiinfection in the hamster by innate resistance and the reappearance ofP. bergheiin the blood was noted. Tests with the maximal concentration of pyrimethamine (200 mg/kg) showed the acquisition of drug resistance in some of theP. bergheiinfected hamsters. Persistence of the acquired resistance was demonstrated following fifteen successive blood transfers in the absence of drug pressure and after five cyclical transmissions.Parallel control experiments with pyrimethamine-sensitiveP. vinckeiandP. bergheiin mixed infections failed to reveal any enhancement in drug resistance. No spontaneous drug-resistant mutant was found in the sensitiveP. bergheiafter exposure to a single course of treatment with the drug, and persistence of parasites in some treated animals was considered as individual variations in host reactions to the drug. This resistance never persisted after blood transfer or cyclical transmission. No loss in drug resistance had been found following transfer of the resistant R strain from mouse to hamster. A marked difference in the course of the plasmodial infection and in the length of survival of mice inoculated with the drug-resistantP. bergheiwas noted following treatment with pyrimethamine in various concentrations. It is suggested that these differences represent a selective action of the drug on a heterogenicP. bergheipopulation, consisting of drug-resistant and drug-sensitive parasites in the blood of the host.Injection of sonified material from pyrimethamine-resistantP. vinckeiandP. bergheiinto mice inoculated with a drug-sensitiveP. bergheifailed to induce enhancement of resistance to the drug.The phenomenon of drug-resistance transfer observed under experimental conditions in rodent malaria is viewed in the light of similar phenomena in micro-organisms.We gratefully acknowledge the assistance rendered by Mr Jerold Sklarsh.This paper is Contribution no. N 408 from the Army Research Programme on Malaria. The work was carried out under the sponsorship of the Commission on Malaria, Armed Forces Epidemiological Board, and supported in part by the United States Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army.
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Yoeli M, Upmanis RS, Kronman B, Schoenfeld C. Growth of the pre-erythrocytic tissue stages of Plasmodium berghei in isolated, perfused tree rat liver. Nature 1967; 216:1016-7. [PMID: 6066549 DOI: 10.1038/2161016a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Vanderberg J, Rhodin J. Differentiation of nuclear and cytoplasmic fine structure during sporogonic development of Plasmodium berghei. J Biophys Biochem Cytol 1967; 32:C7-10. [PMID: 6034491 PMCID: PMC2107273 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.32.3.c7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
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Landau I, Killick-Kendrick R. Rodent plasmodia of the République Centrafricaine: the sporogony and tissue stages of Plasmodium chabaudi and P. berghei yoelii. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1966; 60:633-49. [PMID: 4163669 DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(66)90010-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
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Yoeli M, Vanderberg J, Upmanis RS, Most H. Primary tissue phase of Plasmodium berghei in different experimental hosts. Nature 1965; 208:903. [PMID: 5870113 DOI: 10.1038/208903a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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GARNHAM PCC. Second International Conference on Protozoology. Nature 1965. [DOI: 10.1038/208330a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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