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Park D, Lee SJ, Choi DK, Park JW. Therapeutic Agent-Loaded Fibrous Scaffolds for Biomedical Applications. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15051522. [PMID: 37242764 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15051522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue engineering is a sophisticated field that involves the integration of various disciplines, such as clinical medicine, material science, and life science, to repair or regenerate damaged tissues and organs. To achieve the successful regeneration of damaged or diseased tissues, it is necessary to fabricate biomimetic scaffolds that provide structural support to the surrounding cells and tissues. Fibrous scaffolds loaded with therapeutic agents have shown considerable potential in tissue engineering. In this comprehensive review, we examine various methods for fabricating bioactive molecule-loaded fibrous scaffolds, including preparation methods for fibrous scaffolds and drug-loading techniques. Additionally, we delved into the recent biomedical applications of these scaffolds, such as tissue regeneration, inhibition of tumor recurrence, and immunomodulation. The aim of this review is to discuss the latest research trends in fibrous scaffold manufacturing methods, materials, drug-loading methods with parameter information, and therapeutic applications with the goal of contributing to the development of new technologies or improvements to existing ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongsik Park
- Drug Manufacturing Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (K-MEDI Hub), Daegu 41061, Republic of Korea
| | - Su Jin Lee
- Drug Manufacturing Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (K-MEDI Hub), Daegu 41061, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Kyu Choi
- New Drug Development Center (NDDC), Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (K-MEDI Hub), Daegu 41061, Republic of Korea
| | - Jee-Woong Park
- Medical Device Development Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (K-MEDI Hub), Daegu 41061, Republic of Korea
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2
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Ramírez-Guerra HE, Mazorra-Manzano MA, Pacheco-Aguilar R, Lugo-Sánchez ME, Carvallo-Ruiz G, Acevedo SMS, Torres-Arreola W, Cota-Arriola O, Ramírez-Suárez JC. Immunoblotting identification of jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas) LOX isoforms and in vitro crosslinking assay over selected collagenous materials. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1590/fst.118921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hugo E. Ramírez-Guerra
- Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Mexico; Universidad Estatal de Sonora, Mexico
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3
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Tapia‐Vasquez AE, Ezquerra‐Brauer JM, Martínez‐Cruz O, Márquez‐Ríos E, Ramírez‐Guerra HE, Minjarez‐Osorio C, Torres‐Arreola W. Relationship between muscle texture and the crosslinking degree of collagen fibers from octopus (
Octopus vulgaris
), guitarfish (
Rhinobatos productus
), and cazon (
Mustelus lunulatus
). J FOOD PROCESS PRES 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.14241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Oliviert Martínez‐Cruz
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos Universidad de Sonora Hermosillo Mexico
| | - Enrique Márquez‐Ríos
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos Universidad de Sonora Hermosillo Mexico
| | | | | | - Wilfrido Torres‐Arreola
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos Universidad de Sonora Hermosillo Mexico
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4
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Muscle lysyl oxidase activity and structural/thermal properties of highly cross-linked collagen in jumbo squid ( Dosidicus gigas) mantle, fins and arms. Food Sci Biotechnol 2018; 27:57-64. [PMID: 30263724 DOI: 10.1007/s10068-017-0242-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Revised: 08/29/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Muscle from mantle, fins and arms of squid (Dosidicus gigas) were compared based on lysyl oxidase activity (LOX), chemical/structural and thermodynamic properties of highly cross-linked collagen. The arms collagen presented the highest temperature (Tp) and enthalpy of transition. The arms collagen thermic properties may be explained by the higher imino amino acid content, proline and lysine hydroxylation degrees. Moreover, among the regions, the collagen from the arms had a more intense β band chain, hydroxymerodesmosine peak in the resonance magnetic nuclear spectra and pyridinoline peak in the Raman spectra. Fins showed the highest LOX activity. The LOX activity was associated with the Tp, proline and lysine hydroxylation degrees. These results implied that the collagen in the arms was more intermolecularly ordered than the mantle and fins, and may provide a theoretical basis for a better understanding of the thermal behaviour of squid tissues during management and processing.
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5
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Miranda-Nieves D, Chaikof EL. Collagen and Elastin Biomaterials for the Fabrication of Engineered Living Tissues. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2016; 3:694-711. [PMID: 33440491 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.6b00250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Collagen and elastin represent the two most predominant proteins in the body and are responsible for modulating important biological and mechanical properties. Thus, the focus of this review is the use of collagen and elastin as biomaterials for the fabrication of living tissues. Considering the importance of both biomaterials, we first propose the notion that many tissues in the human body represent a reinforced composite of collagen and elastin. In the rest of the review, collagen and elastin biosynthesis and biophysics, as well as molecular sources and biomaterial fabrication methodologies, including casting, fiber spinning, and bioprinting, are discussed. Finally, we summarize the current attempts to fabricate a subset of living tissues and, based on biochemical and biomechanical considerations, suggest that future tissue-engineering efforts consider direct incorporation of collagen and elastin biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Miranda-Nieves
- Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States.,Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Elliot L Chaikof
- Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States.,Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States.,Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
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6
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Ramirez-Guerra HE, Fimbres-Romero MDJ, Tapia-Vazquez AE, Ezquerra-Brauer JM, Márquez-Ríos E, Suarez-Jimenez GM, Torres-Arreola W. Relationship between lysyl oxidase activity, pyridinoline content and muscle texture during ice storage of jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas). Int J Food Sci Technol 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.12951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hugo E. Ramirez-Guerra
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos; Universidad de Sonora; Blvd. Luis Encinas y Rosales s/n. Apdo. Postal 1658, C.P. 83000 Col. Centro Hermosillo Sonora Mexico
| | - Manuel de J. Fimbres-Romero
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos; Universidad de Sonora; Blvd. Luis Encinas y Rosales s/n. Apdo. Postal 1658, C.P. 83000 Col. Centro Hermosillo Sonora Mexico
| | - Angel E. Tapia-Vazquez
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos; Universidad de Sonora; Blvd. Luis Encinas y Rosales s/n. Apdo. Postal 1658, C.P. 83000 Col. Centro Hermosillo Sonora Mexico
| | - Josafat M. Ezquerra-Brauer
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos; Universidad de Sonora; Blvd. Luis Encinas y Rosales s/n. Apdo. Postal 1658, C.P. 83000 Col. Centro Hermosillo Sonora Mexico
| | - Enrique Márquez-Ríos
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos; Universidad de Sonora; Blvd. Luis Encinas y Rosales s/n. Apdo. Postal 1658, C.P. 83000 Col. Centro Hermosillo Sonora Mexico
| | - Guadalupe M. Suarez-Jimenez
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico Biológicas; Universidad de Sonora; Blvd. Luis Encinas y Rosales s/n. Apdo. Postal 1658, C.P. 83000 Col. Centro Hermosillo Sonora Mexico
| | - Wilfrido Torres-Arreola
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos; Universidad de Sonora; Blvd. Luis Encinas y Rosales s/n. Apdo. Postal 1658, C.P. 83000 Col. Centro Hermosillo Sonora Mexico
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7
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Torres-Arreola W, Ezquerra-Brauer JM, Pacheco-Aguilar R, Valenzuela-Soto EM, Rouzaud-Sandez O, Lugo-Sanchez ME, Carvallo-Ruiz G. Lysyl oxidase from jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas) muscle: purification and partial characterization. Int J Food Sci Technol 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2011.02926.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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8
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Torres-Arreola W, Ezquerra-Brauer JM, Figueroa-Soto CG, Valenzuela-Soto EM, Garcia-Sanchez G, Marquez-Rios E, Pacheco-Aguilar R. Lysyl oxidase from jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas) muscle: detection and partial purification. Int J Food Sci Technol 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2011.02676.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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9
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Atsawasuwan P, Mochida Y, Katafuchi M, Tokutomi K, Mocanu V, Parker CE, Yamauchi M. A novel proteolytic processing of prolysyl oxidase. Connect Tissue Res 2011; 52:479-86. [PMID: 21591931 PMCID: PMC3499975 DOI: 10.3109/03008207.2011.564337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is an amine oxidase that is critical for the stability of connective tissues. The secreted proLOX is enzymatically quiescent and is activated through proteolytic cleavage between residues Gly(162) and Asp(163) (residue numbers according to the mouse LOX) by bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-1 gene products. Here we report a novel processing of proLOX identified in vitro and in vivo. Two forms of mature LOX were identified and characterized by their immunoreactivity to specific antibodies, amine oxidase activity, and mass spectrometry. One form was identified as a well-characterized BMP-1 processed LOX protein. Another was found to be a truncated form of LOX resulting from the cleavage at the carboxy terminus of Arg(192). The truncated form of LOX still appeared to retain amine oxidase activity. The results from the proLOX gene deletion and mutation experiments indicated that the processing occurs independent of the cleavage of proLOX by BMP-1 gene products and likely requires the presence of LOX propeptide. These results indicate that proLOX could be processed by two different mechanisms producing two forms of active LOX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phimon Atsawasuwan
- NC Oral Health Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27709, USA
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10
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Grimsby JL, Lucero HA, Trackman PC, Ravid K, Kagan HM. Role of lysyl oxidase propeptide in secretion and enzyme activity. J Cell Biochem 2011; 111:1231-43. [PMID: 20717923 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.22845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is secreted as a proenzyme (proLOX) that is proteolytically processed in the extracellular milieu to release the propeptide and mature, active LOX. LOX oxidizes lysyl residues of a number of protein substrates in the extracellular matrix and on the cell surface, which impacts several physiological and disease states. Although the LOX propeptide (LOX-PP) is glycosylated, little is known about the role of this modification in LOX secretion and activity. To gain insight into this issue, cells were transfected with native, full-length LOX cDNA (pre-pro-LOX), the N-glycosylation null pre-[N/Q]pro-LOX cDNA and the deletion mutant pre-LOX cDNA, referred to as secretory LOX, in which mature LOX is targeted to the secretory pathway without its N-terminal propeptide sequence. The results show that glycosylation of the LOX-PP is not required for secretion and extracellular processing of pro-LOX but it is required for optimal enzyme activity of the resulting mature LOX. Complete deletion of the propeptide sequence prevents mature LOX from exiting the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Taken together, our study points out the requirement of the LOX-PP for pro-LOX exit from the ER and is the first to highlight the influence of LOX-PP glycosylation on LOX enzyme activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Grimsby
- Division of Oral Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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11
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Pestov NB, Okkelman IA, Shmanai VV, Hurski AL, Giaccia AJ, Shchepinov MS. Control of lysyl oxidase activity through site-specific deuteration of lysine. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:255-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2010] [Revised: 10/31/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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12
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Lysyl oxidase: a potential target for cancer therapy. Inflammopharmacology 2010; 19:117-29. [DOI: 10.1007/s10787-010-0073-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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13
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Kothapalli CR, Ramamurthi A. Lysyl oxidase enhances elastin synthesis and matrix formation by vascular smooth muscle cells. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2010; 3:655-61. [PMID: 19813219 DOI: 10.1002/term.214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is a copper-dependent enzyme that initiates covalent crosslinking of elastin precursors by oxidizing peptidyl lysine to aminoadipic semi-aldehydes. Previous studies have shown LOX deficiency to affect crosslinking of elastin and collagen in vivo, resulting in disorganized connective tissue formation. In this study, we investigated the utility of exogenously supplemented LOX peptides (50-100 microl/well) to elastin synthesis, crosslinking efficiency and matrix deposition in adult rat aortic smooth muscle cell (RASMC) cultures. Additionally, we also examined the role of LOX peptides on SMC proliferation and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) synthesis in these cultures. Highly purified bovine aorta LOX peptide was found to increase matrix elastin synthesis by 40-80% to that in control cultures in a dose-dependent manner, while the crosslinking efficiency significantly (as measured by the ratio of matrix elastin protein to the total elastin protein synthesized) improved to 45-55% of total elastin synthesized under these conditions. However, LOX peptides affected neither SMC proliferation relative to controls, nor elastin precursor (tropoelastin) synthesis, nor the total elastin synthesis on a per-cell basis. In general, LOX peptides also did not affect MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities relative to control cultures, except for MMP-9 activity suppression at a higher LOX dose, suggesting that these LOX peptide cues could be safely used to enhance tropoelastin crosslinking into matrix structures and elastin matrix yield, within tissue-engineered constructs, a major challenge in the field.
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14
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Atsawasuwan P, Mochida Y, Katafuchi M, Kaku M, Fong KSK, Csiszar K, Yamauchi M. Lysyl oxidase binds transforming growth factor-beta and regulates its signaling via amine oxidase activity. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:34229-40. [PMID: 18835815 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m803142200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX), an amine oxidase critical for the initiation of collagen and elastin cross-linking, has recently been shown to regulate cellular activities possibly by modulating the functions of growth factors. In this study, we investigated the interaction between LOX and transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1), a potent growth factor abundant in bone, the effect of LOX on TGF-beta1 signaling, and its potential mechanism. The specific binding between mature LOX and mature TGF-beta1 was demonstrated by immunoprecipitation and glutathione S-transferase pulldown assay in vitro. Both proteins were colocalized in the extracellular matrix in an osteoblastic cell culture system, and the binding complex was identified in the mineral-associated fraction of bone matrix. Furthermore, LOX suppressed TGF-beta1-induced Smad3 phosphorylation likely through its amine oxidase activity. The data indicate that LOX binds to mature TGF-beta1 and enzymatically regulates its signaling in bone and thus may play an important role in bone maintenance and remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phimon Atsawasuwan
- Dental Research Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7455, USA
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15
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Lucero HA, Ravid K, Grimsby JL, Rich CB, DiCamillo SJ, Mäki JM, Myllyharju J, Kagan HM. Lysyl oxidase oxidizes cell membrane proteins and enhances the chemotactic response of vascular smooth muscle cells. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:24103-17. [PMID: 18586678 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m709897200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is a potent chemokine inducing the migration of varied cell types. Here we demonstrate that inhibition of LOX activity by beta-aminopropionitrile (BAPN) in cultured rat aortic smooth muscle cells (SMCs) reduced the chemotactic response and sensitivity of these cells toward LOX and toward PDGF-BB. The chemotactic activity of PDGF-BB was significantly enhanced in the presence of a non-chemotactic concentration of LOX. We considered the possibility that extracellular LOX may oxidize cell surface proteins, including the PDGF receptor-beta (PDGFR-beta), to affect PDGF-BB-induced chemotaxis. Plasma membranes purified from control SMC contained oxidized PDGFR-beta. The oxidation of this receptor and other membrane proteins was largely prevented in cells preincubated with BAPN. Addition of purified LOX to these cells restored the profile of oxidized proteins toward that of control cells. The high affinity and capacity for the binding of PDGF-BB by cells containing oxidized PDGFR-beta was diminished by approximately 2-fold when compared with cells in which oxidation by LOX was prevented by BAPN. Phosphorylated members of the PDGFR-beta-dependent signal transduction pathway, including PDGFR-beta, SHP2, AKT1, and ERK1/ERK2 (p44/42 MAPK), turned over faster in BAPN-treated than in control SMCs. LOX knock-out mouse embryonic fibroblasts mirrored the effect obtained with SMCs treated with BAPN. These novel findings suggest that LOX activity is essential to generate optimal chemotactic sensitivity of cells to chemoattractants by oxidizing specific cell surface proteins, such as PDGFR-beta.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héctor A Lucero
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA.
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16
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Tu Y, Weiss AS. Glycosaminoglycan-Mediated Coacervation of Tropoelastin Abolishes the Critical Concentration, Accelerates Coacervate Formation, and Facilitates Spherule Fusion: Implications for Tropoelastin Microassembly. Biomacromolecules 2008; 9:1739-44. [DOI: 10.1021/bm7013153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yidong Tu
- School of Molecular and Microbial Biosciences G08, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Anthony S. Weiss
- School of Molecular and Microbial Biosciences G08, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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17
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Abstract
Elastin is a key extracellular matrix protein that is critical to the elasticity and resilience of many vertebrate tissues including large arteries, lung, ligament, tendon, skin, and elastic cartilage. Tropoelastin associates with multiple tropoelastin molecules during the major phase of elastogenesis through coacervation, where this process is directed by the precise patterning of mostly alternating hydrophobic and hydrophilic sequences that dictate intermolecular alignment. Massively crosslinked arrays of tropoelastin (typically in association with microfibrils) contribute to tissue structural integrity and biomechanics through persistent flexibility, allowing for repeated stretch and relaxation cycles that critically depend on hydrated environments. Elastin sequences interact with multiple proteins found in or colocalized with microfibrils, and bind to elastogenic cell surface receptors. Knowledge of the major stages in elastin assembly has facilitated the construction of in vitro models of elastogenesis, leading to the identification of precise molecular regions that are critical to elastin-based protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne M Mithieux
- School of Molecular and Microbial Biosciences, University of Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
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18
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Palamakumbura AH, Trackman PC. A fluorometric assay for detection of lysyl oxidase enzyme activity in biological samples. Anal Biochem 2002; 300:245-51. [PMID: 11779117 DOI: 10.1006/abio.2001.5464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase catalyzes the final known enzymatic step required for collagen and elastin cross-linking in the biosynthesis of normal mature functional insoluble extracellular matrices. In addition, lysyl oxidase has been identified as a possible tumor suppressor. Lysyl oxidase activity in biological samples is traditionally and most reliably assessed by tritium release end-point assays using radiolabeled collagen or elastin substrates involving laborious vacuum distillation of the released tritiated water. In addition, a less sensitive fluorometric method exists that employs nonpeptidyl amine lysyl oxidase substrates and measures hydrogen peroxide production with horseradish peroxidase coupled to homovanillate oxidation. The present study describes a more sensitive fluorescent assay for lysyl oxidase activity that utilizes 1,5-diaminopentane as substrate, and released hydrogen peroxide is detected using Amplex red in horseradish peroxidase-coupled reactions. This method allows the detection of 40 ng of enzyme per 2 ml assay at 37 degrees C and is 7.5 times more sensitive than the currently available fluorometric assay for enzyme activity. This method eliminates the interference that occurs in some biological samples and can be successfully used to detect lysyl oxidase activity in cell culture experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amitha H Palamakumbura
- Division of Oral Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, 100 East Newton Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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19
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Tang C, Klinman JP. The catalytic function of bovine lysyl oxidase in the absence of copper. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:30575-8. [PMID: 11395477 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.c100138200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine lysyl oxidase (BLO) contains two different cofactors, copper (Kagan, H. M. (1986) in Biology of Extracellular Matrix (Mecham, R. P., ed) Vol. 1, pp. 321-398, Academic Press, Orlando, FL) and lysine tyrosyl quinone (LTQ) (Wang, S. X., Mure, M., Medzihradszky, K. F., Burlingame, A. L., Brown, D. E., Dooley, D. M., Smith, A. J., Kagan, H. M., and Klinman, J. P. (1996) Science 273, 1078-1084). By a combination of UV-visible spectroscopy, metal content analysis, and activity measurements, we find that copper-depleted BLO reacts in an irreversible manner with phenylhydrazine, an amine substrate analog, and catalyzes multiple turnovers of the substrate benzylamine. After removal of the majority of enzyme-bound copper, apoBLO exhibits a decrease in the LTQ content, as evidenced by the drop of the 510-520-nm absorbance, suggesting that the copper may play a structural role in stabilizing the LTQ. The remaining intact LTQ in the apoBLO reacted with phenylhydrazine, both in the presence and absence of the chelator, 10 mm 2,2'-dipyridyl. When benzylamine was used as the substrate, the apoBLO turned over at a rate of 50-60% of the native BLO (after correction for the residual copper and the change of LTQ content). Copper contamination from the assay buffer was ruled out by comparison of enzyme activity using different apoBLO concentrations. These studies demonstrate that the mature form of lysyl oxidase retains many of its functions in the absence of copper.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Tang
- Departments of Chemistry and Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
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20
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Uzel MI, Scott IC, Babakhanlou-Chase H, Palamakumbura AH, Pappano WN, Hong HH, Greenspan DS, Trackman PC. Multiple bone morphogenetic protein 1-related mammalian metalloproteinases process pro-lysyl oxidase at the correct physiological site and control lysyl oxidase activation in mouse embryo fibroblast cultures. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:22537-43. [PMID: 11313359 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m102352200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase catalyzes the final enzymatic step required for collagen and elastin cross-linking in extracellular matrix biosynthesis. Pro-lysyl oxidase is processed by procollagen C-proteinase activity, which also removes the C-propeptides of procollagens I-III. The Bmp1 gene encodes two procollagen C-proteinases: bone morphogenetic protein 1 (BMP-1) and mammalian Tolloid (mTLD). Mammalian Tolloid-like (mTLL)-1 and -2 are two genetically distinct BMP-1-related proteinases, and mTLL-1 has been shown to have procollagen C-proteinase activity. The present study is the first to directly compare pro-lysyl oxidase processing by these four related proteinases. In vitro assays with purified recombinant enzymes show that all four proteinases productively cleave pro-lysyl oxidase at the correct physiological site but that BMP-1 is 3-, 15-, and 20-fold more efficient than mTLL-1, mTLL-2, and mTLD, respectively. To more directly assess the roles of BMP-1 and mTLL-1 in lysyl oxidase activation by connective tissue cells, fibroblasts cultured from Bmp1-null, Tll1-null, and Bmp1/Tll1 double null mouse embryos, thus lacking BMP-1/mTLD, mTLL-1, or all three enzymes, respectively, were assayed for lysyl oxidase enzyme activity and for accumulation of pro-lysyl oxidase and mature approximately 30-kDa lysyl oxidase. Wild type cells or cells singly null for Bmp1 or Tll1 all produced both pro-lysyl oxidase and processed lysyl oxidase at similar levels, indicating apparently normal levels of processing, consistent with enzyme activity data. In contrast, double null Bmp1/Tll1 cells produced predominantly unprocessed 50-kDa pro-lysyl oxidase and had lysyl oxidase enzyme activity diminished by 70% compared with wild type, Bmp1-null, and Tll1-null cells. Thus, the combination of BMP-1/mTLD and mTLL-1 is shown to be responsible for the majority of processing leading to activation of lysyl oxidase by murine embryonic fibroblasts, whereas in vitro studies identify pro-lysyl oxidase as the first known substrate for mTLL-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- M I Uzel
- Division of Oral Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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Nellaiappan K, Risitano A, Liu G, Nicklas G, Kagan HM. Fully processed lysyl oxidase catalyst translocates from the extracellular space into nuclei of aortic smooth-muscle cells. J Cell Biochem 2000; 79:576-82. [PMID: 10996848 DOI: 10.1002/1097-4644(20001215)79:4<576::aid-jcb60>3.0.co;2-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LO), a secreted protein, was recently identified within the nuclei of vascular smooth-muscle cells (SMC) and 3T3 fibroblasts. A possible pathway by which LO can enter cell nuclei was explored in the present study. SMC were incubated with purified 32-kDa bovine aorta LO that had been fluorescently labeled with rhodamine (TRITC-LO). TRITC-LO entered the cytosol and then rapidly concentrated within the nuclei of preconfluent cultures of these cells, whereas carbonic anhydrase, a protein of similar molecular weight and similarly labeled, did not enter the cells under these conditions. LO that had been reductively methylated at lysine residues with [(14)C]HCHO was also taken up into the cytosolic and nuclear compartments. Intracellular uptake and intracellular distribution were not altered by inhibiting LO activity with beta-aminopropionitrile. An excess of native LO but not of carbonic anhydrase competitively inhibited the uptake of the isotopically labeled enzyme. Thus, once secreted and proteolytically processed, mature LO can enter the cells and concentrate within nuclei in a manner that appears to be specific and independent of its catalytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Nellaiappan
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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Nellaiappan K, Kagan HM. Proteins secreted by vascular smooth muscle cells as substrates of lysyl oxidase. Connect Tissue Res 2000; 40:123-9. [PMID: 10761637 DOI: 10.3109/03008209909029108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The mixture of proteins secreted by neonatal rat aorta smooth muscle cells cultured in the presence of beta-aminopropionitrile was readily oxidized and polymerized upon incubation with purified or crude preparations of lysyl oxidase. Western blot analysis indicated that these substrates included 30-60kDa protein bands reactive with anti-elastin, presumed to be fragments derived from tropoelastin. Thus, truncated, elastin-like as well as other proteins accumulate in the media of these cultures which, in toto, can serve as a conveniently prepared, highly efficient substrate for the routine assay of lysyl oxidase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Nellaiappan
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, MA 02118, USA
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Nellaiappan K, Risitano A, Liu G, Nicklas G, Kagan HM. Fully processed lysyl oxidase catalyst translocates from the extracellular space into nuclei of aortic smooth-muscle cells. J Cell Biochem 2000. [DOI: 10.1002/1097-4644(20001215)79:4%3c576::aid-jcb60%3e3.0.co;2-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Li W, Liu G, Chou IN, Kagan HM. Hydrogen peroxide-mediated, lysyl oxidase-dependent chemotaxis of vascular smooth muscle cells. J Cell Biochem 2000. [DOI: 10.1002/1097-4644(20000915)78:4<550::aid-jcb4>3.0.co;2-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Liu G, Nellaiappan K, Kagan HM. Irreversible inhibition of lysyl oxidase by homocysteine thiolactone and its selenium and oxygen analogues. Implications for homocystinuria. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:32370-7. [PMID: 9405445 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.51.32370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Homocysteine thiolactone, selenohomocysteine lactone, and homoserine lactone were found to be competitive, irreversible inhibitors of lysyl oxidase, with KI values of 21 +/- 3 microM, 8.3 +/- 2.2 microM, and 420 +/- 56 microM, respectively. The first order rate constants for inactivation (k2) of the enzyme varied over a much smaller range, ranging from 0.12 to 0.18 to 0.28 min-1 for the Se-, thio-, and O-lactones, respectively. Mutually exclusive labeling of the enzyme by [1-14C]beta-aminopropionitrile, [U-14C]phenylhydrazine, or [35S]homocysteine thiolactone was observed. These labeling results, together with the closely similar perturbations of the near UV-visible spectra of lysyl oxidase and of a model of its lysine tyrosylquinone cofactor by the thiolactone, indicate that the lactones likely derivatize and reduce the active site carbonyl cofactor. Substitution with deuterium at the alpha-carbon of the thiolactone caused a deuterium kinetic isotope effect on k2 of 3.2 +/- 0.2, consistent with the involvement of rate-limiting alpha-proton abstraction during lactone-induced inactivation of the enzyme. The activities of plasma amine oxidase and diamine oxidase were only minimally reduced at concentrations of the sulfur or selenium lactones that fully inhibited lysyl oxidase. Thus, these lactones constitute a new category of mechanism-based inactivators selective for lysyl oxidase. Further, these results may relate to the development of connective tissue defects seen in homocystinuria.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Liu
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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Di Donato A, Lacal JC, Di Duca M, Giampuzzi M, Ghiggeri G, Gusmano R. Micro-injection of recombinant lysyl oxidase blocks oncogenic p21-Ha-Ras and progesterone effects on Xenopus laevis oocyte maturation. FEBS Lett 1997; 419:63-8. [PMID: 9426221 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(97)01420-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Previous evidence suggested an anti-oncogenic role for lysyl oxidase, mainly in ras-transformed cells. Here we prove that recombinant lysyl oxidase is actually able to antagonize p21-Ha-Ras-induced Xenopus laevis oocyte maturation. Lysyl oxidase was also effective on progesterone-dependent maturation, indicating a block lying downstream of Ras. Maturation induced by activated 'maturation promoting factor', normally triggered by progesterone, was also inhibited by lysyl oxidase. Finally, lysyl oxidase did not abolish p42Erk2 phosphorylation upon maturation triggering, suggesting a block downstream of Erk2. Further investigation showed that lysyl oxidase action depends on protein synthesis and is therefore probably mediated by a newly synthesized protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Di Donato
- Department of Nephrology, Institute G. Gaslini, Genoa, Italy.
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Li W, Nellaiappan K, Strassmaier T, Graham L, Thomas KM, Kagan HM. Localization and activity of lysyl oxidase within nuclei of fibrogenic cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997; 94:12817-22. [PMID: 9371758 PMCID: PMC24221 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.94.24.12817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (EC 1.4.3.13) oxidizes peptidyl lysine to peptidyl aldehyde residues within collagen and elastin, thus initiating formation of the covalent cross-linkages that insolubilize these extracellular proteins. Recent findings raise the possibility that this enzyme may also function intracellularly. The present study provides evidence by immunocytochemical confocal microscopy, Western blot analysis, enzyme assays, and chemical analyses for lysyl oxidase reaction products that this enzyme is present and active within rat vascular smooth muscle cell nuclei. Confocal microscopy indicates its presence within nuclei of 3T3 fibroblasts, as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Li
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, MA 02118, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- C Hartmann
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Molecular Biology Division (151-S), San Francisco, California 94121, USA
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