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Evseev D, Magor KE. Molecular Evolution of the Influenza A Virus Non-structural Protein 1 in Interspecies Transmission and Adaptation. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:693204. [PMID: 34671321 PMCID: PMC8521145 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.693204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The non-structural protein 1 (NS1) of influenza A viruses plays important roles in viral fitness and in the process of interspecies adaptation. It is one of the most polymorphic and mutation-tolerant proteins of the influenza A genome, but its evolutionary patterns in different host species and the selective pressures that underlie them are hard to define. In this review, we highlight some of the species-specific molecular signatures apparent in different NS1 proteins and discuss two functions of NS1 in the process of viral adaptation to new host species. First, we consider the ability of NS1 proteins to broadly suppress host protein expression through interaction with CPSF4. This NS1 function can be spontaneously lost and regained through mutation and must be balanced against the need for host co-factors to aid efficient viral replication. Evidence suggests that this function of NS1 may be selectively lost in the initial stages of viral adaptation to some new host species. Second, we explore the ability of NS1 proteins to inhibit antiviral interferon signaling, an essential function for viral replication without which the virus is severely attenuated in any host. Innate immune suppression by NS1 not only enables viral replication in tissues, but also dampens the adaptive immune response and immunological memory. NS1 proteins suppress interferon signaling and effector functions through a variety of protein-protein interactions that may differ from host to host but must achieve similar goals. The multifunctional influenza A virus NS1 protein is highly plastic, highly versatile, and demonstrates a diversity of context-dependent solutions to the problem of interspecies adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Katharine E. Magor
- Department of Biological Sciences, Li Ka Shing Institute of Virology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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2
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Hubálek Z. Pathogenic microorganisms associated with gulls and terns (Laridae). JOURNAL OF VERTEBRATE BIOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.25225/jvb.21009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zdeněk Hubálek
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic; e-mail:
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Postnikova Y, Treshchalina A, Boravleva E, Gambaryan A, Ishmukhametov A, Matrosovich M, Fouchier RAM, Sadykova G, Prilipov A, Lomakina N. Diversity and Reassortment Rate of Influenza A Viruses in Wild Ducks and Gulls. Viruses 2021; 13:v13061010. [PMID: 34072256 PMCID: PMC8230314 DOI: 10.3390/v13061010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) evolve via point mutations and reassortment of viral gene segments. The patterns of reassortment in different host species differ considerably. We investigated the genetic diversity of IAVs in wild ducks and compared it with the viral diversity in gulls. The complete genomes of 38 IAVs of H1N1, H1N2, H3N1, H3N2, H3N6, H3N8, H4N6, H5N3, H6N2, H11N6, and H11N9 subtypes isolated from wild mallard ducks and gulls resting in a city pond in Moscow, Russia were sequenced. The analysis of phylogenetic trees showed that stable viral genotypes do not persist from year to year in ducks owing to frequent gene reassortment. For comparison, similar analyses were carried out using sequences of IAVs isolated in the same period from ducks and gulls in The Netherlands. Our results revealed a significant difference in diversity and rates of reassortment of IAVs in ducks and gulls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulia Postnikova
- Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for the Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products, Village of Institute of Poliomyelitis, Settlement “Moskovskiy”, 108819 Moscow, Russia; (Y.P.); (A.T.); (E.B.); (A.I.)
| | - Anastasia Treshchalina
- Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for the Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products, Village of Institute of Poliomyelitis, Settlement “Moskovskiy”, 108819 Moscow, Russia; (Y.P.); (A.T.); (E.B.); (A.I.)
| | - Elizaveta Boravleva
- Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for the Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products, Village of Institute of Poliomyelitis, Settlement “Moskovskiy”, 108819 Moscow, Russia; (Y.P.); (A.T.); (E.B.); (A.I.)
| | - Alexandra Gambaryan
- Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for the Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products, Village of Institute of Poliomyelitis, Settlement “Moskovskiy”, 108819 Moscow, Russia; (Y.P.); (A.T.); (E.B.); (A.I.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-985-136-3586
| | - Aydar Ishmukhametov
- Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for the Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products, Village of Institute of Poliomyelitis, Settlement “Moskovskiy”, 108819 Moscow, Russia; (Y.P.); (A.T.); (E.B.); (A.I.)
| | - Mikhail Matrosovich
- Institute of Virology, Philipps University, Hans-Meerwein-Str. 2, D-35043 Marburg, Germany;
| | - Ron A. M. Fouchier
- Department of Virology, Erasmus Medical Centre, Dr. Molewaterplein 50, 3015GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands;
| | - Galina Sadykova
- The Gamaleya National Center of Epidemiology and Microbiology of the Russian Ministry of Health, 123098 Moscow, Russia; (G.S.); (A.P.); (N.L.)
| | - Alexey Prilipov
- The Gamaleya National Center of Epidemiology and Microbiology of the Russian Ministry of Health, 123098 Moscow, Russia; (G.S.); (A.P.); (N.L.)
| | - Natalia Lomakina
- The Gamaleya National Center of Epidemiology and Microbiology of the Russian Ministry of Health, 123098 Moscow, Russia; (G.S.); (A.P.); (N.L.)
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H13 influenza viruses in wild birds have undergone genetic and antigenic diversification in nature. Virus Genes 2018; 54:543-549. [PMID: 29796944 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-018-1573-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/19/2018] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Among 16 haemagglutinin (HA) subtypes of avian influenza viruses (AIVs), H13 AIVs have rarely been isolated in wild waterfowl. H13 AIVs cause asymptomatic infection and are maintained mainly in gull and tern populations; however, the recorded antigenic information relating to the viruses has been limited. In this study, 2 H13 AIVs, A/duck/Hokkaido/W345/2012 (H13N2) and A/duck/Hokkaido/WZ68/2012 (H13N2), isolated from the same area in the same year in our surveillance, were genetically and antigenically analyzed with 10 representative H13 strains including a prototype strain, A/gull/Maryland/704/1977 (H13N6). The HA genes of H13 AIVs were phylogenetically divided into 3 groups (I, II, and III). A/duck/Hokkaido/W345/2012 (H13N2) was genetically classified into Group III. This virus was distinct from a prototype strain, A/gull/Maryland/704/1977 (H13N6), and the virus, A/duck/Hokkaido/WZ68/2012 (H13N2), both belonging to Group I. Antigenic analysis indicated that the viruses of Group I were antigenically closely related to those of Group II, but distinct from those of Group III, including A/duck/Hokkaido/W345/2012 (H13N2). In summary, our study indicates that H13 AIVs have undergone antigenic diversification in nature.
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Abstract
In this chapter, we describe 73 zoonotic viruses that were isolated in Northern Eurasia and that belong to the different families of viruses with a single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) genome. The family includes viruses with a segmented negative-sense ssRNA genome (families Bunyaviridae and Orthomyxoviridae) and viruses with a positive-sense ssRNA genome (families Togaviridae and Flaviviridae). Among them are viruses associated with sporadic cases or outbreaks of human disease, such as hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (viruses of the genus Hantavirus), Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHFV, Nairovirus), California encephalitis (INKV, TAHV, and KHATV; Orthobunyavirus), sandfly fever (SFCV and SFNV, Phlebovirus), Tick-borne encephalitis (TBEV, Flavivirus), Omsk hemorrhagic fever (OHFV, Flavivirus), West Nile fever (WNV, Flavivirus), Sindbis fever (SINV, Alphavirus) Chikungunya fever (CHIKV, Alphavirus) and others. Other viruses described in the chapter can cause epizootics in wild or domestic animals: Geta virus (GETV, Alphavirus), Influenza A virus (Influenzavirus A), Bhanja virus (BHAV, Phlebovirus) and more. The chapter also discusses both ecological peculiarities that promote the circulation of these viruses in natural foci and factors influencing the occurrence of epidemic and epizootic outbreaks
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Fereidouni SR, Harder TC, Globig A, Starick E. Failure of productive infection of Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) with H16 subtype of avian influenza viruses. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2014; 8:613-6. [PMID: 25205059 PMCID: PMC4262275 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mallard ducks and other waterfowl represent the most important reservoirs of low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIV). In addition, mallards are the most abundant duck species in Eurasia that migrate over long distances. Despite extended wild bird monitoring studies over the past decade in many Eurasian countries and investigating hundreds of thousands of wild bird samples, no mallard duck was found to be positive for avian influenza virus of subtype H16 in faecal, cloacal or oropharyngeal samples. Just three cases of H16 infections in Anseriformes species were described worldwide. In contrast, H16 viruses have been repeatedly isolated from birds of the Laridae family. Objective Here, we tested the hypothesis that mallards are less permissive to infection with H16 viruses. Methods Groups of mallard ducks of different age were inoculated via the oculo-nasal-oral route with different infectious doses of an H16N3 AIV. Results The ducks did not show any clinical symptoms, and no virus shedding was evident from cloacal and respiratory routes after experimental infection as shown by negative RT-qPCR results. In addition, all serum samples taken on days 8, 21 and 24 post-inoculation were negative by competitive NP-ELISA. Conclusions This study provided evidence that mallards are resistant to infection with H16N3 LPAIV.
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Sharshov K, Sivay M, Liu D, Pantin-Jackwood M, Marchenko V, Durymanov A, Alekseev A, Damdindorj T, Gao GF, Swayne DE, Shestopalov A. Molecular characterization and phylogenetics of a reassortant H13N8 influenza virus isolated from gulls in Mongolia. Virus Genes 2014; 49:237-49. [DOI: 10.1007/s11262-014-1083-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 05/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Groth M, Lange J, Kanrai P, Pleschka S, Scholtissek C, Krumbholz A, Platzer M, Sauerbrei A, Zell R. The genome of an influenza virus from a pilot whale: relation to influenza viruses of gulls and marine mammals. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2014; 24:183-6. [PMID: 24704761 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2014.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Revised: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Influenza virus A/whale/Maine/328B/1984 (H13N2) was isolated from a diseased pilot whale. Since only a partial sequence was available, its complete genome was sequenced and compared to the sequences of subtype H13 influenza viruses from shorebirds and various influenza viruses of marine mammals. The data reveal a rare genotype constellation with all gene segments derived of an influenza virus adapted to gulls, terns and waders. In contrast, the phylogenetic trees indicate that the majority of influenza viruses isolated from marine mammals derived from influenza viruses adapted to geese and ducks. We conclude that A/whale/Maine/328B/1984 is the first record of an infection of a marine mammal from a gull-origin influenza virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Groth
- Genome Research, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Leibniz Institute of Age Research, Beutenbergstr. 11, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Jeannette Lange
- Department of Virology and Antiviral Therapy, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University, Hans-Knoell-Str. 2, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Pumaree Kanrai
- Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University, Schubertstrasse 81, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Stephan Pleschka
- Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University, Schubertstrasse 81, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Christoph Scholtissek
- Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University, Schubertstrasse 81, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Andi Krumbholz
- Institute for Infection Medicine, Christian Albrecht University of Kiel and University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Brunswiker Str. 4, D-24105 Kiel, Germany
| | - Matthias Platzer
- Genome Research, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Leibniz Institute of Age Research, Beutenbergstr. 11, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Andreas Sauerbrei
- Department of Virology and Antiviral Therapy, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University, Hans-Knoell-Str. 2, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Roland Zell
- Department of Virology and Antiviral Therapy, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University, Hans-Knoell-Str. 2, D-07745 Jena, Germany.
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Lewis NS, Javakhishvili Z, Russell CA, Machablishvili A, Lexmond P, Verhagen JH, Vuong O, Onashvili T, Donduashvili M, Smith DJ, Fouchier RAM. Avian influenza virus surveillance in wild birds in Georgia: 2009-2011. PLoS One 2013; 8:e58534. [PMID: 23516501 PMCID: PMC3596303 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2012] [Accepted: 02/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Caucasus, at the border of Europe and Asia, is important for migration and over-wintering of wild waterbirds. Three flyways, the Central Asian, East Africa-West Asia, and Mediterranean/Black Sea flyways, converge in the Caucasus region. Thus, the Caucasus region might act as a migratory bridge for influenza virus transmission when birds aggregate in high concentrations in the post-breeding, migrating and overwintering periods. Since August 2009, we have established a surveillance network for influenza viruses in wild birds, using five sample areas geographically spread throughout suitable habitats in both eastern and western Georgia. We took paired tracheal and cloacal swabs and fresh feces samples. We collected 8343 swabs from 76 species belonging to 17 families in 11 orders of birds, of which 84 were real-time RT-PCR positive for avian influenza virus (AIV). No highly pathogenic AIV (HPAIV) H5 or H7 viruses were detected. The overall AIV prevalence was 1.6%. We observed peak prevalence in large gulls during the autumn migration (5.3–9.8%), but peak prevalence in Black-headed Gulls in spring (4.2–13%). In ducks, we observed increased AIV prevalence during the autumn post-moult aggregations and migration stop-over period (6.3%) but at lower levels to those observed in other more northerly post-moult areas in Eurasia. We observed another prevalence peak in the overwintering period (0.14–5.9%). Serological and virological monitoring of a breeding colony of Armenian Gulls showed that adult birds were seropositive on arrival at the breeding colony, but juveniles remained serologically and virologically negative for AIV throughout their time on the breeding grounds, in contrast to gull AIV data from other geographic regions. We show that close phylogenetic relatives of viruses isolated in Georgia are sourced from a wide geographic area throughout Western and Central Eurasia, and from areas that are represented by multiple different flyways, likely linking different host sub-populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola S Lewis
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
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Daoust PY, van de Bildt M, van Riel D, van Amerongen G, Bestebroer T, Vanderstichel R, Fouchier RAM, Kuiken T. Replication of 2 subtypes of low-pathogenicity avian influenza virus of duck and gull origins in experimentally infected Mallard ducks. Vet Pathol 2012; 50:548-59. [PMID: 23242805 DOI: 10.1177/0300985812469633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Many subtypes of low-pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) virus circulate in wild bird reservoirs, but their prevalence may vary among species. We aimed to compare by real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, virus isolation, histology, and immunohistochemistry the distribution and pathogenicity of 2 such subtypes of markedly different origins in Mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos): H2N3 isolated from a Mallard duck and H13N6 isolated from a Ring-billed Gull (Larus delawarensis). Following intratracheal and intraesophageal inoculation, neither virus caused detectable clinical signs, although H2N3 virus infection was associated with a significantly decreased body weight gain during the period of virus shedding. Both viruses replicated in the lungs and air sacs until approximately day 3 after inoculation and were associated with a locally extensive interstitial, exudative, and proliferative pneumonia. Subtype H2N3, but not subtype H13N6, went on to infect the epithelia of the intestinal mucosa and cloacal bursa, where it replicated without causing lesions until approximately day 5 after inoculation. Larger quantities of subtype H2N3 virus were detected in cloacal swabs than in pharyngeal swabs. The possible clinical significance of LPAI virus-associated pulmonary lesions and intestinal tract infection in ducks deserves further evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- P-Y Daoust
- Department of Pathology & Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada.
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Munster VJ, Fouchier RAM. Avian influenza virus: of virus and bird ecology. Vaccine 2009; 27:6340-4. [PMID: 19840670 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.02.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2008] [Revised: 02/21/2009] [Accepted: 02/26/2009] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
The recent introductions of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus in wild birds and its subsequent spread throughout Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Europe has put a focus on the role of wild birds in the geographical spread of HPAI H5N1 virus. Large-scale surveillance programs are ongoing to determine a potential role of wild birds in H5N1 virus spread and to serve as sentinel systems for introductions into new geographical regions. The unprecedented scale and coverage of these surveillance programs offer a unique opportunity to expand our current knowledge on the ecology of LPAI in wild migratory birds. We provide an update on the current knowledge on the relation between host and virus ecology.
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Affiliation(s)
- V J Munster
- National Influenza Center and Department of Virology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Animal health and welfare aspects of avian influenza and the risk of its introduction into the EU poultry holdings - Scientific opinion of the Panel on Animal Health and Welfare. EFSA J 2008. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2008.715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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Capua I, Alexander DJ. Ecology, epidemiology and human health implications of avian influenza viruses: why do we need to share genetic data? Zoonoses Public Health 2008; 55:2-15. [PMID: 18201321 DOI: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2007.01081.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Avian influenza (AI) is a listed disease of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) that has become a disease of great importance both for animal and human health. Until recent times, AI was considered a disease of birds with zoonotic implications of limited significance. The emergence and spread of the Asian lineage highly pathogenic AI H5N1 virus has dramatically changed this perspective; not only has it been responsible of the death or culling of millions of birds, but this virus has also been able to infect a variety of non-avian hosts including human beings. The implications of such a panzootic reflect themselves in animal health issues, notably in the reduction of a protein source for developing countries and in the management of the pandemic potential. Retrospective studies have shown that avian progenitors play an important role in the generation of pandemic viruses for humans, and therefore these infections in the avian reservoir should be subjected to control measures aiming at eradication of the Asian H5N1 virus from all sectors rather than just eliminating or reducing the impact of the disease in poultry. Collection and analysis of information in a transparent environment and close collaboration between the medical and veterinary scientific community are crucial to support the global AI crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Capua
- OIE, FAO and National Reference Laboratory for Newcastle Disease and Avian Influenza, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Padova, Italy.
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Abstract
Avian influenza (AI) is a listed disease of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) that has become a disease of great importance both for animal and human health. Until recent times, AI was considered a disease of birds with zoonotic implications of limited significance. The emergence and spread of the Asian lineage highly pathogenic AI (HPAI) H5N1 virus has dramatically changed this perspective; not only has it been responsible of the death or culling of millions of birds, but this virus has also been able to infect a variety of non-avian hosts including human beings. The implications of such a panzootic reflect themselves in animal health issues, notably in the reduction of a protein source for developing countries and in the management of the pandemic potential. Retrospective studies have shown that avian progenitors play an important role in the generation of pandemic viruses for humans, and therefore these infections in the avian reservoir should be subjected to control measures aiming at eradication of the Asian H5N1 virus from all sectors rather than just eliminating or reducing the impact of the disease in poultry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Capua
- OIE, FAO and National Reference Laboratory for Newcastle Disease and Avian Influenza, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, Legnaro, Padova, 35020, Italy.
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15
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Landolt GA, Olsen CW. Up to new tricks - a review of cross-species transmission of influenza A viruses. Anim Health Res Rev 2007; 8:1-21. [PMID: 17692139 DOI: 10.1017/s1466252307001272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Influenza is a highly contagious disease that has burdened both humans and animals since ancient times. In humans, the most dramatic consequences of influenza are associated with periodically occurring pandemics. Pandemics require the emergence of an antigenically novel virus to which the majority of the population lacks protective immunity. Historically, influenza A viruses from animals have contributed to the generation of human pandemic viruses and they may do so again in the future. It is, therefore, critical to understand the epidemiological and molecular mechanisms that allow influenza A viruses to cross species barriers. This review summarizes the current knowledge of influenza ecology, and the viral factors that are thought to determine influenza A virus species specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele A Landolt
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University, 300 West Drake Road, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
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Munster VJ, Baas C, Lexmond P, Waldenström J, Wallensten A, Fransson T, Rimmelzwaan GF, Beyer WEP, Schutten M, Olsen B, Osterhaus ADME, Fouchier RAM. Spatial, temporal, and species variation in prevalence of influenza A viruses in wild migratory birds. PLoS Pathog 2007; 3:e61. [PMID: 17500589 PMCID: PMC1876497 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 500] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2006] [Accepted: 03/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Although extensive data exist on avian influenza in wild birds in North America, limited information is available from elsewhere, including Europe. Here, molecular diagnostic tools were employed for high-throughput surveillance of migratory birds, as an alternative to classical labor-intensive methods of virus isolation in eggs. This study included 36,809 samples from 323 bird species belonging to 18 orders, of which only 25 species of three orders were positive for influenza A virus. Information on species, locations, and timing is provided for all samples tested. Seven previously unknown host species for avian influenza virus were identified: barnacle goose, bean goose, brent goose, pink-footed goose, bewick's swan, common gull, and guillemot. Dabbling ducks were more frequently infected than other ducks and Anseriformes; this distinction was probably related to bird behavior rather than population sizes. Waders did not appear to play a role in the epidemiology of avian influenza in Europe, in contrast to the Americas. The high virus prevalence in ducks in Europe in spring as compared with North America could explain the differences in virus–host ecology between these continents. Most influenza A virus subtypes were detected in ducks, but H13 and H16 subtypes were detected primarily in gulls. Viruses of subtype H6 were more promiscuous in host range than other subtypes. Temporal and spatial variation in influenza virus prevalence in wild birds was observed, with influenza A virus prevalence varying by sampling location; this is probably related to migration patterns from northeast to southwest and a higher prevalence farther north along the flyways. We discuss the ecology and epidemiology of avian influenza A virus in wild birds in relation to host ecology and compare our results with published studies. These data are useful for designing new surveillance programs and are particularly relevant due to increased interest in avian influenza in wild birds. Significant gaps in our knowledge of the ecology of avian influenza in wild migratory birds have become apparent during recent outbreaks of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza, in particular in relation to the risk of virus spread by wild birds. An eight-year surveillance study, which included more than 36,000 wild birds tested for low pathogenic avian influenza, provides new information on host species, prevalence, and temporal and geographical variation of avian influenza in wild migratory birds in Europe. Dabbling ducks harbored nearly all known influenza virus subtypes, with the exception of H13 and H16, which were found primarily in gulls. In contrast to American studies, waders did not play a role in the epidemiology of avian influenza in Europe. This study provides important information on the ecology and epidemiology of avian influenza A virus and could assist in the design of new surveillance studies for high and low pathogenic avian influenza in wild birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent J Munster
- Department of Virology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Chantal Baas
- Department of Virology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Pascal Lexmond
- Department of Virology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jonas Waldenström
- Section for Zoonotic Ecology and Epidemiology, Department of Biology and Environmental Science, University of Kalmar, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Anders Wallensten
- Smedby Health Center, Kalmar County Council, Kalmar, Sweden
- Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Molecular and Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Thord Fransson
- Bird Ringing Center, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Guus F Rimmelzwaan
- Department of Virology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Walter E. P Beyer
- Department of Virology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Schutten
- Department of Virology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Björn Olsen
- Section for Zoonotic Ecology and Epidemiology, Department of Biology and Environmental Science, University of Kalmar, Kalmar, Sweden
- Department of Clinical Science, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Ron A. M Fouchier
- Department of Virology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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17
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Opinion of the Scientific Panel on biological hazards (BIOHAZ) on vis-à-vis biological risks of biogas and compost treatment standards of animal by-products (ABP). EFSA J 2005. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2005.264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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18
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Gambaryan A, Yamnikova S, Lvov D, Tuzikov A, Chinarev A, Pazynina G, Webster R, Matrosovich M, Bovin N. Receptor specificity of influenza viruses from birds and mammals: new data on involvement of the inner fragments of the carbohydrate chain. Virology 2005; 334:276-83. [PMID: 15780877 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2004] [Revised: 01/12/2005] [Accepted: 02/01/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We studied receptor-binding properties of influenza virus isolates from birds and mammals using polymeric conjugates of sialooligosaccharides terminated with common Neu5Ac alpha2-3Gal beta fragment but differing by the structure of the inner part of carbohydrate chain. Viruses isolated from distinct avian species differed by their recognition of the inner part of oligosaccharide receptor. Duck viruses displayed high affinity for receptors having beta1-3 rather than beta1-4 linkage between Neu5Ac alpha2-3Gal-disaccharide and penultimate N-acetylhexosamine residue. Fucose and sulfate substituents at this residue had negative and low effect, respectively, on saccharide binding to duck viruses. By contrast, gull viruses preferentially bound to receptors bearing fucose at N-acetylglucosamine residue, whereas chicken and mammalian viruses demonstrated increased affinity for oligosaccharides that harbored sulfo group at position 6 of (beta1-4)-linked GlcNAc. These data suggest that although all avian influenza viruses preferentially bind to Neu5Ac alpha2-3Gal-terminated receptors, the fine receptor specificity of the viruses varies depending on the avian species. Further studies are required to determine whether observed host-dependent differences in the receptor specificity of avian viruses can affect their ability to infect humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Gambaryan
- Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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19
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Fouchier RAM, Munster V, Wallensten A, Bestebroer TM, Herfst S, Smith D, Rimmelzwaan GF, Olsen B, Osterhaus ADME. Characterization of a novel influenza A virus hemagglutinin subtype (H16) obtained from black-headed gulls. J Virol 2005; 79:2814-22. [PMID: 15709000 PMCID: PMC548452 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.5.2814-2822.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1035] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In wild aquatic birds and poultry around the world, influenza A viruses carrying 15 antigenic subtypes of hemagglutinin (HA) and 9 antigenic subtypes of neuraminidase (NA) have been described. Here we describe a previously unidentified antigenic subtype of HA (H16), detected in viruses circulating in black-headed gulls in Sweden. In agreement with established criteria for the definition of antigenic subtypes, hemagglutination inhibition assays and immunodiffusion assays failed to detect specific reactivity between H16 and the previously described subtypes H1 to H15. Genetically, H16 HA was found to be distantly related to H13 HA, a subtype also detected exclusively in shorebirds, and the amino acid composition of the putative receptor-binding site of H13 and H16 HAs was found to be distinct from that in HA subtypes circulating in ducks and geese. The H16 viruses contained NA genes that were similar to those of other Eurasian shorebirds but genetically distinct from N3 genes detected in other birds and geographical locations. The European gull viruses were further distinguishable from other influenza A viruses based on their PB2, NP, and NS genes. Gaining information on the full spectrum of avian influenza A viruses and creating reagents for their detection and identification will remain an important task for influenza surveillance, outbreak control, and animal and public health. We propose that sequence analyses of HA and NA genes of influenza A viruses be used for the rapid identification of existing and novel HA and NA subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ron A M Fouchier
- Dept. of Virology, Erasmus Medical Center, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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20
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Yamnikova SS, Gambaryan AS, Tuzikov AB, Bovin NV, Matrosovich MN, Fedyakina IT, Grinev AA, Blinov VM, Lvov DK, Suarez DL, Swayne DE. Differences between HA receptor-binding sites of avian influenza viruses isolated from Laridae and Anatidae. Avian Dis 2003; 47:1164-8. [PMID: 14575135 DOI: 10.1637/0005-2086-47.s3.1164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
A comparative study of the hemagglutinin (HA) receptor binding site (RBS) of a number of H13 influenza viruses isolated from Laridae family of birds (gulls) and other influenza viruses obtained from the Anatidae family (ducks) was conducted. The affinity of all viruses to alpha N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac alpha), 3'sialyllactose (3'SL), and sialylglycopolymers bearing 3'-sialyl(N-acetyllactosamine) (3'SLN-PAA), [Neu5Ac alpha(2-3)Gal beta(1-4)][-Fuc alpha(1-3)]GlcNAc beta (SLe(x)-PAA), and [Neu5Ac alpha(2-3)Gal beta(1-3)][-Fuc alpha(1-4)]GlcNAc beta (SLe(a)-PAA), was determined. The last three polymer glycoconjugates were synthesized for determining the contribution of carbohydrate chains after the galactose link to the binding with the receptor. The difference in affinity between 3'SL and Neu5Ac alpha in all studied H13 viruses is small, which indicates a less significant role of the galactose moiety in the binding to the receptor. The results of virus binding with polymer sialylglycoconjugates indicates that the method of linking, the third monosaccharide moiety, and the presence of an extra fucose substitute in this moiety may influence the binding considerably. For viruses isolated from ducks, the suitable polymer is SLe(a)-PAA (i.e., a 1-3 linkage between galactose and glucosamine is optimal). This finding is in accord with the data that H13 viruses isolated from the gulls differ based on their ability to interact with polymer sialylglycoconjugates. The affinity to all three polymers is uniform, and the presence of GlcNAc-linked fucose does not prevent the binding. A comparative analysis of six sequenced HA H13 viruses and other subtype viruses showed presence of substantial differences in the composition of amino acids of this region in H13 viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- S S Yamnikova
- D.I. Ivanovsky Institute of Virology, RAMS, 123098 Gamaleya, 16, Moscow, Russia.
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21
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Tollis M, Di Trani L. Recent developments in avian influenza research: epidemiology and immunoprophylaxis. Vet J 2002; 164:202-15. [PMID: 12505393 DOI: 10.1053/tvjl.2002.0716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Influenza A viruses have been isolated from humans, from several other mammalian species and a wide variety of avian species, among which, wild aquatic birds represent the natural hosts of influenza viruses. The majority of the possible combinations of the 15 haemagglutinin (HA) and nine neuraminidase (NA) subtypes recognized have been identified in isolates from domestic and wild birds. Infection of birds can cause a wide range of clinical signs, which may vary according to the host, the virus strain, the host's immune status, the presence of any secondary exacerbating microorganisms and environmental factors. Most infections are inapparent, especially in waterfowl and other wild birds. In contrast, infections caused by viruses of H5 and H7 subtypes can be responsible for devastating epidemics in poultry. Despite the warnings to the poultry industry about these viruses, in 1997 an avian H5N1 influenza virus was directly transmitted from birds to humans in Hong Kong and resulted in 18 confirmed infections, thus strengthening the pandemic threat posed by avian influenza (AI). Indeed, reassortant viruses, harbouring a combination of avian and human viral genomes, have been responsible for major pandemics of human influenza. These considerations warrant the need to continue and broaden efforts in the surveillance of AI. Control programmes have varied from no intervention, as in the case of the occurrence of low pathogenic (LP) AI (LPAI) viruses, to extreme, expensive total quarantine-slaughter programmes carried out to eradicate highly pathogenic (HP) AI (HPAI) viruses. The adoption of a vaccination policy, targeted either to control or to prevent infection in poultry, is generally banned or discouraged. Nevertheless, the need to boost eradication efforts in order to limit further spread of infection and avoid heavy economic losses, and advances in modern vaccine technologies, have prompted a re-evaluation of the potential use of vaccination in poultry as an additional tool in comprehensive disease control strategies. This review presents a synthesis of the most recent research on AI that has contributed to a better understanding of the ecology of the virus and to the development of safe and efficacious vaccines for poultry.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Tollis
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Laboratory of Veterinary Medicine, Vle Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy. mtollis.iss.iy
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22
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Perkins LEL, Swayne DE. Susceptibility of laughing gulls (Larus atricilla) to H5N1 and H5N3 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. Avian Dis 2002; 46:877-85. [PMID: 12495048 DOI: 10.1637/0005-2086(2002)046[0877:solgla]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
This investigation detailed the clinical disease, gross and histologic lesions, and distribution of viral antigen in juvenile laughing gulls (Larus atricilla) intranasally inoculated with either the A/tern/South Africa/61 (H5N3) (tern/SA) influenza virus or the A/chicken/Hong Kong/220/97 (H5N1) (chicken/HK) influenza virus, which are both highly pathogenic for chickens. Neither morbidity nor mortality was observed in gulls inoculated with either virus within the 14-day investigative period. Gross lesions resultant from infection with either virus were only mild, with the tern/SA virus causing decreased lucency of the air sacs (2/6), splenomegaly (2/6), and pancreatic mottling (1/6) and the chicken/HK virus causing only decreased lucency of the air sacs (2/8) and conjunctival edema (2/8). Histologic lesions in the tern/SA-inoculated gulls included a mild to moderate heterophilic to lymphoplasmacytic airsacculitis (6/6), mild to moderate interstitial pneumonia (3/6), and moderate necrotizing pancreatitis and hepatitis at 14 days postinoculation (DPI) (2/6). Immunohistochemical demonstration of viral antigen occurred only in association with lesions in the liver and pancreas. In contrast, viral antigen was not demonstrated in any tissues from the chicken/HK-inoculated gulls, and inflammatory lesions were confined to the air sac (3/8) and lungs (3/8). Both viruses were isolated at low titers (<10(1.68) mean embryo lethal dose) from oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs up to 7 days postinoculation (DPI), from the lung and kidney of one of two tern/SA-inoculated gulls at 14 DPI, and from the lung of one of two chicken/HK-inoculated gulls at 7 DPI. Antibodies to influenza viruses as determined with the agar gel precipitin test at 14 DPI were detected only in the two tern/SA-inoculated gulls and not in the two chicken/HK-inoculated gulls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Leigh Perkins
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, USA
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23
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Isolation of influenza viruses from wild birds in the Volga River basin and in the North Caspian Region. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0531-5131(01)00378-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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24
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Abstract
Influenza pandemics, defined as global outbreaks of the disease due to viruses with new antigenic subtypes, have exacted high death tolls from human populations. The last two pandemics were caused by hybrid viruses, or reassortants, that harbored a combination of avian and human viral genes. Avian influenza viruses are therefore key contributors to the emergence of human influenza pandemics. In 1997, an H5N1 influenza virus was directly transmitted from birds in live poultry markets in Hong Kong to humans. Eighteen people were infected in this outbreak, six of whom died. This avian virus exhibited high virulence in both avian and mammalian species, causing systemic infection in both chickens and mice. Subsequently, another avian virus with the H9N2 subtype was directly transmitted from birds to humans in Hong Kong. Interestingly, the genes encoding the internal proteins of the H9N2 virus are genetically highly related to those of the H5N1 virus, suggesting a unique property of these gene products. The identification of avian viruses in humans underscores the potential of these and similar strains to produce devastating influenza outbreaks in major population centers. Although highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses had been identified before the 1997 outbreak in Hong Kong, their devastating effects had been confined to poultry. With the Hong Kong outbreak, it became clear that the virulence potential of these viruses extended to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Horimoto
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Osaka Prefecture University, Sakai Osaka 599-8531, Japan
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25
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Wucherpfennig KW, Strominger JL. Molecular mimicry in T cell-mediated autoimmunity: viral peptides activate human T cell clones specific for myelin basic protein. Cell 1995; 80:695-705. [PMID: 7534214 PMCID: PMC7133435 DOI: 10.1016/0092-8674(95)90348-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1074] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Structural similarity between viral T cell epitopes and self-peptides could lead to the induction of an autoaggressive T cell response. Based on the structural requirements for both MHC class II binding and TCR recognition of an immunodominant myelin basic protein (MBP) peptide, criteria for a data base search were developed in which the degeneracy of amino acid side chains required for MHC class II binding and the conservation of those required for T cell activation were considered. A panel of 129 peptides that matched the molecular mimicry motif was tested on seven MBP-specific T cell clones from multiple sclerosis patients. Seven viral and one bacterial peptide efficiently activated three of these clones. Only one peptide could have been identified as a molecular mimic by sequence alignment. The observation that a single T cell receptor can recognize quite distinct but structurally related peptides from multiple pathogens has important implications for understanding the pathogenesis of autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- K W Wucherpfennig
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138
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26
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Komatsu S, Kajiwara H, Hirano H. A rice protein library: a data-file of rice proteins separated by two-dimensional electrophoresis. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 1993; 86:935-42. [PMID: 24194000 DOI: 10.1007/bf00211044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/1992] [Accepted: 01/28/1993] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Proteins extracted from embryos, endosperms and leaves of rice were separated by two-dimensional electrophoresis and relative molecular weights and isoelectric points were determined. The separated proteins were electroblotted onto a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane and 85 electroblotted proteins were analyzed by a gas-phase protein sequencer. The N-terminal amino-acid sequences of 27 out of 85 proteins were determined in this manner. The N-terminal regions of the remaining proteins could not be sequenced and they were inferred to have a blocking group at the N-terminus. Among proteins, 11 could be sequenced after deblocking by in situ treatment with pyroglutamyl peptidase. The internal amino-acid sequences of 23 proteins were determined by sequence analysis of peptides obtained by Cleveland peptide mapping. The amino-acid sequences determined here were compared with those of known plant and animal proteins. The concanavalin A-peroxidase method was used to determine whether the 85 proteins were glycosylated and the diagonal electrophoresis method was used to determine whether they contained disulphide bonding. Finally, we constructed a data-file of rice proteins including information on relative molecular weight, isoelectric point, amino-acid sequence, sequence homology, glycosylation, and the presence of disulphide bonding.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Komatsu
- Department of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Agrobiological Resources, Kannondai, Tsukuba, 305, Ibaraki, Japan
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27
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Binns MM, Daly JM, Chirnside ED, Mumford JA, Wood JM, Richards CM, Daniels RS. Genetic and antigenic analysis of an equine influenza H 3 isolate from the 1989 epidemic. Arch Virol 1993; 130:33-43. [PMID: 8503788 DOI: 10.1007/bf01318994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The haemagglutinin (HA) gene from the equine influenza H3N8 isolate Suffolk/89 has been cloned by reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction amplification. The nucleotide sequence of the HA gene was determined from two independently cloned copies of the gene and was found to be most closely related to recent American isolates supporting the idea that most isolates of equine H3N8 are evolving as a single lineage. When the predicted amino acid sequence of the Suffolk/89 HA was examined, changes had taken place in at least four of the major antigenic sites, A, B, C, and D when compared to the sequences of the isolates used in the current vaccines (Miami/63 and Fontainebleau/79). Surprisingly, when the Suffolk/89 isolate was tested in haemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays with a panel of six mouse monoclonal antibodies, no differences were observed between the Suffolk/89 and the Fontainebleau/79 isolates, suggesting that this panel of monoclonal antibodies may recognise a limited subset of the major antigenic sites. Three anti-HA horse heterohybridoma monoclonals were able to distinguish between the Suffolk/89 and Fontainebleau/79 viruses, demonstrating that the horse does recognise these isolates as being antigenically different. The results of the work suggest that the isolates used in current equine influenza vaccines may need updating.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Binns
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Animal Health Trust, Kennett, Suffolk, U.K
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28
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Abstract
In this review we examine the hypothesis that aquatic birds are the primordial source of all influenza viruses in other species and study the ecological features that permit the perpetuation of influenza viruses in aquatic avian species. Phylogenetic analysis of the nucleotide sequence of influenza A virus RNA segments coding for the spike proteins (HA, NA, and M2) and the internal proteins (PB2, PB1, PA, NP, M, and NS) from a wide range of hosts, geographical regions, and influenza A virus subtypes support the following conclusions. (i) Two partly overlapping reservoirs of influenza A viruses exist in migrating waterfowl and shorebirds throughout the world. These species harbor influenza viruses of all the known HA and NA subtypes. (ii) Influenza viruses have evolved into a number of host-specific lineages that are exemplified by the NP gene and include equine Prague/56, recent equine strains, classical swine and human strains, H13 gull strains, and all other avian strains. Other genes show similar patterns, but with extensive evidence of genetic reassortment. Geographical as well as host-specific lineages are evident. (iii) All of the influenza A viruses of mammalian sources originated from the avian gene pool, and it is possible that influenza B viruses also arose from the same source. (iv) The different virus lineages are predominantly host specific, but there are periodic exchanges of influenza virus genes or whole viruses between species, giving rise to pandemics of disease in humans, lower animals, and birds. (v) The influenza viruses currently circulating in humans and pigs in North America originated by transmission of all genes from the avian reservoir prior to the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic; some of the genes have subsequently been replaced by others from the influenza gene pool in birds. (vi) The influenza virus gene pool in aquatic birds of the world is probably perpetuated by low-level transmission within that species throughout the year. (vii) There is evidence that most new human pandemic strains and variants have originated in southern China. (viii) There is speculation that pigs may serve as the intermediate host in genetic exchange between influenza viruses in avian and humans, but experimental evidence is lacking. (ix) Once the ecological properties of influenza viruses are understood, it may be possible to interdict the introduction of new influenza viruses into humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Webster
- Department of Virology and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38101
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Nobusawa E, Aoyama T, Kato H, Suzuki Y, Tateno Y, Nakajima K. Comparison of complete amino acid sequences and receptor-binding properties among 13 serotypes of hemagglutinins of influenza A viruses. Virology 1991; 182:475-85. [PMID: 2024485 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(91)90588-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 385] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
We determined the sequences of 7 serotypes (H4, H6, H8, H9, H11, H12, and H13) of hemagglutinin (HA) genes, which have not been reported so far. The coding regions consisted of 1692 nucleotides in H4, 1698 in H6, 1695 in H8, 1680 in H9, 1695 in H11, 1692 in H12, and 1698 in H13, and specified 564, 566, 565, 560, 565, 564, and 566 amino acids, respectively. By comparison of amino acid sequences, 13 HA serotypes could be divided into two families, i.e., an H1 group (H1, H2, H5, H6, H8, H9, H11, H12, and H13) and an H3 group (H3, H4, H7, and H10). The relationship was essentially similar to that reported by Air from the comparison of 80 amino-terminal amino acid sequence of 12 HA serotypes (G.M. Air, 1981, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78, 7639-7643). Though a considerable amino acid sequence difference exists between certain HA serotypes, several amino acid residues in fusion peptides (HA2(1-11)) and receptor-binding sites (HA1(98), -134, -138, -153, -183, and -195) were shown to be conserved among the 13 HA serotypes. Human H1 and avian H3, H4, H8, and H10 viruses preferentially bound NeuAc alpha 2,3Gal sequences, whereas human H2 and H3 and avian H6 and H9 viruses bound NeuAc alpha 2,6Gal sequences, although the amino acid residues at position 226 of human H2 and avian H6 and H9 serotype HAs are glutamine. These results show that the amino acid residue at position 226 is not necessarily a determinant of receptor specificity for all serotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Nobusawa
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Public Health, Tokyo, Japan
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30
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Kawaoka Y, Yamnikova S, Chambers TM, Lvov DK, Webster RG. Molecular characterization of a new hemagglutinin, subtype H14, of influenza A virus. Virology 1990; 179:759-67. [PMID: 2238469 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(90)90143-f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Two influenza A viruses whose hemagglutinin (HA) did not react with any of the reference antisera for the 13 recognized HA subtypes were isolated from mallard ducks in the USSR. Antigenic analysis by hemagglutination inhibition and double immunodiffusion tests showed that the HAs of these viruses are similar to each other but distinct from the HAs of other influenza A viruses. Nucleotide sequence analysis showed that these HA genes differ from each other by only 21 nucleotides. However, they differ from all other HA subtypes at the amino acid level by at least 31% in HAI. Thus, we propose that the HAs of these viruses [A/Mallard/Gurjev/263/82 (H14N5) and A/Mallard/Gurjev/244/82 (H14N6) belong to a previously unrecognized subtype, and are designated H14. Unlike any other HAs of influenza viruses, the H14 HAs contained lysine at the cleavage site between HA1 and HA2 instead of arginine. Experimental infection of domestic poultry and ferrets with A/Mallard/Gurjev/263/82 (H14N5) showed that the virus is avirulent for these animals. Based on comparative sequence analysis of different HA genes, it is suggested that differences of 30% or more at the amino acid level in HA1 constitute separate subtypes. Phylogenetic analysis of representatives of each HA subtype showed that H14 is one of the most recently diverged lineages while H8 and H12 branched off early during the evolution of the HA subtypes. These latter two subtypes (H8 and H12) have been isolated very infrequently in recent years, suggesting that these old subtypes may be disappearing from the influenza reservoirs in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kawaoka
- St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Department of Virology and Molecular Biology, Memphis, Tennessee 38101
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31
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Evolution of influenza A virus PB2 genes: implications for evolution of the ribonucleoprotein complex and origin of human influenza A virus. J Virol 1990; 64:4893-902. [PMID: 2398532 PMCID: PMC247979 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.64.10.4893-4902.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Phylogenetic analysis of 20 influenza A virus PB2 genes showed that PB2 genes have evolved into the following four major lineages: (i) equine/Prague/56 (EQPR56); (ii and iii) two distinct avian PB2 lineages, one containing FPV/34 and H13 gull virus strains and the other containing North American avian and recent equine strains; and (iv) human virus strains joined with classic swine virus strains (i.e., H1N1 swine virus strains related to swine/Iowa/15/30). The human virus lineage showed the greatest divergence from its root relative to other lineages. The estimated nucleotide evolutionary rate for the human PB2 lineage was 1.82 x 10(-3) changes per nucleotide per year, which is within the range of published estimates for NP and NS genes of human influenza A viruses. At the amino acid level, PB2s of human viruses have accumulated 34 amino acid changes over the past 55 years. In contrast, the avian PB2 lineages showed much less evolution, e.g., recent avian PB2s showed as few as three amino acid changes relative to the avian root. The completion of evolutionary analyses of the PB1, PB2, PA and NP genes of the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex permits comparison of evolutionary pathways. Different patterns of evolution among the RNP genes indicate that the genes of the complex are not coevolving as a unit. Evolution of the PB1 and PB2 genes is less correlated with host-specific factors, and their proteins appear to be evolving more slowly than NP and PA. This suggests that protein functional constraints are limiting the evolutionary divergence of PB1 and PB2 genes. The parallel host-specific evolutionary pathways of the NP and PA genes suggest that these proteins are coevolving in response to host-specific factors. PB2s of human influenza A viruses share a common ancestor with classic swine virus PB2s, and the pattern of evolution suggests that the ancestor was an avian virus PB2. This same pattern of evolution appears in the other genes of the RNP complex. Antigenic studies of HA and NA proteins and sequence comparisons of NS and M genes also suggest a close ancestry for these genes in human and classic swine viruses. From our review of the evolutionary patterns of influenza A virus genes, we propose the following hypothesis: the common ancestor to current strains of human and classic swine influenza viruses predated the 1918 human pandemic virus and was recently derived from the avian host reservoir.
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