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Phan P, Deshwal A, McMahon TA, Slikas M, Andrews E, Becker B, Kumar TKS. A Review of Rattlesnake Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 16:2. [PMID: 38276526 PMCID: PMC10818703 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Venom components are invaluable in biomedical research owing to their specificity and potency. Many of these components exist in two genera of rattlesnakes, Crotalus and Sistrurus, with high toxicity and proteolytic activity variation. This review focuses on venom components within rattlesnakes, and offers a comparison and itemized list of factors dictating venom composition, as well as presenting their known characteristics, activities, and significant applications in biosciences. There are 64 families and subfamilies of proteins present in Crotalus and Sistrurus venom. Snake venom serine proteases (SVSP), snake venom metalloproteases (SVMP), and phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are the standard components in Crotalus and Sistrurus venom. Through this review, we highlight gaps in the knowledge of rattlesnake venom; there needs to be more information on the venom composition of three Crotalus species and one Sistrurus subspecies. We discuss the activity and importance of both major and minor components in biomedical research and drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phuc Phan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA;
| | - Anant Deshwal
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Tyler Anthony McMahon
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Matthew Slikas
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Elodie Andrews
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Brian Becker
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA;
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Deshwal A, Phan P, Datta J, Kannan R, Thallapuranam SK. A Meta-Analysis of the Protein Components in Rattlesnake Venom. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13060372. [PMID: 34071038 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The specificity and potency of venom components give them a unique advantage in developing various pharmaceutical drugs. Though venom is a cocktail of proteins, rarely are the synergy and association between various venom components studied. Understanding the relationship between various components of venom is critical in medical research. Using meta-analysis, we observed underlying patterns and associations in the appearance of the toxin families. For Crotalus, Dis has the most associations with the following toxins: PDE; BPP; CRL; CRiSP; LAAO; SVMP P-I and LAAO; SVMP P-III and LAAO. In Sistrurus venom, CTL and NGF have the most associations. These associations can predict the presence of proteins in novel venom and understand synergies between venom components for enhanced bioactivity. Using this approach, the need to revisit the classification of proteins as major components or minor components is highlighted. The revised classification of venom components is based on ubiquity, bioactivity, the number of associations, and synergies. The revised classification can be expected to trigger increased research on venom components, such as NGF, which have high biomedical significance. Using hierarchical clustering, we observed that the genera's venom compositions were similar, based on functional characteristics rather than phylogenetic relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anant Deshwal
- Division of Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Phuc Phan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Jyotishka Datta
- Department of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Ragupathy Kannan
- Department of Biology, University of Arkansas-Fort Smith, Fort Smith, AR 72913, USA
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Grabowsky ER, Mackessy SP. Predator-prey interactions and venom composition in a high elevation lizard specialist, Crotalus pricei (Twin-spotted Rattlesnake). Toxicon 2019; 170:29-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Neri-Castro E, Hernández-Dávila A, Olvera-Rodríguez A, Cardoso-Torres H, Bénard-Valle M, Bastiaans E, López-Gutierrez O, Alagón A. Detection and quantification of a β-neurotoxin (crotoxin homologs) in the venom of the rattlesnakes Crotalus simus, C. culminatus and C. tzabcan from Mexico. Toxicon X 2019; 2:100007. [PMID: 32550564 PMCID: PMC7286086 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2019.100007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake venom may vary in composition and toxicity across the geographic distribution of a species. In the case of the three species of the Neotropical rattlesnakes Crotalus simus, C. culminatus and C. tzabcan recent research has revealed that their venoms can contain a neurotoxic component (crotoxin homologs), but is not always the case. In the present work, we detected and quantified crotoxin homologs in venom samples from three species distributed across Mexico, to describe variation at the individual and subspecific levels, using slot blot and ELISA immunoassays. We found that all C. simus individuals analyzed had substantial percentages of crotoxin homologs in their venoms (7.6–44.3%). In contrast, C. culminatus lacked them completely and six of ten individuals of the species C. tzabcan had low percentages (3.0–7.7%). We also found a direct relationship between the lethality of a venom and the percentage of crotoxin homologs it contained, indicating that the quantity of this component influences venom lethality in the rattlesnake C. simus. Monoclonal antibodies were produced that specifically recognized crotoxin homologs in venoms of Crotalus species. Crotoxin homologs were quantified in three species of Crotalus: C. simus, C. culminatus and C. tzabcan. All specimens of C. simus contained crotoxin homologs at different levels, while C. culminatus venoms lacked them completely. In C. tzabcan, some venoms possess and other lack crotoxin homologs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Neri-Castro
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.,Posgrado en Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Arely Hernández-Dávila
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Olvera-Rodríguez
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Héctor Cardoso-Torres
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Melisa Bénard-Valle
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Elizabeth Bastiaans
- Department of Biology, State University of New York at Oneonta, Oneonta, NY, USA
| | - Oswaldo López-Gutierrez
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
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Holzman SD, Massey DJ, Clements A, Boesen KJ, Shirazi FM. Arizona Ridge-nosed rattlesnake envenomation: Case report of a personal encounter with the official state reptile of Arizona, Crotalus willardi willardi. Toxicon 2018; 151:84-88. [PMID: 29981814 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
This case report describes the effects of an envenomation from one of the most infrequently encountered species of rattlesnake in the United States, Crotalus willardi willardi (C. w. willardi), the Arizona Ridge-nosed Rattlesnake. A previously healthy 57-year-old male sustained a bite to his non-dominant hand from a C. w. willardi. The most pronounced effect from the envenomation was edema and progression of edema that extended from his hand to the mid bicep. He also experienced erythema and tenderness to palpation in the affected limb, and some diminished range of motion in the hand. He expressed only minimal pain. Other than a mildly positive D-Dimer and leukocytosis, he had no significant hematologic effects and no systemic effects. He was treated with standard doses of Crotalidae Polyvalent Immune Fab (Ovine). He reported complete recovery from the envenomation within three days of the bite. Although envenomation from rattlesnakes is somewhat common in Arizona, knowing the exact species of snake is not. Confirmed documentation is exceedingly rare as most people do not recognize the different rattlesnake species. In addition, some species of rattlesnake (such as C. w. willardi) are especially reclusive and found only in isolated mountainous regions. Being able to confirm an envenomation by C. w. willardi would require not only someone knowledgeable in herpetology, but also, preferably, photographic evidence. This case has both.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel J Massey
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, Tucson, AZ, USA; Banner University Medical Center, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | | | - Keith J Boesen
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Farshad M Shirazi
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, Tucson, AZ, USA; Banner University Medical Center, Tucson, AZ, USA
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Massey DJ, Calvete JJ, Sánchez EE, Sanz L, Richards K, Curtis R, Boesen K. Venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus (Mojave rattlesnake) from Southern Arizona. J Proteomics 2012; 75:2576-87. [PMID: 22446891 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2012.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2012] [Revised: 02/24/2012] [Accepted: 02/29/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Twenty-one Mojave rattlesnakes, Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus (C. s. scutulatus), were collected from Arizona and New Mexico U.S.A. Venom proteome of each specimen was analyzed using reverse-phase HPLC and SDS-PAGE. The toxicity of venoms was analyzed using lethal dose 50 (LD(50)). Health severity outcomes between two Arizona counties U.S.A., Pima and Cochise, were determined by retrospective chart review of the Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center (APDIC) database between the years of 2002 and 2009. Six phenotypes (A-F) were identified based on three venom protein families; Mojave toxin, snake venom metalloproteinases PI and PIII (SVMP), and myotoxin-A. Venom changed geographically from SVMP-rich to Mojave toxin-rich phenotypes as you move from south central to southeastern Arizona. Phenotypes containing myotoxin-A were only found in the transitional zone between the SVMP and Mojave toxin phenotypes. Venom samples containing the largest amounts of SVMP or Mojave toxin had the highest and lowest LD(50s), respectively. There was a significant difference when comparing the presence of neurotoxic effects between Pima and Cochise counties (p=0.001). No significant difference was found when comparing severity (p=0.32), number of antivenom vials administered (p=0.17), days spent in a health care facility (p=0.23) or envenomation per 100,000 population (p=0.06). Although not part of the original data to be collected, death and intubations, were also noted. There is a 10× increased risk of death and a 50× increased risk of intubations if envenomated in Cochise County.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Massey
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States.
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Calvete JJ, Pérez A, Lomonte B, Sánchez EE, Sanz L. Snake venomics of Crotalus tigris: the minimalist toxin arsenal of the deadliest Nearctic rattlesnake venom. Evolutionary Clues for generating a pan-specific antivenom against crotalid type II venoms [corrected]. J Proteome Res 2012; 11:1382-90. [PMID: 22181673 DOI: 10.1021/pr201021d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
We report the proteomic and antivenomic characterization of Crotalus tigris venom. This venom exhibits the highest lethality for mice among rattlesnakes and the simplest toxin proteome reported to date. The venom proteome of C. tigris comprises 7-8 gene products from 6 toxin families; the presynaptic β-neurotoxic heterodimeric PLA(2), Mojave toxin, and two serine proteinases comprise, respectively, 66 and 27% of the C. tigris toxin arsenal, whereas a VEGF-like protein, a CRISP molecule, a medium-sized disintegrin, and 1-2 PIII-SVMPs each represent 0.1-5% of the total venom proteome. This toxin profile really explains the systemic neuro- and myotoxic effects observed in envenomated animals. In addition, we found that venom lethality of C. tigris and other North American rattlesnake type II venoms correlates with the concentration of Mojave toxin A-subunit, supporting the view that the neurotoxic venom phenotype of crotalid type II venoms may be described as a single-allele adaptation. Our data suggest that the evolutionary trend toward neurotoxicity, which has been also reported for the South American rattlesnakes, may have resulted by pedomorphism. The ability of an experimental antivenom to effectively immunodeplete proteins from the type II venoms of C. tigris, Crotalus horridus , Crotalus oreganus helleri, Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus, and Sistrurus catenatus catenatus indicated the feasibility of generating a pan-American anti-Crotalus type II antivenom, suggested by the identification of shared evolutionary trends among South and North American Crotalus species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan J Calvete
- Departamento de Biotecnología, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain.
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Schaper A, de Haro L, Desel H, Ebbecke M, Langer C. Rattlesnake Bites in Europe—Experiences from Southeastern France and Northern Germany. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 42:635-41. [PMID: 15462156 DOI: 10.1081/clt-200026962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Rattlesnakes are indigenous to the New World and hence their envenomations are a significant percentage of all poisonings in North and South America. Some years ago rattlesnake bites were virtually unknown in Europe. But the biodiversity of European household fauna has changed: cats and dogs are increasingly replaced by stingrays, tarantulas, fire fish, and rattlesnakes. This phenomenon is the background of a French-German cooperation to evaluate the relevance of rattlesnake bites for European doctors. MATERIAL AND METHODS In a retrospective study all consultations of the GIZ-Nord poison centre in Göttingen and the Centre Antipoison in Marseille concerning bites of poisonous snakes in a 20-yr time period were analyzed. RESULTS Altogether 671 cases of poisonous snake bites were registered. Rattlesnake bites came up to 21 (3.1% of all consultations due to poisonous snake bites). Over the years the number increased constantly. All patients were adult men with a mean age of 37.2 (20-64) years. There were no females and no pediatric patients involved. According to the Poisoning Severity Score there were 8 minor, 5 moderate, and 8 severe envenomations; no fatalities. The leading clinical symptoms consisted of rhabdomyolysis, neurological, and coagulational disorders. In 5 cases antivenom therapy was applied, and in 4 patients surgical therapy was performed. CONCLUSION Rattlesnake bites are rare in Europe, but the incidence is rising. The patients' profile is different from large American case series. European doctors should be aware of the increase in these infrequent envenomations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Schaper
- GIZ-Nord Poison Centre, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
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Identification of a Neurotoxic Venom Component in the Tiger Rattlesnake, Crotalus tigris. J HERPETOL 2004. [DOI: 10.1670/76-03n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Lôbo de Araújo A, Donato JL, Bon C. Purification from Bothrops lanceolatus (fer de lance) venom of a fibrino(geno)lytic enzyme with esterolytic activity. Toxicon 1998; 36:745-58. [PMID: 9655635 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(97)00118-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Bothrops lanceolatus venom has high caseinolytic, phospholipasic, esterolytic and hemorrhagic activities. In spite of having no coagulant effect on plasma, this venom contains a thrombin-like enzyme. Using gel filtration and ion-exchange chromatographies, we have purified an esterolytic fraction (F-II-1a) from this venom with a protein yield of 4% and a 58% recovery in enzyme activity. SDS-PAGE in the presence of beta-mercaptoethanol showed that the enzyme is a single chain polypeptide with a MW=38,100. Immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis of fraction F-II-1a against serum from horses immunized with B. lanceolatus venom and against rabbit antiserum prepared using fraction F-II-1a both showed a single immunoprecipitin line. The Km and Vmax values for TAME hydrolysis were 0.85 mM and 38.6 micromol/min/mg, respectively. The esterolytic activity was completely inhibited by PMSF (10 mM) but not by EDTA (20 mM). Fraction F-II-1a hydrolyzed the alpha and beta chains of fibrinogen. Degradation of the alpha chain occurred within 10 min while that of the beta-chain was slower. The enzyme had no effect on the gamma-chain even after 4 h of hydrolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lôbo de Araújo
- Departamento de Farmacologia, FCM, CP 6111, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brasil
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Weinstein SA, Schmidt JJ, Bernheimer AW, Smith LA. Characterization and amino acid sequences of two lethal peptides isolated from venom of Wagler's pit viper, Trimeresurus wagleri. Toxicon 1991; 29:227-36. [PMID: 2048140 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(91)90107-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Two lethal toxins were isolated from Trimeresurus wagleri venom by fast protein liquid chromatography (molecular sieve) and high performance liquid chromatography (reverse phase). The toxins (termed peptide I and II) had mol. wt of 2504 and 2530, respectively, pIs of 9.6-9.9 and lacked phospholipase A, proteolytic, and hemolytic activity. Lethal peptide I had a murine i.p. LD50 of 0.369 mg/kg, while lethal II had a murine i.p. LD50 of 0.583 mg/kg. Peptide I retained full toxicity after autoclaving at 121 degrees C for 40 min. The lethal activity was found to represent less than 1% of the total venom protein, which was only 62-65% of crude venom. The amino acid sequence of peptide I revealed a proline-rich (over 30% of total sequence) sequence unique among snake venom toxins. Lethal peptide II showed the same sequence except for a second tyrosine in the position of histidine (residue No. 10) in peptide I. The toxin lacked antigenic identity with a number of representative neurotoxins and myotoxins. The crude venom shared at least one antigen with Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus venom. This antigen was not Mojave toxin. The toxin appears symptomatologically suggestive of a vasoactive peptide or neurotoxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Weinstein
- Department of Toxinology, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick 21701-5011
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Abstract
Tiger rattlesnake (Crotalus tigris) venom was fractioned by using fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC). The crude venom had low protease activity, lacked hemolytic activity and had an i.p. LD50 of 0.070 mg/kg for mice. Lethal fractions obtained by anion and cation exchange were examined for antigenic identity with crotoxin and Mojave toxin. Four toxins were obtained by anion exchange chromatography which showed immunoidentity with these toxins, and one fraction caused rear limb paresis in mice. A lethal toxin (about 10% of total venom protein) purified further with Superose-12 FPLC (molecular sieve) had an i.p. LD50 of 0.050 mg/kg for mice, reacted strongly with anti-crotoxin and anti-Mojave toxin antiserum in ELISA and immunoelectrophoresis. This toxin also showed complete immunoidentity with crotoxin and Mojave toxin in immunodiffusion assays with anti-crotoxin antiserum. The results indicated the presence of crotoxin and/or Mojave toxin isoforms in this venom. Although this species has a low venom yield (average 10 mg per snake), the venom is highly toxic and contains high concentrations of several neurotoxic isotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Weinstein
- Department of Toxinology, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21701-5011
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Henderson JT, Bieber AL. Antigenic relationships between Mojave toxin subunits, Mojave toxin and some crotalid venoms. Toxicon 1986; 24:473-9. [PMID: 3087031 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(86)90079-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Immunochemical responses of a number of pit viper venoms to antibodies derived separately from the acidic and basic subunits were investigated by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Ouchterlony immunodiffusion. The polyclonal antisera to the basic subunit were generated in rabbits, whereas mouse hybridoma cell cultures were used to produce antibodies to the acidic subunit. The immunochemical response of a venom correlated well with published values for LD50 dose for the test venom. Many venoms that elicited a positive response with antiserum to the basic subunit also reacted strongly with the hybridoma derived antibodies to the acidic subunit. The data support the conclusion that crotalid venoms which are more lethal have in common a potent venom component that is immunochemically related to Mojave toxin.
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Nakar O, Ovadia M, Kochva E. Isolation and characterization of a proteolytic factor from the venom of Vipera palaestinae. Toxicon 1986; 24:293-304. [PMID: 3520957 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(86)90154-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
A proteolytic enzyme which is active on collagen and gelatin was isolated from the venom of Vipera palaestinae. The enzyme showed an optimal temperature of 45 degrees C and an optimal pH of 8.0. It was inhibited by snake blood serum, but not by EDTA or trypsin inhibitors. The enzyme was completely separated from one of the venom hemorrhagins, which accompanied it through the purification procedure. The possible evolution of hemorrhagins from proteolytic enzymes is discussed.
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Glenn JL, Straight RC. Venom properties of the rattlesnakes (Crotalus) inhabiting the Baja California region of Mexico. Toxicon 1985; 23:769-75. [PMID: 3003969 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(85)90007-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Seven species of rattlesnakes (genus Crotalus) from Baja, Mexico, were investigated for venom yield, protein content, lethal toxicity, 'Mojave toxin' content and hemorrhagic, esterase (BAEE), phosphodiesterase and protease activities. Venom yield was lowest in C. catalinensis and C. enyo enyo and highest in C. ruber ruber. All venoms exhibited esterase and phosphodiesterase activities, except that three (of 14) specimens of C. e. enyo lacked esterase activity. Protease activity was extremely low or absent in adult C. e. enyo, adult C. mitchellii mitchellii, adult C. viridis caliginis and juvenile C. r. ruber venoms. The venom of C. m. mitchellii was the only venom lacking hemorrhagic activity. This venom also had the highest lethal toxicity (i.p. LD50 0.13 - 0.24 mg/kg) in mice, and was the only venom that exhibited a toxin antigenically related to 'Mojave toxin'.
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Weinstein SA, Minton SA, Wilde CE. The distribution among ophidian venoms of a toxin isolated from the venom of the Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus). Toxicon 1985; 23:825-44. [PMID: 3937297 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(85)90014-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A toxin analogous to Mojave toxin or protein K' was isolated from venom of the Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus s. scutulatus) by anion exchange and gel permeation chromatography. This toxin has an apparent native molecular weight of 20,000-22,000, a subunit molecular weight of 14,000 and a pI of 4.9-5.0. The i.p. LD50 is 0.094 mg/kg for mice. A wide variety of ophidian venoms (crotaline, viperine, elapid, hydrophid and colubrid) were examined for the presence of this toxin using Ouchterlony, immunoelectrophoresis, ELISA and Western transfer. High concentrations were found in 4 of 6 C. scutulatus venom samples, 2 of 3 C. durissus samples and samples from C. viridis concolor and C. tigris. A moderate concentration was found in 1 of 3 C. durissus samples and low to trace concentrations in 1 C. durissus sample, 1 C. scutulatus sample, 2 of 12 C. atrox samples and a Trimeresurus flavoviridis sample, the latter being the only instance of detection of the toxin in a snake other than a rattlesnake. The toxin appears in at least two phylogenetic lines of rattlesnakes, and its geographic distribution in North American rattlesnake species resembles a mosaic.
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