1
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Williams LA, Neophytou A, Garmann RF, Chakrabarti D, Manoharan VN. Effect of coat-protein concentration on the self-assembly of bacteriophage MS2 capsids around RNA. NANOSCALE 2024; 16:3121-3132. [PMID: 38258446 DOI: 10.1039/d3nr03292b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Self-assembly is a vital part of the life cycle of certain icosahedral RNA viruses. Furthermore, the assembly process can be harnessed to make icosahedral virus-like particles (VLPs) from coat protein and RNA in vitro. Although much previous work has explored the effects of RNA-protein interactions on the assembly products, relatively little research has explored the effects of coat-protein concentration. We mix coat protein and RNA from bacteriophage MS2, and we use a combination of gel electrophoresis, dynamic light scattering, and transmission electron microscopy to investigate the assembly products. We show that with increasing coat-protein concentration, the products transition from well-formed MS2 VLPs to "monster" particles consisting of multiple partial capsids to RNA-protein condensates consisting of large networks of RNA and partially assembled capsids. We argue that the transition from well-formed to monster particles arises because the assembly follows a nucleation-and-growth pathway in which the nucleation rate depends sensitively on the coat-protein concentration, such that at high protein concentrations, multiple nuclei can form on each RNA strand. To understand the formation of the condensates, which occurs at even higher coat-protein concentrations, we use Monte Carlo simulations with coarse-grained models of capsomers and RNA. These simulations suggest that the formation of condensates occurs by the adsorption of protein to the RNA followed by the assembly of capsids. Multiple RNA molecules can become trapped when a capsid grows from capsomers attached to two different RNA molecules or when excess protein bridges together growing capsids on different RNA molecules. Our results provide insight into an important biophysical process and could inform design rules for making VLPs for various applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- LaNell A Williams
- Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
| | - Andreas Neophytou
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Rees F Garmann
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, USA
- Viral Information Institute, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, USA
| | | | - Vinothan N Manoharan
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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2
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Clark AB, Safdari M, Zoorob S, Zandi R, van der Schoot P. Relaxational dynamics of the T-number conversion of virus capsids. J Chem Phys 2023; 159:084904. [PMID: 37610017 DOI: 10.1063/5.0160822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
We extend a recently proposed kinetic theory of virus capsid assembly based on Model A kinetics and study the dynamics of the interconversion of virus capsids of different sizes triggered by a quench, that is, by sudden changes in the solution conditions. The work is inspired by in vitro experiments on functionalized coat proteins of the plant virus cowpea chlorotic mottle virus, which undergo a reversible transition between two different shell sizes (T = 1 and T = 3) upon changing the acidity and salinity of the solution. We find that the relaxation dynamics are governed by two time scales that, in almost all cases, can be identified as two distinct processes. Initially, the monomers and one of the two types of capsids respond to the quench. Subsequently, the monomer concentration remains essentially constant, and the conversion between the two capsid species completes. In the intermediate stages, a long-lived metastable steady state may present itself, where the thermodynamically less stable species predominate. We conclude that a Model A based relaxational model can reasonably describe the early and intermediate stages of the conversion experiments. However, it fails to provide a good representation of the time evolution of the state of assembly of the coat proteins in the very late stages of equilibration when one of the two species disappears from the solution. It appears that explicitly incorporating the nucleation barriers to assembly and disassembly is crucial for an accurate description of the experimental findings, at least under conditions where these barriers are sufficiently large.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Bryan Clark
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA
| | - Mohammadamin Safdari
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA
| | - Selim Zoorob
- Biophysics Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA
| | - Roya Zandi
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA
- Biophysics Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA
| | - Paul van der Schoot
- Department of Applied Physics and Science Education, Eindhoven University of Technology, Postbus 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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3
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Wijesundara YH, Herbert FC, Kumari S, Howlett T, Koirala S, Trashi O, Trashi I, Al-Kharji NM, Gassensmith JJ. Rip it, stitch it, click it: A Chemist's guide to VLP manipulation. Virology 2022; 577:105-123. [PMID: 36343470 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2022.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 10/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Viruses are some of nature's most ubiquitous self-assembled molecular containers. Evolutionary pressures have created some incredibly robust, thermally, and enzymatically resistant carriers to transport delicate genetic information safely. Virus-like particles (VLPs) are human-engineered non-infectious systems that inherit the parent virus' ability to self-assemble under controlled conditions while being non-infectious. VLPs and plant-based viral nanoparticles are becoming increasingly popular in medicine as their self-assembly properties are exploitable for applications ranging from diagnostic tools to targeted drug delivery. Understanding the basic structure and principles underlying the assembly of higher-order structures has allowed researchers to disassemble (rip it), reassemble (stitch it), and functionalize (click it) these systems on demand. This review focuses on the current toolbox of strategies developed to manipulate these systems by ripping, stitching, and clicking to create new technologies in the biomedical space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yalini H Wijesundara
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Rd. Richardson, TX, 75080, USA
| | - Fabian C Herbert
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Rd. Richardson, TX, 75080, USA
| | - Sneha Kumari
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Rd. Richardson, TX, 75080, USA
| | - Thomas Howlett
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Rd. Richardson, TX, 75080, USA
| | - Shailendra Koirala
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Rd. Richardson, TX, 75080, USA
| | - Orikeda Trashi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Rd. Richardson, TX, 75080, USA
| | - Ikeda Trashi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Rd. Richardson, TX, 75080, USA
| | - Noora M Al-Kharji
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Rd. Richardson, TX, 75080, USA
| | - Jeremiah J Gassensmith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Rd. Richardson, TX, 75080, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Rd. Richardson, TX, 75080, USA.
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4
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Single-particle studies of the effects of RNA-protein interactions on the self-assembly of RNA virus particles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2206292119. [PMID: 36122222 PMCID: PMC9522328 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2206292119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the pathways by which simple RNA viruses self-assemble from their coat proteins and RNA is of practical and fundamental interest. Although RNA-protein interactions are thought to play a critical role in the assembly, our understanding of their effects is limited because the assembly process is difficult to observe directly. We address this problem by using interferometric scattering microscopy, a sensitive optical technique with high dynamic range, to follow the in vitro assembly kinetics of more than 500 individual particles of brome mosaic virus (BMV)-for which RNA-protein interactions can be controlled by varying the ionic strength of the buffer. We find that when RNA-protein interactions are weak, BMV assembles by a nucleation-and-growth pathway in which a small cluster of RNA-bound proteins must exceed a critical size before additional proteins can bind. As the strength of RNA-protein interactions increases, the nucleation time becomes shorter and more narrowly distributed, but the time to grow a capsid after nucleation is largely unaffected. These results suggest that the nucleation rate is controlled by RNA-protein interactions, while the growth process is driven less by RNA-protein interactions and more by protein-protein interactions and intraprotein forces. The nucleated pathway observed with the plant virus BMV is strikingly similar to that previously observed with bacteriophage MS2, a phylogenetically distinct virus with a different host kingdom. These results raise the possibility that nucleated assembly pathways might be common to other RNA viruses.
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5
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Timmermans SBPE, Ramezani A, Montalvo T, Nguyen M, van der Schoot P, van Hest JCM, Zandi R. The Dynamics of Viruslike Capsid Assembly and Disassembly. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:12608-12612. [PMID: 35792573 PMCID: PMC9305980 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c04074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Cowpea chlorotic
mottle virus (CCMV) is a widely used model for
virus replication studies. A major challenge lies in distinguishing
between the roles of the interaction between coat proteins and that
between the coat proteins and the viral RNA in assembly and disassembly
processes. Here, we report on the spontaneous and reversible size
conversion of the empty capsids of a CCMV capsid protein functionalized
with a hydrophobic elastin-like polypeptide which occurs following
a pH jump. We monitor the concentrations of T = 3
and T = 1 capsids as a function of time and show
that the time evolution of the conversion from one T number to another is not symmetric: The conversion from T = 1 to T = 3 is a factor of 10 slower
than that of T = 3 to T = 1. We
explain our experimental findings using a simple model based on classical
nucleation theory applied to virus capsids, in which we account for
the change in the free protein concentration, as the different types
of shells assemble and disassemble by shedding or absorbing single
protein subunits. As far as we are aware, this is the first study
confirming that both the assembly and disassembly of viruslike shells
can be explained through classical nucleation theory, reproducing
quantitatively results from time-resolved experiments
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne B. P. E. Timmermans
- Bio-Organic Chemistry Research Group, Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Alireza Ramezani
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Toni Montalvo
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Mark Nguyen
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Paul van der Schoot
- Soft Matter and Biological Physics Group, Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jan C. M. van Hest
- Bio-Organic Chemistry Research Group, Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Roya Zandi
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
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6
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Liu Q, Shaukat A, Kyllönen D, Kostiainen MA. Polyelectrolyte Encapsulation and Confinement within Protein Cage-Inspired Nanocompartments. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:1551. [PMID: 34683843 PMCID: PMC8537137 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13101551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein cages are nanocompartments with a well-defined structure and monodisperse size. They are composed of several individual subunits and can be categorized as viral and non-viral protein cages. Native viral cages often exhibit a cationic interior, which binds the anionic nucleic acid genome through electrostatic interactions leading to efficient encapsulation. Non-viral cages can carry various cargo, ranging from small molecules to inorganic nanoparticles. Both cage types can be functionalized at targeted locations through genetic engineering or chemical modification to entrap materials through interactions that are inaccessible to wild-type cages. Moreover, the limited number of constitutional subunits ease the modification efforts, because a single modification on the subunit can lead to multiple functional sites on the cage surface. Increasing efforts have also been dedicated to the assembly of protein cage-mimicking structures or templated protein coatings. This review focuses on native and modified protein cages that have been used to encapsulate and package polyelectrolyte cargos and on the electrostatic interactions that are the driving force for the assembly of such structures. Selective encapsulation can protect the payload from the surroundings, shield the potential toxicity or even enhance the intended performance of the payload, which is appealing in drug or gene delivery and imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Liu
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, 00076 Aalto, Finland; (Q.L.); (A.S.); (D.K.)
| | - Ahmed Shaukat
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, 00076 Aalto, Finland; (Q.L.); (A.S.); (D.K.)
| | - Daniella Kyllönen
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, 00076 Aalto, Finland; (Q.L.); (A.S.); (D.K.)
| | - Mauri A. Kostiainen
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, 00076 Aalto, Finland; (Q.L.); (A.S.); (D.K.)
- HYBER Center, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, 00076 Aalto, Finland
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7
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Bruinsma RF, Wuite GJL, Roos WH. Physics of viral dynamics. NATURE REVIEWS. PHYSICS 2021; 3:76-91. [PMID: 33728406 PMCID: PMC7802615 DOI: 10.1038/s42254-020-00267-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Viral capsids are often regarded as inert structural units, but in actuality they display fascinating dynamics during different stages of their life cycle. With the advent of single-particle approaches and high-resolution techniques, it is now possible to scrutinize viral dynamics during and after their assembly and during the subsequent development pathway into infectious viruses. In this Review, the focus is on the dynamical properties of viruses, the different physical virology techniques that are being used to study them, and the physical concepts that have been developed to describe viral dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robijn F. Bruinsma
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Gijs J. L. Wuite
- Fysica van levende systemen, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Wouter H. Roos
- Moleculaire Biofysica, Zernike Instituut, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
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8
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Dickmeis C, Kauth L, Commandeur U. From infection to healing: The use of plant viruses in bioactive hydrogels. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 13:e1662. [PMID: 32677315 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Plant viruses show great diversity in shape and size, but each species forms unique nucleoprotein particles that are symmetrical and monodisperse. The genetically programed structure of plant viruses allows them to be modified by genetic engineering, bioconjugation, or encapsulation to form virus nanoparticles (VNPs) that are suitable for a broad range of applications. Plant VNPs can be used to present foreign proteins or epitopes, to construct inorganic hybrid materials, or to carry molecular cargos, allowing their utilization as imaging reagents, immunomodulators, therapeutics, nanoreactors, and biosensors. The medical applications of plant viruses benefit from their inability to infect and replicate in human cells. The structural properties of plant viruses also make them useful as components of hydrogels for tissue engineering. Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks composed of hydrophilic polymers that can absorb large amounts of water. They are used as supports for tissue regeneration, as reservoirs for controlled drug release, and are found in contact lenses, many wound healing materials, and hygiene products. They are also useful in ecological applications such as wastewater treatment. Hydrogel-based matrices are structurally similar to the native extracellular matrix (ECM) and provide a scaffold for the attachment of cells. To fully replicate the functions of the ECM it is necessary to augment hydrogels with biological cues that regulate cellular interactions. This can be achieved by incorporating functionalized VNPs displaying ligands that influence the mechanical characteristics of hydrogels and their biological properties, promoting the survival, proliferation, migration, and differentiation of embedded cells. This article is categorized under: Implantable Materials and Surgical Technologies > Nanomaterials and Implants Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures Implantable Materials and Surgical Technologies > Nanotechnology in Tissue Repair and Replacement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Dickmeis
- Institute for Molecular Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Louisa Kauth
- Institute for Molecular Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Ulrich Commandeur
- Institute for Molecular Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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9
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Beren C, Cui Y, Chakravarty A, Yang X, Rao ALN, Knobler CM, Zhou ZH, Gelbart WM. Genome organization and interaction with capsid protein in a multipartite RNA virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:10673-10680. [PMID: 32358197 PMCID: PMC7245085 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1915078117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the asymmetric reconstruction of the single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) content in one of the three otherwise identical virions of a multipartite RNA virus, brome mosaic virus (BMV). We exploit a sample consisting exclusively of particles with the same RNA content-specifically, RNAs 3 and 4-assembled in planta by agrobacterium-mediated transient expression. We find that the interior of the particle is nearly empty, with most of the RNA genome situated at the capsid shell. However, this density is disordered in the sense that the RNA is not associated with any particular structure but rather, with an ensemble of secondary/tertiary structures that interact with the capsid protein. Our results illustrate a fundamental difference between the ssRNA organization in the multipartite BMV viral capsid and the monopartite bacteriophages MS2 and Qβ for which a dominant RNA conformation is found inside the assembled viral capsids, with RNA density conserved even at the center of the particle. This can be understood in the context of the differing demands on their respective lifecycles: BMV must package separately each of several different RNA molecules and has been shown to replicate and package them in isolated, membrane-bound, cytoplasmic complexes, whereas the bacteriophages exploit sequence-specific "packaging signals" throughout the viral RNA to package their monopartite genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Beren
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - Yanxiang Cui
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - Antara Chakravarty
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
| | - Xue Yang
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - A L N Rao
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521;
| | - Charles M Knobler
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - Z Hong Zhou
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095;
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - William M Gelbart
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095;
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095
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10
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Buzón P, Maity S, Roos WH. Physical virology: From virus self-assembly to particle mechanics. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 12:e1613. [PMID: 31960585 PMCID: PMC7317356 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Viruses are highly ordered supramolecular complexes that have evolved to propagate by hijacking the host cell's machinery. Although viruses are very diverse, spreading through cells of all kingdoms of life, they share common functions and properties. Next to the general interest in virology, fundamental viral mechanisms are of growing importance in other disciplines such as biomedicine and (bio)nanotechnology. However, in order to optimally make use of viruses and virus-like particles, for instance as vehicle for targeted drug delivery or as building blocks in electronics, it is essential to understand their basic chemical and physical properties and characteristics. In this context, the number of studies addressing the mechanisms governing viral properties and processes has recently grown drastically. This review summarizes a specific part of these scientific achievements, particularly addressing physical virology approaches aimed to understand the self-assembly of viruses and the mechanical properties of viral particles. Using a physicochemical perspective, we have focused on fundamental studies providing an overview of the molecular basis governing these key aspects of viral systems. This article is categorized under: Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Buzón
- Moleculaire Biofysica, Zernike Instituut, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Sourav Maity
- Moleculaire Biofysica, Zernike Instituut, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Wouter H Roos
- Moleculaire Biofysica, Zernike Instituut, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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11
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VLPs Derived from the CCMV Plant Virus Can Directly Transfect and Deliver Heterologous Genes for Translation into Mammalian Cells. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 2019:4630891. [PMID: 31781617 PMCID: PMC6855080 DOI: 10.1155/2019/4630891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 09/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Virus-like particles (VLPs) are being used for therapeutic developments such as vaccines and drug nanocarriers. Among these, plant virus capsids are gaining interest for the formation of VLPs because they can be safely handled and are noncytotoxic. A paradigm in virology, however, is that plant viruses cannot transfect and deliver directly their genetic material or other cargos into mammalian cells. In this work, we prepared VLPs with the CCMV capsid and the mRNA-EGFP as a cargo and reporter gene. We show, for the first time, that these plant virus-based VLPs are capable of directly transfecting different eukaryotic cell lines, without the aid of any transfecting adjuvant, and delivering their nucleic acid for translation as observed by the presence of fluorescent protein. Our results show that the CCMV capsid is a good noncytotoxic container for genome delivery into mammalian cells.
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12
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Wege C, Koch C. From stars to stripes: RNA-directed shaping of plant viral protein templates-structural synthetic virology for smart biohybrid nanostructures. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2019; 12:e1591. [PMID: 31631528 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 08/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The self-assembly of viral building blocks bears exciting prospects for fabricating new types of bionanoparticles with multivalent protein shells. These enable a spatially controlled immobilization of functionalities at highest surface densities-an increasing demand worldwide for applications from vaccination to tissue engineering, biocatalysis, and sensing. Certain plant viruses hold particular promise because they are sustainably available, biodegradable, nonpathogenic for mammals, and amenable to in vitro self-organization of virus-like particles. This offers great opportunities for their redesign into novel "green" carrier systems by spatial and structural synthetic biology approaches, as worked out here for the robust nanotubular tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) as prime example. Natural TMV of 300 x 18 nm is built from more than 2,100 identical coat proteins (CPs) helically arranged around a 6,395 nucleotides ssRNA. In vitro, TMV-like particles (TLPs) may self-assemble also from modified CPs and RNAs if the latter contain an Origin of Assembly structure, which initiates a bidirectional encapsidation. By way of tailored RNA, the process can be reprogrammed to yield uncommon shapes such as branched nanoobjects. The nonsymmetric mechanism also proceeds on 3'-terminally immobilized RNA and can integrate distinct CP types in blends or serially. Other emerging plant virus-deduced systems include the usually isometric cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) with further strikingly altered structures up to "cherrybombs" with protruding nucleic acids. Cartoon strips and pictorial descriptions of major RNA-based strategies induct the reader into a rare field of nanoconstruction that can give rise to utile soft-matter architectures for complex tasks. This article is categorized under: Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Nucleic Acid-Based Structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Wege
- Department of Molecular Biology and Plant Virology, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Claudia Koch
- Department of Molecular Biology and Plant Virology, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
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13
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Thurm AR, Beren C, Duran-Meza AL, Knobler CM, Gelbart WM. RNA Homopolymers Form Higher-Curvature Virus-like Particles Than Do Normal-Composition RNAs. Biophys J 2019; 117:1331-1341. [PMID: 31514968 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2019.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Unlike double-stranded DNA, single-stranded RNA can be spontaneously packaged into spherical capsids by viral capsid protein (CP) because it is a more compact and flexible polymer. Many systematic investigations of this self-assembly process have been carried out using CP from cowpea chlorotic mottle virus, with a wide range of sequences and lengths of single-stranded RNA. Among these studies are measurements of the relative packaging efficiencies of these RNAs into spherical capsids. In this work, we address a fundamental issue that has received very little attention, namely the question of the preferred curvature of the capsid formed around different RNA molecules. We show in particular that homopolymers of RNA-polyribouridylic acid and polyriboadenylic acid-form exclusively T = 2-sized (∼22-nm diameter) virus-like particles (VLPs) when mixed with cowpea chlorotic mottle virus CP, independent of their length, ranging from 500 to more than 4000 nucleotides. This is in contrast to "normal-composition" RNAs (i.e., molecules with comparable numbers of each of the four nucleotides and hence capable of developing a large amount of secondary structure because of intramolecular complementarity/basepairing); a curvature corresponding to T = 3-size (∼28 nm in diameter) is preferred for the VLPs formed with such RNAs. Our work is consistent with the preferred curvature of VLPs being a consequence of interaction of CP with RNA-in particular, the presence or absence of short RNA duplexes-and suggests that the equilibrium size of the capsid results from a trade-off between this optimum size and the cost of confinement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abby R Thurm
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Christian Beren
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Ana Luisa Duran-Meza
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Charles M Knobler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - William M Gelbart
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California; Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California; California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California.
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14
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de Ruiter M, van der Hee R, Driessen A, Keurhorst E, Hamid M, Cornelissen J. Polymorphic assembly of virus-capsid proteins around DNA and the cellular uptake of the resulting particles. J Control Release 2019; 307:342-354. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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15
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Garmann RF, Knobler CM, Gelbart WM. Protocol for Efficient Cell-Free Synthesis of Cowpea Chlorotic Mottle Virus-Like Particles Containing Heterologous RNAs. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1776:249-265. [PMID: 29869247 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7808-3_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We report a protocol for efficient cell-free synthesis of cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV)-like particles containing a broad range of lengths and sequences of RNA. Our protocol starts with a purified stock of wild-type CCMV (protocols for harvesting and purifying the virus are detailed elsewhere) and features three basic steps: disassembly of the CCMV and purification of the capsid protein (CP) from the viral RNA; coassembly of the purified CP and an RNA of choice; and characterization of the assembly products. We highlight several key factors that increase the yield of the assembly reaction: the CP should be uncleaved and sufficiently free of viral RNA; the length of the RNA should be between about 100 and 4000 nucleotides; and the stoichiometry of CP and RNA should be 6-1 by mass. Additionally, we point out that separating the assembly reaction into multiple steps-by successively lowering the ionic strength and then the pH of the assembly buffers-results in the highest yields of well-formed, nuclease-resistant, CCMV-like particles. Finally, we describe methods for characterizing the assembly products using native agarose gel electrophoresis and negative-stain transmission electron microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rees F Garmann
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Charles M Knobler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - William M Gelbart
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,California NanoSystems Institute, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Molecular Biology Institute, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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16
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Alonzo-Velázquez JL, Botello-Rionda S, Herrera-Guzmán R, Carrillo-Tripp M. CapsidMesh: Atomic-detail structured mesh representation of icosahedral viral capsids and the study of their mechanical properties. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL METHODS IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 2018; 34:e2991. [PMID: 29603677 DOI: 10.1002/cnm.2991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Revised: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Viruses are the most abundant pathogens affecting all forms of life. A major component of a virus is a protein shell, known as the viral capsid, that encapsulates the genomic material. The fundamental functions of the capsid are to protect and transport the viral genome and recognize the host cell. Descriptions of this macromolecular complex have been proposed at different scales of approximation. Here, we introduce a methodology to generate a structured volumetric mesh of icosahedral viral capsids (CapsidMesh) based on the atomic positions of their constituents. Material properties of the capsid proteins can be set on every mesh element individually. Hence, we have control over all levels of protein structure (atoms, amino acids, subunits, oligomers, and capsid). The CapsidMesh models are suitable for numerical simulations and analysis of a physical process using a third-party package. In particular, we used our methodology to generate a CapsidMesh of several capsids previously characterized by atomic force microscopy experiments and then simulated the mechanical nanoindentation through the finite element method. By fitting to the experimental linear elastic response, we estimated the elastic modulus and mechanical stresses produced on the capsids. Our results show that the atomic detail of the CapsidMesh is sufficient to reproduce anisotropic properties of the particle.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Luis Alonzo-Velázquez
- Ciencias de la Computación, Centro de Investigación en Matemáticas, A.C., Jalisco S/N, Col. Valenciana,, C.P. 36023, Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México
| | - Salvador Botello-Rionda
- Ciencias de la Computación, Centro de Investigación en Matemáticas, A.C., Jalisco S/N, Col. Valenciana,, C.P. 36023, Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México
| | - Rafael Herrera-Guzmán
- Ciencias de la Computación, Centro de Investigación en Matemáticas, A.C., Jalisco S/N, Col. Valenciana,, C.P. 36023, Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México
| | - Mauricio Carrillo-Tripp
- Laboratorio de la Diversidad Biomolecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados Unidad Monterrey, Vía del Conocimiento 201, Parque PIIT,, C.P. 66600, Apodaca, Nuevo León, México
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17
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Abstract
Within the materials science community, proteins with cage-like architectures are being developed as versatile nanoscale platforms for use in protein nanotechnology. Much effort has been focused on the functionalization of protein cages with biological and non-biological moieties to bring about new properties of not only individual protein cages, but collective bulk-scale assemblies of protein cages. In this review, we report on the current understanding of protein cage assembly, both of the cages themselves from individual subunits, and the assembly of the individual protein cages into higher order structures. We start by discussing the key properties of natural protein cages (for example: size, shape and structure) followed by a review of some of the mechanisms of protein cage assembly and the factors that influence it. We then explore the current approaches for functionalizing protein cages, on the interior or exterior surfaces of the capsids. Lastly, we explore the emerging area of higher order assemblies created from individual protein cages and their potential for new and exciting collective properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- William M Aumiller
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA.
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18
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Maassen SJ, de Ruiter MV, Lindhoud S, Cornelissen JJLM. Oligonucleotide Length-Dependent Formation of Virus-Like Particles. Chemistry 2018. [PMID: 29518273 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201800285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the assembly pathway of viruses can contribute to creating monodisperse virus-based materials. In this study, the cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) is used to determine the interactions between the capsid proteins of viruses and their cargo. The assembly of the capsid proteins in the presence of different lengths of short, single-stranded (ss) DNA is studied at neutral pH, at which the protein-protein interactions are weak. Chromatography, electrophoresis, microscopy, and light scattering data show that the assembly efficiency and speed of the particles increase with increasing length of oligonucleotides. The minimal length required for assembly under the conditions used herein is 14 nucleotides. Assembly of particles containing such short strands of ssDNA can take almost a month. This slow assembly process enabled the study of intermediate states, which confirmed a low cooperative assembly for CCMV and allowed for further expansion of current assembly theories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stan J Maassen
- Department of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Mark V de Ruiter
- Department of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Saskia Lindhoud
- Department of Nanobiophysics, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen J L M Cornelissen
- Department of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands
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19
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Abstract
Protein-based nanoreactors are generated by encapsulating an enzyme inside the capsid of the cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV). Here, three different noncovalent methods are described to efficiently incorporate enzymes inside the capsid of these viral protein cages. The methods are based on pH, leucine zippers, and electrostatic interactions respectively, as a driving force for encapsulation. The methods are exclusively described for the enzymes horseradish peroxidase, glucose oxidase, and Pseudozyma antarctica lipase B, but they are also applicable for other enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark V de Ruiter
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Rindia M Putri
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen J L M Cornelissen
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands.
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20
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Wong SM, Ren Y. In Vitro-Reassembled Plant Virus-Like Particles of Hibiscus Chlorotic Ringspot Virus (HCRSV) as Nano-Protein Cages for Drugs. Methods Mol Biol 2018; 1776:229-236. [PMID: 29869245 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7808-3_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Spherical shaped plant viruses require a precise quantity, size, and shape of their coat protein subunits to assemble into virions of identical dimensions. The capsid of spherical plant virus particles typically consists of a precisely shaped protein cage, which in many cases is assembled from identical coat protein subunits. In addition to packaging the viral genome, such protein cages may have the capacity to load foreign compounds, either large molecules (e.g., polymers) or small molecules (e.g., anticancer chemotherapy drugs). Therefore, reassembled protein cages of suitable viruses can serve as carriers for cargo loading, which is what makes them an attractive platform for drug delivery. Here we describe methods to reassemble plant virus-like particles of hibiscus chlorotic ringspot virus (HCRSV) as nano-protein cages including the techniques to purify coat protein, prepare virus-like particles, and load them with foreign compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sek-Man Wong
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Yupeng Ren
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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21
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Liu A, de Ruiter MV, Maassen SJ, Cornelissen JJLM. Nanoreactors via Encapsulation of Catalytic Gold Nanoparticles within Cowpea Chlorotic Mottle Virus Protein Cages. Methods Mol Biol 2018; 1798:1-9. [PMID: 29868947 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7893-9_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Viral protein cage-based nanoreactors can be generated by encapsulation of catalytic metal nanoparticles within the capsid structure. In this method, coat proteins of the cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) are used to sequester gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) in buffered solutions at neutral pH to form CCMV-Au hybrid nanoparticles. This chapter describes detailed methods for the encapsulation of Au NPs into CCMV protein cages. Protocols for the reduction of nitroarenes by using CCMV-Au NPs as catalyst are described as an example for the catalytic activity of Au NPs in the protein cages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aijie Liu
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Mark V de Ruiter
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Stan J Maassen
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen J L M Cornelissen
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands.
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22
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Beren C, Dreesens LL, Liu KN, Knobler CM, Gelbart WM. The Effect of RNA Secondary Structure on the Self-Assembly of Viral Capsids. Biophys J 2017; 113:339-347. [PMID: 28711172 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2017.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous work has shown that purified capsid protein (CP) of cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) is capable of packaging both purified single-stranded RNA molecules of normal composition (comparable numbers of A, U, G, and C nucleobases) and of varying length and sequence, and anionic synthetic polymers such as polystyrene sulfonate. We find that CCMV CP is also capable of packaging polyU RNAs, which-unlike normal-composition RNAs-do not form secondary structures and which act as essentially structureless linear polymers. Following our canonical two-step assembly protocol, polyU RNAs ranging in length from 1000 to 9000 nucleotides (nt) are completely packaged. Surprisingly, negative-stain electron microscopy shows that all lengths of polyU are packaged into 22-nm-diameter particles despite the fact that CCMV CP prefers to form 28-nm-diameter (T = 3) particles when packaging normal-composition RNAs. PolyU RNAs >5000 nt in length are packaged into multiplet capsids, in which a single RNA molecule is shared between two or more 22-nm-diameter capsids, in analogy with the multiplets of 28-nm-diameter particles formed with normal-composition RNAs >5000 nt long. Experiments in which viral RNA competes for viral CP with polyUs of equal length show that polyU, despite its lack of secondary structure, is packaged more efficiently than viral RNA. These findings illustrate that the secondary structure of the RNA molecule-and its absence-plays an essential role in determining capsid structure during the self-assembly of CCMV-like particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Beren
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Lisa L Dreesens
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Katherine N Liu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Charles M Knobler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California.
| | - William M Gelbart
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
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23
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Li C, Kneller AR, Jacobson SC, Zlotnick A. Single Particle Observation of SV40 VP1 Polyanion-Induced Assembly Shows That Substrate Size and Structure Modulate Capsid Geometry. ACS Chem Biol 2017; 12:1327-1334. [PMID: 28323402 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.6b01066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Simian virus 40 capsid protein (VP1) is a unique system for studying substrate-dependent assembly of a nanoparticle. Here, we investigate a simplest case of this system where 12 VP1 pentamers and a single polyanion, e.g., RNA, form a T = 1 particle. To test the roles of polyanion substrate length and structure during assembly, we characterized the assembly products with size exclusion chromatography, transmission electron microscopy, and single-particle resistive-pulse sensing. We found that 500 and 600 nt RNAs had the optimal length and structure for assembly of uniform T = 1 particles. Longer 800 nt RNA, shorter 300 nt RNA, and a linear 600 unit poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS) polyelectrolyte produced heterogeneous populations of products. This result was surprising as the 600mer PSS and 500-600 nt RNA have similar mass and charge. Like ssRNA, PSS also has a short 4 nm persistence length, but unlike RNA, PSS lacks a compact tertiary structure. These data indicate that even for flexible substrates, shape as well as size affect assembly and are consistent with the hypothesis that work, derived from protein-protein and protein-substrate interactions, is used to compact the substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenglei Li
- Department
of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry and ‡Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Andrew R. Kneller
- Department
of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry and ‡Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Stephen C. Jacobson
- Department
of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry and ‡Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Adam Zlotnick
- Department
of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry and ‡Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
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24
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Abstract
The assembly line is a commonly invoked example of allopoiesis, the process whereby a system produces a different system than itself. In this sense, virus production in plants is an instance of bio-enabled bottom-up allopoiesis because the plant host can be regarded as a programmable assembly line for the virus. Reprogramming this assembly line and integrating it into a larger lineup of chemical manipulations has seen a flurry of activity recently, with more sophisticated systems emerging every year. The field of virus nanomaterials now has several subdisciplines that focus on virus shells as assemblers, scaffolds for molecular circuitry, chemical reactors, magnetic and photonic beacons, and therapeutic carriers. A case in point is the work reported by Brillault et al. in this issue of ACS Nano. They show how two types of animal virus coat proteins can be simultaneously expressed and efficiently assembled in plants into a complex virus-like particle of well-defined stoichiometry and composition. Such advances, combined with the promise of scalability and sustainability afforded by plants, paint a bright picture for the future of high-performance virus-based nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bogdan Dragnea
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University , Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
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25
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Besenius P. Controlling supramolecular polymerization through multicomponent self-assembly. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/pola.28385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Pol Besenius
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz; Duesbergweg 10-14 Mainz 55128 Germany
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26
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Bruinsma RF, Comas-Garcia M, Garmann RF, Grosberg AY. Equilibrium self-assembly of small RNA viruses. Phys Rev E 2016; 93:032405. [PMID: 27078388 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.93.032405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We propose a description for the quasiequilibrium self-assembly of small, single-stranded (ss) RNA viruses whose capsid proteins (CPs) have flexible, positively charged, disordered tails that associate with the negatively charged RNA genome molecules. We describe the assembly of such viruses as the interplay between two coupled phase-transition-like events: the formation of the protein shell (the capsid) by CPs and the condensation of a large ss viral RNA molecule. Electrostatic repulsion between the CPs competes with attractive hydrophobic interactions and attractive interaction between neutralized RNA segments mediated by the tail groups. An assembly diagram is derived in terms of the strength of attractive interactions between CPs and between CPs and the RNA molecules. It is compared with the results of recent studies of viral assembly. We demonstrate that the conventional theory of self-assembly, which does describe the assembly of empty capsids, is in general not applicable to the self-assembly of RNA-encapsidating virions.
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Affiliation(s)
- R F Bruinsma
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - M Comas-Garcia
- HIV Dynamics and Replication Program, National Cancer Institute, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland 21702
| | - R F Garmann
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
| | - A Y Grosberg
- Department of Physics and Center for Soft Matter Research, New York University, 4 Washington Place, New York, New York 10003, USA
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27
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Wilts BD, Schaap IAT, Schmidt CF. Swelling and softening of the cowpea chlorotic mottle virus in response to pH shifts. Biophys J 2016; 108:2541-2549. [PMID: 25992732 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2015.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Revised: 04/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) forms highly elastic icosahedral protein capsids that undergo a characteristic swelling transition when the pH is raised from 5 to 7. Here, we performed nano-indentation experiments using an atomic force microscope to track capsid swelling and measure the shells' Young's modulus at the same time. When we chelated Ca(2+) ions and raised the pH, we observed a gradual swelling of the RNA-filled capsids accompanied by a softening of the shell. Control experiments with empty wild-type virus and a salt-stable mutant revealed that the softening was not strictly coupled to the swelling of the protein shells. Our data suggest that a pH increase and Ca(2+) chelation lead primarily to a loosening of contacts within the protein shell, resulting in a softening of the capsid. This appears to render the shell metastable and make swelling possible when repulsive forces among the capsid proteins become large enough, which is known to be followed by capsid disassembly at even higher pH. Thus, softening and swelling are likely to play a role during inoculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bodo D Wilts
- Drittes Physikalisches Institut, Fakultät für Physik, Georg-August Universität, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Iwan A T Schaap
- Drittes Physikalisches Institut, Fakultät für Physik, Georg-August Universität, Göttingen, Germany; Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christoph F Schmidt
- Drittes Physikalisches Institut, Fakultät für Physik, Georg-August Universität, Göttingen, Germany.
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28
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Garmann RF, Comas-Garcia M, Knobler CM, Gelbart WM. Physical Principles in the Self-Assembly of a Simple Spherical Virus. Acc Chem Res 2016; 49:48-55. [PMID: 26653769 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.5b00350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Viruses are unique among living organisms insofar as they can be reconstituted "from scratch", that is, synthesized from purified components. In the simplest cases, their "parts list" numbers only two: a single molecule of nucleic acid and many (but a very special number, i.e., multiples of 60) copies of a single protein. Indeed, the smallest viral genomes include essentially only two genes, on the order of a thousand times fewer than the next-simplest organisms like bacteria and yeast. For these reasons, it is possible and even fruitful to take a reductionist approach to viruses and to understand how they work in terms of fundamental physical principles. In this Account, we discuss our recent physical chemistry approach to studying the self-assembly of a particular spherical virus (cowpea chlorotic mottle virus) whose reconstitution from RNA and capsid protein has long served as a model for virus assembly. While previous studies have clarified the roles of certain physical (electrostatic, hydrophobic, steric) interactions in the stability and structure of the final virus, it has been difficult to probe these interactions during assembly because of the inherently short lifetimes of the intermediate states. We feature the role of pH in tuning the magnitude of the interactions among capsid proteins during assembly: in particular, by making the interactions between proteins sufficiently weak, we are able to stall the assembly process and interrogate the structure and composition of particular on-pathway intermediates. Further, we find that the strength of the lateral attractions between RNA-bound proteins plays a key role in addressing several outstanding questions about assembly: What determines the pathway or pathways of assembly? What is the importance of kinetic traps and hysteresis? How do viruses copackage multiple short (compared with wild-type) RNAs or single long RNAs? What determines the relative packaging efficiencies of different RNAs when they are forced to compete for an insufficient supply of protein? And what is the limit on the length of RNA that can be packaged by CCMV capsid protein?
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Affiliation(s)
- Rees F. Garmann
- Harvard
John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Mauricio Comas-Garcia
- HIV
Dynamics and Replication Program, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
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29
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Díaz-Valle A, García-Salcedo YM, Chávez-Calvillo G, Silva-Rosales L, Carrillo-Tripp M. Highly efficient strategy for the heterologous expression and purification of soluble Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus capsid protein and in vitro pH-dependent assembly of virus-like particles. J Virol Methods 2015; 225:23-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2015.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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30
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Singaram SW, Garmann RF, Knobler CM, Gelbart WM, Ben-Shaul A. Role of RNA Branchedness in the Competition for Viral Capsid Proteins. J Phys Chem B 2015; 119:13991-4002. [PMID: 26435053 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b06445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
To optimize binding-and packaging-by their capsid proteins (CP), single-stranded (ss) RNA viral genomes often have local secondary/tertiary structures with high CP affinity, with these "packaging signals" serving as heterogeneous nucleation sites for the formation of capsids. Under typical in vitro self-assembly conditions, however, and in particular for the case of many ssRNA viruses whose CP have cationic N-termini, the adsorption of CP by RNA is nonspecific because the CP concentration exceeds the largest dissociation constant for CP-RNA binding. Consequently, the RNA is saturated by bound protein before lateral interactions between CP drive the homogeneous nucleation of capsids. But, before capsids are formed, the binding of protein remains reversible and introduction of another RNA species-with a different length and/or sequence-is found experimentally to result in significant redistribution of protein. Here we argue that, for a given RNA mass, the sequence with the highest affinity for protein is the one with the most compact secondary structure arising from self-complementarity; similarly, a long RNA steals protein from an equal mass of shorter ones. In both cases, it is the lateral attractions between bound proteins that determines the relative CP affinities of the RNA templates, even though the individual binding sites are identical. We demonstrate this with Monte Carlo simulations, generalizing the Rosenbluth method for excluded-volume polymers to include branching of the polymers and their reversible binding by protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surendra W Singaram
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UCLA , Los Angeles, California 90095, United States.,Institute of Chemistry and the Fritz Haber Research Center, The Hebrew University , Jerusalem, 91904 Israel
| | - Rees F Garmann
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UCLA , Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Charles M Knobler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UCLA , Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - William M Gelbart
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UCLA , Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Avinoam Ben-Shaul
- Institute of Chemistry and the Fritz Haber Research Center, The Hebrew University , Jerusalem, 91904 Israel
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Garmann RF, Sportsman R, Beren C, Manoharan VN, Knobler CM, Gelbart WM. A Simple RNA-DNA Scaffold Templates the Assembly of Monofunctional Virus-Like Particles. J Am Chem Soc 2015; 137:7584-7. [PMID: 26043403 PMCID: PMC4694638 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b03770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Using the components of a particularly well-studied plant virus, cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV), we demonstrate the synthesis of virus-like particles (VLPs) with one end of the packaged RNA extending out of the capsid and into the surrounding solution. This construct breaks the otherwise perfect symmetry of the capsid and provides a straightforward route for monofunctionalizing VLPs using the principles of DNA nanotechnology. It also allows physical manipulation of the packaged RNA, a previously inaccessible part of the viral architecture. Our synthesis does not involve covalent chemistry of any kind; rather, we trigger capsid assembly on a scaffold of viral RNA that is hybridized at one end to a complementary DNA strand. Interaction of CCMV capsid protein with this RNA-DNA template leads to selective packaging of the RNA portion into a well-formed capsid but leaves the hybridized portion poking out of the capsid through a small hole. We show that the nucleic acid protruding from the capsid is capable of binding free DNA strands and DNA-functionalized colloidal particles. Separately, we show that the RNA-DNA scaffold can be used to nucleate virus formation on a DNA-functionalized surface. We believe this self-assembly strategy can be adapted to viruses other than CCMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rees F. Garmann
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Richard Sportsman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Christian Beren
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Vinothan N. Manoharan
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Charles M. Knobler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - William M. Gelbart
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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Faivre-Moskalenko C, Bernaud J, Thomas A, Tartour K, Beck Y, Iazykov M, Danial J, Lourdin M, Muriaux D, Castelnovo M. RNA control of HIV-1 particle size polydispersity. PLoS One 2014; 9:e83874. [PMID: 24475027 PMCID: PMC3901647 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0083874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 11/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV-1, an enveloped RNA virus, produces viral particles that are known to be much more heterogeneous in size than is typical of non-enveloped viruses. We present here a novel strategy to study HIV-1 Viral Like Particles (VLP) assembly by measuring the size distribution of these purified VLPs and subsequent viral cores thanks to Atomic Force Microscopy imaging and statistical analysis. This strategy allowed us to identify whether the presence of viral RNA acts as a modulator for VLPs and cores size heterogeneity in a large population of particles. These results are analyzed in the light of a recently proposed statistical physics model for the self-assembly process. In particular, our results reveal that the modulation of size distribution by the presence of viral RNA is qualitatively reproduced, suggesting therefore an entropic origin for the modulation of RNA uptake by the nascent VLP.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julien Bernaud
- Université de Lyon, Laboratoire de Physique, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Lyon, France
| | - Audrey Thomas
- CNRS UMR 5236, Centre d'études d'agents Pathogènes et Biotechnologies pour la Santé, Montpellier, France ; Université de Lyon, INSERM, U758, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Kevin Tartour
- Université de Lyon, INSERM, U758, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Yvonne Beck
- Université de Lyon, Laboratoire de Physique, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Lyon, France
| | - Maksym Iazykov
- Université de Lyon, Laboratoire de Physique, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Lyon, France
| | - John Danial
- Université de Lyon, Laboratoire de Physique, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Lyon, France
| | - Morgane Lourdin
- Université de Lyon, INSERM, U758, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Delphine Muriaux
- CNRS UMR 5236, Centre d'études d'agents Pathogènes et Biotechnologies pour la Santé, Montpellier, France ; Université de Lyon, INSERM, U758, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Martin Castelnovo
- Université de Lyon, Laboratoire de Physique, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Lyon, France
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Garmann RF, Comas-Garcia M, Gopal A, Knobler CM, Gelbart WM. The assembly pathway of an icosahedral single-stranded RNA virus depends on the strength of inter-subunit attractions. J Mol Biol 2013; 426:1050-60. [PMID: 24148696 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2013.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Revised: 09/28/2013] [Accepted: 10/14/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The strength of attraction between capsid proteins (CPs) of cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) is controlled by the solution pH. Additionally, the strength of attraction between CP and the single-stranded RNA viral genome is controlled by ionic strength. By exploiting these properties, we are able to control and monitor the in vitro co-assembly of CCMV CP and single-stranded RNA as a function of the strength of CP-CP and CP-RNA attractions. Using the techniques of velocity sedimentation and electron microscopy, we find that the successful assembly of nuclease-resistant virus-like particles (VLPs) depends delicately on the strength of CP-CP attraction relative to CP-RNA attraction. If the attractions are too weak, the capsid cannot form; if they are too strong, the assembly suffers from kinetic traps. Separating the process into two steps-by first turning on CP-RNA attraction and then turning on CP-CP attraction-allows for the assembly of well-formed VLPs under a wide range of attraction strengths. These observations establish a protocol for the efficient in vitro assembly of CCMV VLPs and suggest potential strategies that the virus may employ in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rees F Garmann
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Mauricio Comas-Garcia
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Ajaykumar Gopal
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Charles M Knobler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - William M Gelbart
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; California NanoSystems Institute, and Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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34
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Azizgolshani O, Garmann RF, Cadena-Nava R, Knobler CM, Gelbart WM. Reconstituted plant viral capsids can release genes to mammalian cells. Virology 2013; 441:12-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2013.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Revised: 01/17/2013] [Accepted: 03/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Self-assembly of viral capsid protein and RNA molecules of different sizes: requirement for a specific high protein/RNA mass ratio. J Virol 2011; 86:3318-26. [PMID: 22205731 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.06566-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Virus-like particles can be formed by self-assembly of capsid protein (CP) with RNA molecules of increasing length. If the protein "insisted" on a single radius of curvature, the capsids would be identical in size, independent of RNA length. However, there would be a limit to length of the RNA, and one would not expect RNA much shorter than native viral RNA to be packaged unless multiple copies were packaged. On the other hand, if the protein did not favor predetermined capsid size, one would expect the capsid diameter to increase with increase in RNA length. Here we examine the self-assembly of CP from cowpea chlorotic mottle virus with RNA molecules ranging in length from 140 to 12,000 nucleotides (nt). Each of these RNAs is completely packaged if and only if the protein/RNA mass ratio is sufficiently high; this critical value is the same for all of the RNAs and corresponds to equal RNA and N-terminal-protein charges in the assembly mix. For RNAs much shorter in length than the 3,000 nt of the viral RNA, two or more molecules are assembled into 24- and 26-nm-diameter capsids, whereas for much longer RNAs (>4,500 nt), a single RNA molecule is shared/packaged by two or more capsids with diameters as large as 30 nm. For intermediate lengths, a single RNA is assembled into 26-nm-diameter capsids, the size associated with T=3 wild-type virus. The significance of these assembly results is discussed in relation to likely factors that maintain T=3 symmetry in vivo.
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36
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Nikitin NA, Sushko AD, Arkhipenko MV, Rodionova NP, Karpova OV, Yaminskii IV. Comparative study of structure and properties of nucleoproteides synthesized using plant virus coat protein. COLLOID JOURNAL 2011. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061933x11030094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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37
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Kao CC, Ni P, Hema M, Huang X, Dragnea B. The coat protein leads the way: an update on basic and applied studies with the Brome mosaic virus coat protein. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2011; 12:403-12. [PMID: 21453435 PMCID: PMC6640235 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2010.00678.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The Brome mosaic virus (BMV) coat protein (CP) accompanies the three BMV genomic RNAs and the subgenomic RNA into and out of cells in an infection cycle. In addition to serving as a protective shell for all of the BMV RNAs, CP plays regulatory roles during the infection process that are mediated through specific binding of RNA elements in the BMV genome. One regulatory RNA element is the B box present in the 5' untranslated region (UTR) of BMV RNA1 and RNA2 that play important roles in the formation of the BMV replication factory, as well as the regulation of translation. A second element is within the tRNA-like 3' UTR of all BMV RNAs that is required for efficient RNA replication. The BMV CP can also encapsidate ligand-coated metal nanoparticles to form virus-like particles (VLPs). This update summarizes the interaction between the BMV CP and RNAs that can regulate RNA synthesis, translation and RNA encapsidation, as well as the formation of VLPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Cheng Kao
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
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38
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Miao Y, Johnson JE, Ortoleva PJ. All-atom multiscale simulation of cowpea chlorotic mottle virus capsid swelling. J Phys Chem B 2010; 114:11181-95. [PMID: 20695471 DOI: 10.1021/jp102314e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
An all-atom multiscale computational modeling approach, molecular dynamics/order parameter extrapolation (MD/OPX), has recently been developed for simulating large bionanosystems. It accelerates MD simulations and addresses rapid atomistic fluctuations and slowly varying nanoscale dynamics of bionanosystems simultaneously. With modules added to account for water molecules and ions, MD/OPX is applied to simulate the swelling of cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) capsid solvated in a host medium in this study. Simulation results show that the N-terminal arms of capsid proteins undergo large deviations from the initial configurations with their length extended quickly during the early stage of capsid swelling. The capsid swelling is a symmetry-breaking process involving local initiation and front propagation. The capsid swelling rate is approximately 0.25 nm/ns (npn) during the early stage of the simulation, and propagation of the structural transition across the capsid is roughly 0.6 npn. The system conditions that affect swelling of the capsid are analyzed. Prospects for creating a phase diagram for CCMV capsid swelling and using predictions to guide experiments are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinglong Miao
- Center for Cell and Virus Theory, Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA
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39
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Zlotnick A, Mukhopadhyay S. Virus assembly, allostery and antivirals. Trends Microbiol 2010; 19:14-23. [PMID: 21163649 PMCID: PMC3026312 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2010.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2010] [Revised: 10/29/2010] [Accepted: 11/09/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Assembly of virus capsids and surface proteins must be regulated to ensure that the resulting complex is an infectious virion. In this review, we examine assembly of virus capsids, focusing on hepatitis B virus and bacteriophage MS2, and formation of glycoproteins in the alphaviruses. These systems are structurally and biochemically well-characterized and are simplest-case paradigms of self-assembly. Published data suggest that capsid and glycoprotein assembly is subject to allosteric regulation, that is regulation at the level of conformational change. The hypothesis that allostery is a common theme in viruses suggests that deregulation of capsid and glycoprotein assembly by small molecule effectors will be an attractive antiviral strategy, as has been demonstrated with hepatitis B virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Zlotnick
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
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40
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Zlotnick
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Bloomington IN 47405 USA
| | - Bentley A. Fane
- Division of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Department of Plant Sciences and The BIO5 Institute, University of Arizona Tucson AZ 85721 USA
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41
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Prinsen P, van der Schoot P, Gelbart WM, Knobler CM. Multishell structures of virus coat proteins. J Phys Chem B 2010; 114:5522-33. [PMID: 20369869 DOI: 10.1021/jp911040z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Under conditions of low ionic strength and a pH ranging between about 3.7 and 5.0, solutions of purified coat proteins of cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) form spherical multishell structures in the absence of viral RNA. The outer surfaces of the shells in these structures are negatively charged, whereas the inner surfaces are positively charged due to a disordered cationic N-terminal domain of the capsid protein, the arginine-rich RNA-binding motif that protrudes into the interior. We show that the main forces stabilizing these multishells are counterion release combined with a lower charge density in the RNA-binding motif region of the outer shells due to their larger radii of curvature, arguing that these compensate for the outer shells not being able to adopt the smaller, optimal, radius of curvature of the inner shell. This explains why the structures are only stable at low ionic strengths at pHs for which the outer surface is negatively charged and why the larger outer shells are not observed separately in solution. We show how to calculate the free energy of shells of nonoptimal radius of curvature from the elastic properties of the native shell. The spacing between shells is determined mainly by the entropic elasticity of the RNA-binding motifs. Although we focus on CCMV multishells, we also predict the solution conditions under which multishells formed by CCMV coat protein mutants with a lower RNA-binding motif charge are stable, and we examine other viruses as well. We conclude that at a given surface charge density, the boundaries separating regions of stable multishells with different numbers of shells shift to lower ionic strengths upon either increasing the length of the RNA-binding motif, increasing the stiffness of the shells, or decreasing the charge per RNA-binding motif.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Prinsen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, USA.
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42
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Miao Y, Ortoleva PJ. Viral structural transition mechanisms revealed by multiscale molecular dynamics/order parameter extrapolation simulation. Biopolymers 2010; 93:61-73. [DOI: 10.1002/bip.21299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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43
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Burns K, Mukherjee S, Keef T, Johnson JM, Zlotnick A. Altering the Energy Landscape of Virus Self-Assembly to Generate Kinetically Trapped Nanoparticles. Biomacromolecules 2009; 11:439-42. [DOI: 10.1021/bm901160b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Burns
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73104, Department of Mathematics, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom, and Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
| | - Santanu Mukherjee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73104, Department of Mathematics, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom, and Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
| | - Thomas Keef
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73104, Department of Mathematics, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom, and Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
| | - Jennifer M. Johnson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73104, Department of Mathematics, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom, and Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
| | - Adam Zlotnick
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73104, Department of Mathematics, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom, and Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
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44
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Lavelle L, Gingery M, Phillips M, Gelbart WM, Knobler CM, Cadena-Nava RD, Vega-Acosta JR, Pinedo-Torres LA, Ruiz-Garcia J. Phase Diagram of Self-assembled Viral Capsid Protein Polymorphs. J Phys Chem B 2009; 113:3813-9. [DOI: 10.1021/jp8079765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L. Lavelle
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1570
| | - M. Gingery
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1570
| | - M. Phillips
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1570
| | - W. M. Gelbart
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1570
| | - C. M. Knobler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1570
| | - R. D. Cadena-Nava
- Instituto de Física, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Alvaro Obregón 64, San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., 78000 México
| | - J. R. Vega-Acosta
- Instituto de Física, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Alvaro Obregón 64, San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., 78000 México
| | - L. A. Pinedo-Torres
- Instituto de Física, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Alvaro Obregón 64, San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., 78000 México
| | - J. Ruiz-Garcia
- Instituto de Física, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Alvaro Obregón 64, San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., 78000 México
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45
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Abstract
A series of recent nanoindentation experiments on the protein shells (capsids) of viruses has established atomic force microscopy (AFM) as a useful framework for probing the mechanics of large protein assemblies. Specifically these experiments provide an opportunity to study the coupling of the global assembly response to local conformational changes. AFM experiments on cowpea chlorotic mottle virus, known to undergo a pH-controlled swelling conformational change, have revealed a pH-dependent mechanical response. Previous theoretical studies have shown that homogeneous changes in shell geometry can play a significant role in the mechanical response. This article develops a method for accurately capturing the heterogeneous geometry of a viral capsid and explores its effect on mechanical response with a nonlinear continuum elasticity model. Models of both native and swollen cowpea chlorotic mottle virus capsids are generated from x-ray crystal structures, and are used in finite element simulations of AFM indentation along two-, three-, and fivefold icosahedral symmetry orientations. The force response of the swollen capsid model is observed to be softer by roughly a factor of two, significantly more nonlinear, and more orientation-dependent than that of a native capsid with equivalent elastic moduli, demonstrating that capsid geometric heterogeneity can have significant effects on the global structural response.
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46
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Chang CB, Knobler CM, Gelbart WM, Mason TG. Curvature dependence of viral protein structures on encapsidated nanoemulsion droplets. ACS NANO 2008; 2:281-6. [PMID: 19206628 DOI: 10.1021/nn700385z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Virus-like particles are biomimetic delivery vehicles that cloak nanoscale cores inside coatings of viral capsid proteins, offering the potential for protecting their contents and targeting them to particular tissues and cells. To date, encapsidation has been demonstrated only for a relatively limited variety of core materials, such as compressible polymers and facetted nanocrystals, over a narrow range of cores sizes and of pH and ionic strength. Here, we encapsidate spherical nanodroplets of incompressible oil stabilized by adsorbed anionic surfactant using cationic capsid protein purified from cowpea chlorotic mottle virus. By imaging with transmission electron microscopy we show that, as the droplets become larger than the wild-type RNA core, the protein is forced to self-assemble into spherical shells that are not perfect icosahedra having special triangulation numbers characteristic of the Caspar-Klug hierarchy. Consequently, the distribution of protein conformations on larger droplets is significantly different than in the wild-type shell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connie B Chang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
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47
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Suci PA, Berglund DL, Liepold L, Brumfield S, Pitts B, Davison W, Oltrogge L, Hoyt KO, Codd S, Stewart PS, Young M, Douglas T. High-density targeting of a viral multifunctional nanoplatform to a pathogenic, biofilm-forming bacterium. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 14:387-98. [PMID: 17462574 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2007.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2006] [Revised: 01/10/2007] [Accepted: 02/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Nanomedicine directed at diagnosis and treatment of infections can benefit from innovations that have substantially increased the variety of available multifunctional nanoplatforms. Here, we targeted a spherical, icosahedral viral nanoplatform to a pathogenic, biofilm-forming bacterium, Staphylococcus aureus. Density of binding mediated through specific protein-ligand interactions exceeded the density expected for a planar, hexagonally close-packed array. A multifunctionalized viral protein cage was used to load imaging agents (fluorophore and MRI contrast agent) onto cells. The fluorescence-imaging capability allowed for direct observation of penetration of the nanoplatform into an S. aureus biofilm. These results demonstrate that multifunctional nanoplatforms based on protein cage architectures have significant potential as tools for both diagnosis and targeted treatment of recalcitrant bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter A Suci
- Department of Microbiology, Center for BioInspired Nanomaterials, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
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48
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Functional analysis of brome mosaic virus coat protein RNA-interacting domains. Arch Virol 2007; 153:231-45. [PMID: 18066637 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-007-1085-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2007] [Accepted: 09/18/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The coat proteins (CP) of cowpea chlorotic mottle (CCMV) and brome mosaic virus (BMV), two members of the genus Bromovirus, share 70% identity at the amino acid (aa) level and contain four highly conserved regions, identified as putative RNA-interacting domains (RIDs). To assess the contribution of the conserved aa sequence within each RID and the structural features contained therein toward virion assembly and RNA packaging, we engineered a set of fourteen independent mutations (deletions and substitutions) encompassing all four RIDs. The effect of each mutation on viral biology, pathogenesis, and RNA packaging was analyzed in whole-plant infection assays. Among the four RIDs, two mutations engineered into the N-proximal domain (RID I) and two of the four mutations engineered into the C-proximal domain (RID IV) proved to be more debilitating (compared to wild-type) while only selected regions in the central domains (RID II or III) showed a detectable effect. Neutral effects were observed when aa residues that are predicted to affect calcium binding were mutated. To further analyze the importance of N and C terminal interactions leading to virus assembly and RNA packaging, four CP hybrids were constructed by precisely exchanging either the N-terminal 77 or the C-terminal 113/112aa between BMV and CCMV. Despite the fact that the CP composition of the hybrid viruses is distinct from either of the parents, the symptom phenotype in Chenopodium quinoa, migration pattern of CP in Western blots and virion mobility in agarose gels was indistinguishable from the respective parent providing the genetic background. Collectively, the data provide insight for assessing the relative importance of each RID during genome packaging and in molecular processes regulating the overall architecture of the assembled virions.
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Lavelle L, Michel JP, Gingery M. The disassembly, reassembly and stability of CCMV protein capsids. J Virol Methods 2007; 146:311-6. [PMID: 17804089 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2007.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2005] [Revised: 07/19/2007] [Accepted: 07/24/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Efficient procedures are described for the disassembly of Cowpea Chlorotic Mottle Virus (CCMV) into its viral-RNA and capsid-protein components, the separation of the RNA and protein, and the reassembly of the purified protein into higher order nanoscale structures. These straightforward biochemical techniques result in high yield quantities of protein suitable for further biophysical studies (AFM, X-ray scattering, NMR, osmotic stress experiments, protein phase-diagram) and nanotechnology applications (protein enclosed nanoparticles, protein-lipid nanoemulsion droplets). Also discussed are solution conditions that affect the stability of the self-assembled protein structure and explicitly show that divalent cation is not required to obtain stable protein structures, while the presence of even small amounts of Ba(2+) have a significant impact on protein self-assembly. However, since high ionic strength solution conditions result in good yields of CCMV-like protein capsids, it is suggested that the highly charged cationic protein N-terminus could act as an electrostatic switch for protein self-assembly and therefore be modulated by ionic strength and salt type. It was also found that CaCl(2)/RNA precipitation methods do not yield sufficiently pure protein samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Lavelle
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA. lavelle.chem.ucla.edu
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Suci PA, Varpness Z, Gillitzer E, Douglas T, Young M. Targeting and photodynamic killing of a microbial pathogen using protein cage architectures functionalized with a photosensitizer. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2007; 23:12280-12286. [PMID: 17949022 DOI: 10.1021/la7021424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The selectivity of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (PDT) can be enhanced by coupling the photosensitizer (PS) to a targeting ligand. Nanoplatforms provide a medium for designing delivery vehicles that incorporate both functional attributes. We report here the photodynamic inactivation of a pathogenic bacterium, Staphylococcus aureus, using targeted nanoplatforms conjugated to a photosensitizer (PS). Both electrostatic and complementary biological interactions were used to mediate targeting. Genetic constructs of a protein cage architecture allowed site-specific chemical functionalization with the PS and facilitated dual functionalization with the PS and the targeting ligand. These results demonstrate that protein cage architectures can serve as versatile templates for engineering nanoplatforms for targeted antimicrobial PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter A Suci
- Department of Microbiology, Center for BioInspired Nanomaterials, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
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