Rhabdomyolysis in diabetic emergencies

Clinical analysis of the serum muscle enzyme spectrum of patients with newly diagnosed Sheehan's syndrome

We investigated the factors associated with serum muscle enzyme elevation in patients with Sheehan's syndrome. A total of 48 patients who were newly diagnosed with Sheehan's syndrome were included and divided into 3 groups: Group 1, creatine kinase (CK) ≥ 1000 U/L; Group 2, 140 < CK < 1000 U/L; and Group 3, CK ≤ 140 U/L. Differences in serum muscle enzymes, serum electrolytes, blood glucose and hormones were compared among the 3 groups. A Spearman correlation analysis and multiple linear regression analysis were performed on serum muscle enzymes and the other variables. Four patients in Group 1 underwent electromyography. Fourteen, 26 and 8 patients were divided into Group 1, Group 2, and Group 3, respectively. The levels of plasma osmolality, serum sodium, free triiodothyronine (FT3) and free thyroxine (FT4) in Group 1 were lower than those in Group 3 at admission (P < .05). There were significant differences in CK, CK-MB, aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, and alpha-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase among the three groups (P < .05). CK was correlated with serum sodium (r = -0.642, P < .001), serum potassium (r = -0.29, P = .046), plasma osmolality (r = -0.65, P < .001), FT3 (r = -0.363, P = .012), and FT4 (r = -0.450, P = .002). Moreover, creatine kinase isoenzyme-MB (CK-MB) was correlated with serum sodium (r = -0.464, P = .001) and plasma osmolality (r = -0.483, P < .001). The multiple linear regression showed that serum sodium was independently and negatively correlated with CK (r = -0.352, P = .021). The electromyogram results supported the existence of myogenic injury. Sheehan's syndrome is prone to be complicated by nontraumatic rhabdomyolysis, with both a chronic course and acute exacerbation. Serum muscle enzymes should be routinely measured. For patients with CK levels > 1000 U/L, a CK-MB/CK ratio < 6% can be a simple indicator to differentiate rhabdomyolysis from acute myocardial infarction. Abnormal serum muscle enzymes observed in Sheehan's syndrome may be associated with hypothyroidism and with hyponatremia in particular.

Potential drug-drug interaction between sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors and statins: pharmacological and clinical evidence

INTRODUCTION

Recent case reports suggested that concomitant use of sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors with statins could lead to increased statin toxicity. We provide a comprehensive overview of the available pharmacological and clinical evidence on this potential drug-drug interaction (DDI).

AREAS COVERED

We searched MEDLINE PubMed until November 2020 for (i) pharmacokinetic studies on SGLT2 inhibitors, statins, and their potential interaction, and (ii) case reports and clinical studies assessing the safety of concomitant use of SGLT2 inhibitors and statins. We also searched regulatory documents submitted to the United States Food and Drug Administration for unpublished data on this potential DDI.

EXPERT OPINION

SGLT2 inhibitors are increasingly used for type 2 diabetes, chronic heart failure, and chronic kidney disease, and concomitant use with statins is common given the comorbidity of indications. While pharmacokinetic studies in healthy subjects showed no clinically relevant changes in statin levels during SGLT2 inhibitor co-administration, the published case reports and pharmacologic reasoning support the possibility of an interaction. Underlying mechanisms could be pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic, and canagliflozin appears to be the SGLT2 inhibitor with the highest interaction potential. Further research including 'real-world' pharmacoepidemiologic studies is needed to better understand the clinical significance of this DDI.

From quail to earthquakes and human conflict: a historical perspective of rhabdomyolysis

Rhabdomyolysis is a common cause of acute kidney injury, featuring muscle pain, weakness and dark urine and concurrent laboratory evidence of elevated muscle enzymes and myoglobinuria. Rhabdomyolysis is often seen in elderly and frail patients following prolonged immobilization, for example after a fall, but a variety of other causes are also well-described. What is unknown to most physicians dealing with such patients is the fascinating history of rhabdomyolysis. Cases of probable rhabdomyolysis have been reported since biblical times and during antiquity, often in the context of poisoning. Equally interesting is the link between rhabdomyolysis and armed conflict during the 20th century. Salient discoveries regarding the pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment were made during the two world wars and in their aftermath. 'Haff disease', a form of rhabdomyolysis first described in 1920, has fascinated scientists and physicians alike, but the marine toxin causing it remains enigmatic even today. As a specialty, we have also learned a lot about the disease from 20th-century earthquakes, and networks of international help and cooperation have emerged. Finally, rhabdomyolysis has been described as a sequel to torture and similar forms of violence. Clinicians should be aware that rhabdomyolysis and the development of renal medicine are deeply intertwined with human history.

Diabetic ketoacidosis

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is the most common acute hyperglycaemic emergency in people with diabetes mellitus. A diagnosis of DKA is confirmed when all of the three criteria are present - 'D', either elevated blood glucose levels or a family history of diabetes mellitus; 'K', the presence of high urinary or blood ketoacids; and 'A', a high anion gap metabolic acidosis. Early diagnosis and management are paramount to improve patient outcomes. The mainstays of treatment include restoration of circulating volume, insulin therapy, electrolyte replacement and treatment of any underlying precipitating event. Without optimal treatment, DKA remains a condition with appreciable, although largely preventable, morbidity and mortality. In this Primer, we discuss the epidemiology, pathogenesis, risk factors and diagnosis of DKA and provide practical recommendations for the management of DKA in adults and children.

A systematic review on the definition of rhabdomyolysis

BACKGROUND

Rhabdomyolysis (RML) is an interdisciplinary condition due to muscle cell injury followed by the release of cell components into circulation. Etiology of RML has a broad range; a serious complication is acute kidney injury (AKI). Despite its high relevance, there is no established formal definition for RML.

OBJECTIVES

A systematic review, focusing on RML definition, providing a recommendation for clinicians.

METHOD

Systematic literature research in PubMed and Embase (1968-07/2018).

RESULTS

The database research presented 8136 articles in PubMed and 2151 in Embase. After screening, 614 papers were retained for statistical analysis. A retrospective study was the most used design (44%). A definition of RML was stated in 231 studies (37.6%), including a precise creatine kinase level (CK) cut-off most frequently (67.1%). In 53/231 (22.9%) studies the CK cut-off was > 5 × upper limit of normal (ULN), and in 64/231 (27.7%) studies > 1000 IU/L. Further components of definitions were elevated CK without specific thresholds, and clinical symptoms. Exclusion criteria referring to the definition of RML were established in 113 studies, including myocardial, renal, cerebral and neuromuscular characteristics.

CONCLUSION

At present, we recommend a clinical syndrome of acute muscle weakness, myalgia, and muscle swelling combined with a CK cut-off value of > 1000 IU/L/ or CK > 5 × ULN for the standard definition of a mild RML. Additionally measured myoglobinuria and AKI indicate a severe type of RML. Exclusion criteria as well as the chronological sequence need to be considered for a conclusive RML definition.

Improvement in renal prognosis with prompt hemodialysis in hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state-related rhabdomyolysis: A case report

RATIONALE

Acute kidney injury is common and correctable in patients with a hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS). Nevertheless, hyperglycemic crisis may also contribute to the development of rhabdomyolysis, which can worsen renal function and lead to high mortality in such patients.

PATIENT CONCERNS

Herein, we report a case of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state-related rhabdomyolysis and acute renal failure with an excellent outcome.

DIAGNOSIS

A 26-year-old Asian female with underlying paranoid schizophrenia presented with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus complicated with HHS. Her renal function deteriorated rapidly in spite of standard management for hyperglycemic crisis. Rhabdomyolysis was subsequently diagnosed according to the high levels of serum creatine kinase (CK) (37,710 U/L, normal range: 20-180 U/L) and myoglobin (5167.7 ng/mL, normal range: 14.3-65.8 ng/mL).

INTERVENTIONS

After treatment failure of intravenous hydration plus loop diuretic agent for rhabdomyolysis related acute renal failure, temporary hemodialysis was performed 3 times to relieve oligouria and pulmonary edema.

OUTCOMES

Her renal function recovered well after temporary renal replacement therapy.

LESSONS

Rhabdomyolysis is a complication of HHS. Delayed detection can be fatal, and timely renal replacement therapy can result in an excellent prognosis. Therefore, it is crucial for clinicians to detect and treat such patients as early as possible to avoid impairing their renal function.

Rhabdomyolysis-Induced Acute Kidney Injury in Diabetic Emergency: Underdiagnosed and an Important Association to Be Aware of

Rhabdomyolysis is a potentially life-threatening clinical syndrome associated with muscle injury which can cause a leakage of intracellular contents, manifested from the range of being asymptomatic to a life-threatening condition causing acute kidney injury and severe electrolyte abnormalities. Rhabdomyolysis has been associated with both diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketotic syndrome, though there is an increased association with rhabdomyolysis and acute kidney injury with hyperosmolar nonketonic state compared with patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. Common clinical manifestations are muscle pain, dark urine, and generalized weakness. The causes of rhabdomyolysis are broadly categorized into three groups: traumatic, nontraumatic exertional, and nontraumatic nonexertional. Here, we present a case of rhabdomyolysis-induced acute kidney injury in a patient with hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state. The patient was discharged on insulin and needed intermittent dialysis for two months. Our case highlights the importance of the rare association of rhabdomyolysis causing acute kidney injury in a diabetic emergency.

Rhabdomyolysis secondary to systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematous (SLE) is a systemic auto-immune disorder with a variety of presentations and wide spread organ involvement. We present a case report of a patient with an SLE exacerbation as well as concurrent rhabdomyolysis with massively elevated CPK (304,700 U/L). Though a rarely reported effect of SLE, rhabdomyolysis can be severe and potentially lethal secondary or concurrent to an acute SLE episode. This case report demonstrates the association between SLE and rhabdomyolysis, which is not well described in the current literature.

Diagnostic evaluation of rhabdomyolysis

Rhabdomyolysis is characterized by severe acute muscle injury resulting in muscle pain, weakness, and/or swelling with release of myofiber contents into the bloodstream. Symptoms develop over hours to days after an inciting factor and may be associated with dark pigmentation of the urine. Serum creatine kinase and urine myoglobin levels are markedly elevated. Clinical examination, history, laboratory studies, muscle biopsy, and genetic testing are useful tools for diagnosis of rhabdomyolysis, and they can help differentiate acquired from inherited causes of rhabdomyolysis. Acquired causes include substance abuse, medication or toxic exposures, electrolyte abnormalities, endocrine disturbances, and autoimmune myopathies. Inherited predisposition to rhabdomyolysis can occur with disorders of glycogen metabolism, fatty acid β-oxidation, and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. Less common inherited causes of rhabdomyolysis include structural myopathies, channelopathies, and sickle-cell disease. This review focuses on the differentiation of acquired and inherited causes of rhabdomyolysis and proposes a practical diagnostic algorithm. Muscle Nerve 51: 793-810, 2015.

Non-traumatic rhabdomyolysis and diabetes

The present clinical report describes the case of a spontaneously resolving rhabdomyolysis episode in a type 1 diabetic patient, who presented with multiple risk factors of this muscle complication, including uncontrolled brittle diabetes with sequences of hyper- and hypoglycaemic episodes in the same day, caloric restriction and intensive exercise. It should be borne in mind that rhabdomyolysis is not particularly rare in diabetes and can be severe. To raise clinicians' awareness of a possible rhabdomyolysis diagnosis, the various clinical conditions that are likely to lead to this complication in diabetic patients are also reviewed here.

Fulminant type 1 diabetes mellitus with rhabdomyolysis: have we overlooked the situation?

Fulminant type 1 diabetes mellitus (FT1DM) is characterized as remarkably abrupt onset and severe metabolic disorder. Prominent derangement of serum electrolytes was frequently observed, which could be associated with rhabdomyolysis. But the issue was not touched upon in most of the articles concerning FT1DM. Herein, we reported 2 cases. Since the clinical features of rhabdomyolysis vary, and creatine kinase levels are not routinely tested in young patients, the situation of rhabdomyolysis associated with FT1DM may be overlooked.

Olanzapine-induced hyperglycaemic coma and neuroleptic malignant syndrome: case report and review of literature

Although the relationship between antipsychotic medication, particularly second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs), and metabolic disturbance is increasingly accepted, there is an important, but little recognised, potential interaction between this and the other important serious adverse effect of neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS). We report a case of a 35-year old female who developed new onset type II diabetes mellitus with hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic coma and acute renal failure following treatment with a SGA for a first manic episode. The history is strongly suggestive of concurrent NMS. This case raises important questions about non-ketotic, hyperosmolar diabetic coma with antipsychotics, the possible association between hyperglycaemia and hyperthermia, and the direction of causality in this, the recognition of either syndrome when they co-exist and management issues in such patients. These questions are considered in the context of currently available literature.

Prevention of diabetic ketoacidosis and self-monitoring of ketone bodies: an overview

OBJECTIVE

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Self-monitoring of ketone bodies by diabetes patients can be done using blood or urine. We compared the two self-monitoring methods and summarized recent developments in the epidemiology and management of DKA.

METHODS

MEDLINE and EMBASE were searched for relevant publications addressing the epidemiology, management and prevention of DKA up to 2009. The current, relevant publications, along with the authors' clinical and professional experience, were used to synthesize this narrative review.

FINDINGS

Despite considerable advances in diabetes therapy, key epidemiological figures related to DKA remained nearly unchanged during the last decades at a global level. Prevention of DKA - especially in sick day management - relies on intensive self-monitoring of blood glucose and subsequent, appropriate therapy adjustments. Self-monitoring of ketone bodies during hyperglycemia can provide important, complementary information on the metabolic state. Both methods for self-monitoring of ketone bodies at home are clinically reliable and there is no published evidence favoring one method with respect to DKA prevention.

CONCLUSIONS

DKA is still a severe complication potentially arising during prolonged hyperglycemic episodes with possibly fatal consequences. Education of patients and their social environment to promote frequent testing - especially during sick days - and to lower their glucose levels, as well as to recognize the early symptoms of hyperglycemia and DKA is of paramount importance in preventing the development of severe DKA. Both methods for self-monitoring of ketone bodies are safe and clinically reliable.

Rhabdomyolysis: a review of clinical presentation, etiology, diagnosis, and management

Rhabdomyolysis is a condition that results from many underlying etiologies and can present in a myriad of ways to the emergency physician. However, some clinical and laboratory features are almost always present and, if noted, can help in making the diagnosis. This review article will focus on the presenting symptoms, the various etiologies, the underlying mechanisms, and the current management of pediatric rhabdomyolysis.

Approach to management of malignant hyperthermia-like syndrome in pediatric diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HHNS) is usually associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus and is rare in children. However, a fatal malignant hyperthermia-like syndrome (MHLS) with rhabdomyolysis associated with new-onset diabetes mellitus and HHNS in adolescents has been described.

DESIGN/METHODS

Case series.

RESULTS

A 16-yr-old obese male (case A) and a 10-yr-old mid-pubertal nonobese female (case B) presented within a 6-month period with emesis, altered mental status, blood glucose >1600 mg/dL, and laboratory evidence of rhabdomyolysis. Case A developed fever after initiation of insulin therapy, along with refractory hypotension and multiorgan failure. He died 14 hrs after admission. Case B developed fever before insulin therapy, was treated with dantrolene, and made a full recovery. Metabolic workup showed evidence of short-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (SCAD) deficiency.

CONCLUSIONS

We report two cases of malignant hyperthermia-like syndrome associated with HHNS in adolescents. Their respective fluid management and clinical courses are described. Dantrolene therapy should be initiated immediately after this syndrome is recognized. We believe it is unlikely insulin is the sole trigger for MHLS. Case B is unique in that there was evidence of SCAD deficiency, a metabolic defect that we propose could lead to MHLS. We recommend that all patients with HHNS and MHLS be evaluated for an underlying metabolic disorder.

Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome

Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HHNS) was infrequently diagnosed till recently. Now it is being diagnosed with increasing frequency in obese children with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2 DM) and its incidence is likely to go up, given global increase in incidence of childhood obesity, increased insulin resistance, and T2 DM. The syndrome is characterized by severe hyperglycemia, a marked increase in serum osmolality and dehydration without accumulation of beta -hydroxybutyric or acetoacetic ketoacids. Significant ketogenesis is restrained by the ability of the pancreas to secrete small amount of insulin. Prolonged phase of osmotic diuresis leads to severe depletion of body water, which excees that of sodium, resulting in hypertonic dehydration. These children, usually obese adolescents with T2 DM, present with signs of severe dehydration and depressed mental status but continue to have increased rather than decreased urine output and are at increased risk of developing rhabdomyolysis and malignant hyperthermia. Emergency treatment is directed at restoration of the intravascular volume, followed by correction of deficits of fluid and electrolyte (Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++, PO4++), hyperglycemia and serum hyperosmolarity, and a thorough search for conditions that may lead to this metabolic decompensation and their treatment. Use of iso-osomolar isotonic fluid (0.9% saline) until hemodynamic stabilization initially, followed by 0.45% saline with insulin infusion at the rate of 0.1 units/kg/hour, addition of 5% dextrose in fluids and reduction of insulin infusion once the blood glucose is 250 to 300 mg/dl is generally recommended. However, evidence-based guidelines about composition and tonicity of fluids and electrolyte solutions for early resuscitation and rehydration, the rate of infusion-rapid vs slow, and insulin dose-low vs normal, in treatment of HHNS in children are awaited. Careful monitoring of glucose levels and ensuring adequate hydration in patients 'at risk' of HHNS, including those receiving medications that interfere with the secretion or effectiveness of insulin should decrease the risk of HHNS.

Diabetic ketoacidosis: risk factors and management strategies

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is the most common hyperglycemic emergency in patients with diabetes mellitus. DKA most often occurs in patients with type 1 diabetes, but patients with type 2 diabetes are susceptible to DKA under stressful conditions, such as trauma, surgery, or infections. DKA is reported to be responsible for more than 100 000 hospital admissions per year in the US, and accounts for 4-9% of all hospital discharge summaries among patients with diabetes. Treatment of patients with DKA uses significant healthcare resources and accounts for 1 out of every 4 healthcare dollars spent on direct medical care for adult patients with type 1 diabetes in the US. Recent studies using standardized written guidelines for therapy have demonstrated a mortality rate of less than 5%, with higher mortality rates observed in elderly patients and those with concomitant life-threatening illnesses. Worldwide, infection is the most common precipitating cause for DKA, occurring in 30-50% of cases. Urinary tract infection and pneumonia account for the majority of infections. Other precipitating causes are intercurrent illnesses (i.e., surgery, trauma, myocardial ischemia, pancreatitis), psychological stress, and non-compliance with insulin therapy. The triad of uncontrolled hyperglycemia, metabolic acidosis and increased total body ketone concentration characterizes DKA. These metabolic derangements result from the combination of absolute or relative insulin deficiency and increased levels of counter-regulatory hormones (glucagon, catecholamines, cortisol, and growth hormone). Successful treatment of DKA requires frequent monitoring of patients, correction of hypovolemia and hyperglycemia, replacement of electrolyte losses, and careful search for the precipitating cause. Since the majority of DKA cases occur in patients with a known history of diabetes, this acute metabolic complication should be largely preventable through early detection, and by the education of patients, healthcare professionals, and the general public. The frequency of hospitalizations for DKA has been reduced following diabetes education programs, improved follow-up care, and access to medical advice. Novel approaches to patient education incorporating a variety of healthcare beliefs and socioeconomic issues are critical to an effective prevention program.

A new challenge in pediatric obesity: pediatric hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome

OBJECTIVES

To describe four adolescents with hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome, an uncommon presentation of type 2 diabetes in pediatric patients.

DESIGN

Case report.

SETTING

Two tertiary pediatric intensive care units in university teaching hospitals.

PATIENTS

Four obese adolescents with hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

INTERVENTIONS

Isotonic fluid resuscitation and insulin.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Two of the four patients died. The first patient died within the first 24 hrs of hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome presumably due to hypovolemic shock. The second patient, who died, developed rhabdomyolysis and multiple-system organ failure after a prolonged intensive care unit stay. The third and fourth patients were discharged from the hospital in good health. None of the patients had cerebral edema on head computed tomography, despite differences in fluid and insulin management.

CONCLUSIONS

Pediatric patients with hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome have a high mortality rate and may experience multiple complications such as rhabdomyolysis and hypovolemic shock. Treatment strategies to reduce mortality are unclear and warrant further investigation.

Acute hyperglycemic crisis in the elderly

The geriatric population is at particular risk for developing hyperglycemic crises with the development of diabetes. With increasing age, insulin secretory reserve, insulin sensitivity, and thirst mechanisms decrease. The elderly are particularly vulnerable to hyperglycemia and dehydration, the key components of hyperglycemic emergencies. If recognized early, hyperglycemia can frequently be treated in the outpatient setting even with moderate or large ketonuria, provided patients can take fluids, monitor blood glucose frequently, and follow standard "sick day rules." With increased diabetes surveillance and aggressive early treatment of hyperglycemia and its complications, morbidity and mortality from acute diabetic crises in the geriatric population can be greatly reduced.

Rhabdomyolysis in diabetic ketoacidosis

Rhabdomyolysis is a potentially lethal disorder, characterized by elevated serum concentrations of creatine kinase (CK) due to skeletal muscle injury. In this paper a patient with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is reported who developed rhabdomyolysis (maximum CK level, 37,700 U/L; normal, < 170 U/L), anemia (6.2 g/dL) and thrombocytopenia (16,000/microL). This combination of rhabdomyolysis with anemia and thrombocytopenia has not yet been reported in DKA. The pathogenic mechanism leading to rhabdomyolysis in DKA remains unsettled. From the literature it seems that those patients who develop rhabdomyolysis have very high glucose levels and a high osmolality on admission. Low phosphate levels can play a role as well. The etiology of anemia and thrombocytopenia in our patient remains obscure. Intravascular hemolysis could not be demonstrated but intramedullar hemolysis, due to osmolar shift or hypophosphatemia, cannot be excluded. A review of the literature data revealed that rhabdomyolysis is not so uncommon in DKA. However, to obtain incidence data in children, prospective studies are necessary.

Management of decompensated diabetes. Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome

DKA and HHS represent two extremes in the spectrum of decompensated diabetes mellitus. Their pathogenesis is related to absolute or relative deficiency in insulin levels and elevations in insulin counterregulatory hormones that lead to altered metabolism of carbohydrate, protein, and fat and varying degrees of osmotic diuresis and dehydration, ketosis, and acidosis. In DKA, insulin deficiency and ketoacidosis are the prominent features of the clinical presentation, and insulin therapy is the cornerstone of therapy. In HHS, hyperglycemia, osmotic diuresis, and dehydration are the prominent features, and fluid replacement is the cornerstone of therapy. As many as one-third of patients may have mixed features of both DKA and HHS. Because the three-pronged approach to therapy for either DKA or HHS consists of fluid administration, intravenous insulin infusion, and electrolyte replacement, mixed cases are managed using the same approach. The therapeutic regimen is tailored according to the prominent clinical features present. In adult patients with mixed features, fluids may be administered more rapidly than they would be in younger patients, or in patients with DKA alone, because the risk for fatal cerebral edema in adults is low and the consequences of undertreatment include vascular occlusion and increased mortality. In younger patients with mixed features, rapid correction of metabolic abnormalities and, consequently, of hyperosmolarity by administration of hypotonic fluids and insulin should be avoided to decrease the risk for precipitating cerebral edema. In addition, if ketoacidosis has been a prominent feature in a mixed case, the patient may have type 1 diabetes with no residual pancreatic islet beta cell secretion and may subsequently need ongoing, life-long insulin therapy after resolution of the acute episode of decompensated diabetes. ICU admission is indicated in the management of DKA, HHS, and mixed cases in the presence of cardiovascular instability, inability to protect the airway, obtundation, the presence of acute abdominal signs or symptoms suggestive of acute gastric dilatation, or if there is not adequate capacity on the floor unit to administer the intravenous insulin infusion and to provide the frequent and necessary monitoring that must accompany its use.

Acute pediatric rhabdomyolysis

Rhabdomyolysis is a relatively common condition that may occur intermittently in chronic and inflammatory myopathy, muscular dystrophy, and metabolic myopathy. Rhabdomyolysis can also present acutely in otherwise healthy individuals. The list of etiologies for acute muscle cell lysis is enormous, with new causes described yearly. Series on acute pediatric rhabdomyolysis have not yet been published. This article describes a retrospective review of children admitted to the authors' institution during an 8-year period in whom rhabdomyolysis was recognized as a complication during their hospital stay. Patients with intermittent or relapsing rhabdomyolysis were excluded. Nineteen children were identified. Trauma (five cases), nonketotic hyperosmolar coma (two cases), viral myositis (two cases), dystonia (two cases), and malignant hyperthermia-related conditions (two cases) were the most common causes of rhabdomyolysis. Acute renal failure was the most frequent complication, occurring in 42% of cases. The mean age of renal failure patients was 13.9 years, compared to 8 years for non-renal failure children. Careful assessment of the initial urinalysis would have suggested a diagnosis of rhabdomyolysis in 9 of 16 patients tested.