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Natesan K, Isloor S, Vinayagamurthy B, Ramakrishnaiah S, Doddamane R, Fooks AR. Developments in Rabies Vaccines: The Path Traversed from Pasteur to the Modern Era of Immunization. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:vaccines11040756. [PMID: 37112668 PMCID: PMC10147034 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11040756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a disease of antiquity and has a history spanning millennia ever since the first interactions between humans and dogs. The alarming fatalities caused by this disease have triggered rabies prevention strategies since the first century BC. There have been numerous attempts over the past 100 years to develop rabies vaccineswith the goal of preventing rabies in both humans and animals. Thepre-Pasteurian vaccinologists, paved the way for the actual history of rabies vaccines with the development of first generation vaccines. Further improvements for less reactive and more immunogenic vaccines have led to the expansion of embryo vaccines, tissue culture vaccines, cell culture vaccines, modified live vaccines, inactivated vaccines, and adjuvanted vaccines. The adventof recombinant technology and reverse genetics have given insight into the rabies viral genome and facilitated genome manipulations, which in turn led to the emergence of next-generation rabies vaccines, such as recombinant vaccines, viral vector vaccines, genetically modified vaccines, and nucleic acid vaccines. These vaccines were very helpful in overcoming the drawbacks of conventional rabies vaccines with increased immunogenicity and clinical efficacies. The path traversed in the development of rabies vaccines from Pasteur to the modern era vaccines, though, faced numerous challenges;these pioneering works have formed the cornerstone for the generation of thecurrent successful vaccines to prevent rabies. In the future, advancements in the scientific technologies and research focus will definitely lay the path for much more sophisticated vaccine candidates for rabies elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krithiga Natesan
- KVAFSU-CVA Rabies Diagnostic Laboratory, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Veterinary College, KVAFSU, Hebbal, Bengaluru 560024, Karnataka, India
| | - Shrikrishna Isloor
- KVAFSU-CVA Rabies Diagnostic Laboratory, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Veterinary College, KVAFSU, Hebbal, Bengaluru 560024, Karnataka, India
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +91-9449992287
| | | | - Sharada Ramakrishnaiah
- KVAFSU-CVA Rabies Diagnostic Laboratory, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Veterinary College, KVAFSU, Hebbal, Bengaluru 560024, Karnataka, India
| | - Rathnamma Doddamane
- KVAFSU-CVA Rabies Diagnostic Laboratory, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Veterinary College, KVAFSU, Hebbal, Bengaluru 560024, Karnataka, India
| | - Anthony R. Fooks
- APHA Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
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Embregts CWE, Rigaudeau D, Tacchi L, Pijlman GP, Kampers L, Veselý T, Pokorová D, Boudinot P, Wiegertjes GF, Forlenza M. Vaccination of carp against SVCV with an oral DNA vaccine or an insect cells-based subunit vaccine. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 85:66-77. [PMID: 29567136 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 03/11/2018] [Accepted: 03/17/2018] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
We recently reported on a successful vaccine for carp against SVCV based on the intramuscular injection of a DNA plasmid encoding the SVCV glycoprotein (SVCV-G). This shows that the intramuscular (i.m.) route of vaccination is suitable to trigger protective responses against SVCV, and that the SVCV G-protein is a suitable vaccine antigen. Yet, despite the general success of DNA vaccines, especially against fish rhabdoviruses, their practical implementation still faces legislative as well as consumer's acceptance concerns. Furthermore, the i.m. route of plasmid administration is not easily combined with most of the current vaccination regimes largely based on intraperitoneal or immersion vaccination. For this reason, in the current study we evaluated possible alternatives to a DNA-based i.m. injectable vaccine using the SVCV-G protein as the vaccine antigen. To this end, we tested two parallel approaches: the first based on the optimization of an alginate encapsulation method for oral delivery of DNA and protein antigens; the second based on the baculovirus recombinant expression of transmembrane SVCV-G protein in insect cells, administered as whole-cell subunit vaccine through the oral and injection route. In addition, in the case of the oral DNA vaccine, we also investigated the potential benefits of the mucosal adjuvants Escherichia coli lymphotoxin subunit B (LTB). Despite the use of various vaccine types, doses, regimes, and administration routes, no protection was observed, contrary to the full protection obtained with our reference i.m. DNA vaccine. The limited protection observed under the various conditions used in this study, the nature of the host, of the pathogen, the type of vaccine and encapsulation method, will therefore be discussed in details to provide an outlook for future vaccination strategies against SVCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- C W E Embregts
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
| | - D Rigaudeau
- INRA, Infectiologie Expérimentale Rongeurs Poissons, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - L Tacchi
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
| | - G P Pijlman
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
| | - L Kampers
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
| | - T Veselý
- Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - D Pokorová
- Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - P Boudinot
- INRA, Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - G F Wiegertjes
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
| | - M Forlenza
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Wageningen University, The Netherlands.
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3
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Rabies vaccine development by expression of recombinant viral glycoprotein. Arch Virol 2016; 162:323-332. [PMID: 27796547 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-016-3128-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The rabies virus envelope glycoprotein (RVGP) is the main antigen of rabies virus and is the only viral component present in all new rabies vaccines being proposed. Many approaches have been taken since DNA recombinant technology became available to express an immunogenic recombinant rabies virus glycoprotein (rRVGP). These attempts are reviewed here, and the relevant results are discussed with respect to the general characteristics of the rRVGP, the expression system used, the expression levels achieved, the similarity of the rRVGP to the native glycoprotein, and the immunogenicity of the vaccine preparation. The most recent studies of rabies vaccine development have concentrated on in vivo expression of rRVGP by viral vector transduction, serving as the biotechnological basis for a new generation of rabies vaccines.
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Zhu S, Guo C. Rabies Control and Treatment: From Prophylaxis to Strategies with Curative Potential. Viruses 2016; 8:v8110279. [PMID: 27801824 PMCID: PMC5127009 DOI: 10.3390/v8110279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2016] [Revised: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is an acute, fatal, neurological disease that affects almost all kinds of mammals. Vaccination (using an inactivated rabies vaccine), combined with administration of rabies immune globulin, is the only approved, effective method for post-exposure prophylaxis against rabies in humans. In the search for novel rabies control and treatment strategies, live-attenuated viruses have recently emerged as a practical and promising approach for immunizing and controlling rabies. Unlike the conventional, inactivated rabies vaccine, live-attenuated viruses are genetically modified viruses that are able to replicate in an inoculated recipient without causing adverse effects, while still eliciting robust and effective immune responses against rabies virus infection. A number of viruses with an intrinsic capacity that could be used as putative candidates for live-attenuated rabies vaccine have been intensively evaluated for therapeutic purposes. Additional novel strategies, such as a monoclonal antibody-based approach, nucleic acid-based vaccines, or small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) interfering with virus replication, could further add to the arena of strategies to combat rabies. In this review, we highlight current advances in rabies therapy and discuss the role that they might have in the future of rabies treatment. Given the pronounced and complex impact of rabies on a patient, a combination of these novel modalities has the potential to achieve maximal anti-rabies efficacy, or may even have promising curative effects in the future. However, several hurdles regarding clinical safety considerations and public awareness should be overcome before these approaches can ultimately become clinically relevant therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shimao Zhu
- Shenzhen Weiguang Biological Products Co., Ltd., Shenzhen 518107, China.
| | - Caiping Guo
- Shenzhen Weiguang Biological Products Co., Ltd., Shenzhen 518107, China.
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Koraka P, Bosch BJ, Cox M, Chubet R, Amerongen GV, Lövgren-Bengtsson K, Martina BEE, Roose J, Rottier PJM, Osterhaus ADME. A recombinant rabies vaccine expressing the trimeric form of the glycoprotein confers enhanced immunogenicity and protection in outbred mice. Vaccine 2014; 32:4644-50. [PMID: 24962755 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.06.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/11/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Rabies is a disease characterized by an invariably lethal encephalitis of viral origin that can be controlled by preventive vaccination programs of wildlife, domestic animals and humans in areas with a high risk of exposure. Currently available vaccines are expensive, cumbersome to produce and require intensive immunization and booster schemes to induce and maintain protective immunity. In the present study, we describe the development of candidate recombinant subunit rabies vaccines based on the glycoprotein G of the prototype rabies virus (RABV-G) expressed either as a monomer (RABV-mG) or in its native trimeric configuration (RABV-tG), with or without Matrix-M™ adjuvant. Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of the respective candidate vaccines were tested in outbred NIH Swiss albino mice. The RABV-tG candidate vaccine proved to be superior to the RABV-mG vaccine candidate both in terms of immunogenicity and efficacy. The relatively poor immunogenicity of the RABV-mG vaccine candidate was greatly improved by the addition of the adjuvant. A single, low dose of RABV-tG in combination with Matrix-M™ induced high levels of high avidity neutralizing antibodies and protected all mice against challenge with a lethal dose of RABV. Consequently RABV-tG used in combination with Matrix-M™ is a promising vaccine candidate that overcomes the limitations of currently used vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penelope Koraka
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam The Netherlands.
| | - Berend-Jan Bosch
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases & Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3508TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Manon Cox
- Protein Sciences Corp, 1000 Research Parkway, Meriden, CT 06450-7159, USA
| | - Rick Chubet
- Protein Sciences Corp, 1000 Research Parkway, Meriden, CT 06450-7159, USA
| | - Geert van Amerongen
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam The Netherlands; Institute for Translational Immunology, PO Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | | | - Byron E E Martina
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam The Netherlands
| | - Jouke Roose
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam The Netherlands
| | - Peter J M Rottier
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases & Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3508TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Albert D M E Osterhaus
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam The Netherlands
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Hilary Koprowski, MD: A Lifetime of Work. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2014; 33:1-43. [DOI: 10.1089/mab.2014.kop.biblio] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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7
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Zhang G, Wang H, Mahmood F, Fu ZF. Rabies virus glycoprotein is an important determinant for the induction of innate immune responses and the pathogenic mechanisms. Vet Microbiol 2013; 162:601-613. [PMID: 23265241 PMCID: PMC3568536 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2012] [Revised: 11/20/2012] [Accepted: 11/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Our previous studies have suggested that street and fixed rabies viruses (RABVs) induce diseases in the mouse model via different mechanisms. In the present study, attempts were made to determine if it is the glycoprotein (G) that is responsible for the observed differences in the pathogenic mechanisms. To this end, an infectious clone from fixed virus B2c was established and used as a backbone for exchange of the G from street viruses. The rate of viral replication, expression of viral proteins, and the induction of innate immune responses were compared in cells or in mice infected with each of the viruses. Furthermore, the infiltration of inflammatory cells into the CNS and the enhancement of blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability were also compared. It was found that fixed viruses induced stronger innate immune responses (expression of chemokines, infiltration of inflammatory cells, and enhancement of BBB permeability) than street RABV or recombinant viruses expressing the G from street RABVs. Fixed viruses induce disease via an immune-mediated pathogenic mechanism while street viruses or recombinant viruses expressing the G from street RABVs induce diseases via a mechanism other than immune-mediated pathogenesis. Therefore, RABV G is an important determinant for the induction of innate immune responses and consequently the pathogenic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoqing Zhang
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Hualei Wang
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Fazal Mahmood
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Zhen F Fu
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA; State-Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
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8
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Cox MMJ. Recombinant protein vaccines produced in insect cells. Vaccine 2012; 30:1759-66. [PMID: 22265860 PMCID: PMC7115678 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2011] [Revised: 01/02/2012] [Accepted: 01/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The baculovirus-insect cell expression system is a well known tool for the production of complex proteins. The technology is also used for commercial manufacture of various veterinary and human vaccines. This review paper provides an overview of how this technology can be applied to produce a multitude of vaccine candidates. The key advantage of this recombinant protein manufacturing platform is that a universal "plug and play" process may be used for producing a broad range of protein-based prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines for both human and veterinary use while offering the potential for low manufacturing costs. Large scale mammalian cell culture facilities previously established for the manufacturing of monoclonal antibodies that have now become obsolete due to yield improvement could be deployed for the manufacturing of these vaccines. Alternatively, manufacturing capacity could be established in geographic regions that do not have any vaccine production capability. Dependent on health care priorities, different vaccines could be manufactured while maintaining the ability to rapidly convert to producing pandemic influenza vaccine when the need arises.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manon M J Cox
- Protein Sciences Corporation, 1000 Research Parkway, Meriden, CT 06450, USA.
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9
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Expression and solubilization of insect cell-based rabies virus glycoprotein and assessment of its immunogenicity and protective efficacy in mice. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2011; 18:1673-9. [PMID: 21813661 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.05258-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease of serious public health and economic significance worldwide. The rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG) has been the major target for subunit vaccine development, since it harbors domains responsible for induction of virus-neutralizing antibodies, infectivity, and neurovirulence. The glycoprotein (G) was cloned using the baculovirus expression vector system (BEVS) and expressed in Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf-9) cells. In order to obtain a soluble form of G suitable for experimentation in mice, 18 different combinations of buffers and detergents were evaluated for their ability to solubilize the insect cell membrane-associated G. The combination that involved 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)-dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS) detergent in lysis buffer 1, formulated with Tris, NaCl, 10% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and EDTA, gave the highest yield of soluble G, as evidenced by the experimental data. Subsequently, several other parameters, such as the concentration of CHAPS and the duration and temperature of the treatment for the effective solubilization of G, were optimized. The CHAPS detergent, buffered at a concentration of 0.4% to 0.7% (wt/vol) at room temperature (23 to 25°C) for 30 min to 1 h using buffer 1, containing 10% DMSO, resulted in consistently high yields. The G solubilized using CHAPS detergent was found to be immunogenic when tested in mice, as evidenced by high virus-neutralizing antibody titers in sera and 100% protection upon virulent intracerebral challenge with the challenge virus standard (CVS) strain of rabies virus. The results of the mice study indicated that G solubilized with CHAPS detergent retained the immunologically relevant domains in the native conformation, thereby paving the way for producing a cell-free and efficacious subunit vaccine.
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Abstract
Rabies, the most fatal of all infectious diseases, remains a major public health problem in developing countries, claiming the lives of an estimated 55,000 people each year. Most fatal rabies cases, with more than half of them in children, result from dog bites and occur among low-income families in Southeast Asia and Africa. Safe and efficacious vaccines are available to prevent rabies. However, they have to be given repeatedly, three times for pre-exposure vaccination and four to five times for post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). In cases of severe exposure, a regimen of vaccine combined with a rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) preparation is required. The high incidence of fatal rabies is linked to a lack of knowledge on the appropriate treatment of bite wounds, lack of access to costly PEP, and failure to follow up with repeat immunizations. New, more immunogenic but less costly rabies virus vaccines are needed to reduce the toll of rabies on human lives. A preventative vaccine used for the immunization of children, especially those in high incidence countries, would be expected to lower fatality rates. Such a vaccine would have to be inexpensive, safe, and provide sustained protection, preferably after a single dose. Novel regimens are also needed for PEP to reduce the need for the already scarce and costly RIG and to reduce the number of vaccine doses to one or two. In this review, the pipeline of new rabies vaccines that are in pre-clinical testing is provided and an opinion on those that might be best suited as potential replacements for the currently used vaccines is offered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hildegund C. J. Ertl
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Kuang Y, Lackay SN, Zhao L, Fu ZF. Role of chemokines in the enhancement of BBB permeability and inflammatory infiltration after rabies virus infection. Virus Res 2009; 144:18-26. [PMID: 19720239 PMCID: PMC2760941 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2009.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2009] [Revised: 03/23/2009] [Accepted: 03/25/2009] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Induction of innate immunity, particularly through the induction of interferon and chemokines, by rabies virus (RABV) infection has been reported to be inversely correlated with pathogenicity. To further investigate the association between the expression of chemokines and RABV infection, laboratory-attenuated RABV (B2C) and wild-type (wt) RABV (DRV) were administered to Balb/c mice intramuscularly. Chemokine expression, inflammatory cell infiltration, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability were evaluated at various time points after infection. At day 3 post-infection (p.i.) there was very little inflammation in the central nervous system (CNS) and BBB permeability did not change in mice infected with either virus when compared with mock-infected mice. At 6 day p.i., infection with B2C induced the expression of inflammatory chemokines and infiltration of inflammatory cells into the CNS, while these changes were minimal in DRV-infected mice. Furthermore, infection with B2C significantly enhanced BBB permeability comparing to infection with DRV. Among the upregulated chemokines, the expression of IP-10 was best correlated with infiltration of inflammatory cells into the CNS and enhancement of BBB permeability. These data indicate that laboratory-attenuated RABV induces expression of chemokines and infiltration of inflammatory cells into the CNS. Upregulation of chemokines by B2C may have triggered the change in BBB permeability, which helps infiltration of inflammatory cells into the CNS, and thus attenuation of RABV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Kuang
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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Johal J, Gresty K, Kongsuwan K, Walker PJ. Antigenic characterization of bovine ephemeral fever rhabdovirus G and GNS glycoproteins expressed from recombinant baculoviruses. Arch Virol 2008; 153:1657-65. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-008-0164-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2008] [Accepted: 06/12/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Sarmento L, Li XQ, Howerth E, Jackson AC, Fu ZF. Glycoprotein-mediated induction of apoptosis limits the spread of attenuated rabies viruses in the central nervous system of mice. J Neurovirol 2006; 11:571-81. [PMID: 16338751 DOI: 10.1080/13550280500385310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Induction of apoptosis by rabies virus (RV) has been reported to be associated with the expression of the glycoprotein (G), but inversely correlated with pathogenicity. To further delineate the association between the expression of the G and the induction of apoptosis, recombinant RVs with replacement of only the G gene were used to infect mice by the intracerebral route. Recombinant viruses expressing the G from attenuated viruses expressed higher level of the G and induced more apoptosis in mice than recombinant RV expressing the G from wild-type (wt) or pathogenic RV, demonstrating that it is the G gene that determines the level of G expression and, consequently, the induction of apoptosis. Likewise, recombinant viruses expressing the G from wt or pathogenic RV are more pathogenic in mice than those expressing G from attenuated RV, confirming the inverse correlation between RV pathogenicity and the induction of apoptosis. To investigate the mechanism by which induction of apoptosis attenuates viral pathogenicity, mice were infected with wt or attenuated RV by the intramuscular route. It was found that low doses of attenuated RV induced apoptosis in the spinal cord and failed to spread to the brain or produce neurological disease. On the other hand, apoptosis was not observed in the spinal cord of mice infected with the same doses of wt RV and the virus spread to various parts of the brain and induced fatal neurologic disease. These results suggest that glycoprotein-mediated induction of apoptosis limits the spread of attenuated rabies viruses in the central nervous system (CNS) of mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana Sarmento
- Department of Pathology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
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14
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Abstract
The baculovirus-insect cell expression system is an approved system for the production of viral antigens with vaccine potential for humans and animals and has been used for production of subunit vaccines against parasitic diseases as well. Many candidate subunit vaccines have been expressed in this system and immunization commonly led to protective immunity against pathogen challenge. The first vaccines produced in insect cells for animal use are now on the market. This chapter deals with the tailoring of the baculovirus-insect cell expression system for vaccine production in terms of expression levels, integrity and immunogenicity of recombinant proteins, and baculovirus genome stability. Various expression strategies are discussed including chimeric, virus-like particles, baculovirus display of foreign antigens on budded virions or in occlusion bodies, and specialized baculovirus vectors with mammalian promoters that express the antigen in the immunized individual. A historical overview shows the wide variety of viral (glyco)proteins that have successfully been expressed in this system for vaccine purposes. The potential of this expression system for antiparasite vaccines is illustrated. The combination of subunit vaccines and marker tests, both based on antigens expressed in insect cells, provides a powerful tool to combat disease and to monitor infectious agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique M van Oers
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University, Binnenhaven 11 6709 PD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Attenuated rabies virus activates, while pathogenic rabies virus evades, the host innate immune responses in the central nervous system. J Virol 2005. [PMID: 16160183 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.19.12554-12565.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies virus (RV) induces encephalomyelitis in humans and animals. However, the pathogenic mechanism of rabies is not fully understood. To investigate the host responses to RV infection, we examined and compared the pathology, particularly the inflammatory responses, and the gene expression profiles in the brains of mice infected with wild-type (wt) virus silver-haired bat RV (SHBRV) or laboratory-adapted virus B2C, using a mouse genomic array (Affymetrix). Extensive inflammatory responses were observed in animals infected with the attenuated RV, but little or no inflammatory responses were found in mice infected with wt RV. Furthermore, attenuated RV induced the expression of the genes involved in the innate immune and antiviral responses, especially those related to the alpha/beta interferon (IFN-alpha/beta) signaling pathways and inflammatory chemokines. For the IFN-alpha/beta signaling pathways, many of the interferon regulatory genes, such as the signal transduction activation transducers and interferon regulatory factors, as well as the effector genes, for example, 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase and myxovirus proteins, are highly induced in mice infected with attenuated RV. However, many of these genes were not up-regulated in mice infected with wt SHBRV. The data obtained by microarray analysis were confirmed by real-time PCR. Together, these data suggest that attenuated RV activates, while pathogenic RV evades, the host innate immune and antiviral responses.
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16
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Wang ZW, Sarmento L, Wang Y, Li XQ, Dhingra V, Tseggai T, Jiang B, Fu ZF. Attenuated rabies virus activates, while pathogenic rabies virus evades, the host innate immune responses in the central nervous system. J Virol 2005; 79:12554-65. [PMID: 16160183 PMCID: PMC1211539 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.19.12554-12565.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Rabies virus (RV) induces encephalomyelitis in humans and animals. However, the pathogenic mechanism of rabies is not fully understood. To investigate the host responses to RV infection, we examined and compared the pathology, particularly the inflammatory responses, and the gene expression profiles in the brains of mice infected with wild-type (wt) virus silver-haired bat RV (SHBRV) or laboratory-adapted virus B2C, using a mouse genomic array (Affymetrix). Extensive inflammatory responses were observed in animals infected with the attenuated RV, but little or no inflammatory responses were found in mice infected with wt RV. Furthermore, attenuated RV induced the expression of the genes involved in the innate immune and antiviral responses, especially those related to the alpha/beta interferon (IFN-alpha/beta) signaling pathways and inflammatory chemokines. For the IFN-alpha/beta signaling pathways, many of the interferon regulatory genes, such as the signal transduction activation transducers and interferon regulatory factors, as well as the effector genes, for example, 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase and myxovirus proteins, are highly induced in mice infected with attenuated RV. However, many of these genes were not up-regulated in mice infected with wt SHBRV. The data obtained by microarray analysis were confirmed by real-time PCR. Together, these data suggest that attenuated RV activates, while pathogenic RV evades, the host innate immune and antiviral responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi W Wang
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, 501 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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17
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Mason HS, Chikwamba R, Santi L, Mahoney RT, Arntzen CJ. Transgenic Plants for Mucosal Vaccines. Mucosal Immunol 2005. [PMCID: PMC7150293 DOI: 10.1016/b978-012491543-5/50062-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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18
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Alanazi F, Fu ZF, Lu DR. Effective transfection of rabies DNA vaccine in cell culture using an artificial lipoprotein carrier system. Pharm Res 2004; 21:675-82. [PMID: 15139525 DOI: 10.1023/b:pham.0000022415.74531.d9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the transfection efficiency in cell culture of rabies plasmid DNA vaccine carried by a novel artificial lipoprotein system. METHODS Phospholipid nanoemulsions resembling the lipid core of natural lipoproteins were prepared. The artificial lipoprotein carrier system for DNA was constructed by assembling of the nanoemulsion (NE)-palmitoyl-poly-L-lysine (p-PLL)-rabies DNA complex. Agarose gel electrophoresis, zeta potential, and mobility measurement were conducted to determine the surface charge balance in various complex compositions. Transfection and transfection efficiency were examined by fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry, respectively. RESULTS The artificial lipoprotein system was successfully constructed and the rabies DNA vaccine was effectively transfected in glioma cell line SF-767. The amount of p-PLL incorporated into the artificial lipoprotein formulations had a significant effect on transfection efficiency. The new system also proved to be more efficient in cellular transfection of rabies DNA vaccine than the commercial lipofectamine formulation. CONCLUSIONS Effective transfection of rabies DNA vaccine in cell culture can be achieved using the novel artificial lipoprotein carrier system, and the charge balance of the NE-p-PLL-DNA complex appears an important factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fars Alanazi
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
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19
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Wu X, Gong X, Foley HD, Schnell MJ, Fu ZF. Both viral transcription and replication are reduced when the rabies virus nucleoprotein is not phosphorylated. J Virol 2002; 76:4153-61. [PMID: 11932380 PMCID: PMC155083 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.9.4153-4161.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Rabies virus nucleoprotein (N) plays vital roles in regulation of viral RNA transcription and replication by encapsidation of the nascent genomic RNA. Rabies virus N is phosphorylated, and previous studies demonstrated that mutation of the phosphorylated serine at position 389 to alanine resulted in reduction of viral transcription and/or replication of a rabies virus minigenome. In the present study, we mutated the serine (S) at position 389 to alanine (A), glycine (G), aspartic acid (D), asparagine (N), glutamic acid (E), and glutamine (Q) and examined the effects of these mutations on rabies virus transcription and replication in the minigenome. Furthermore, mutations from S to A, S to D, and S to E were also incorporated into the full-length infectious virus. Mutation of the serine to each of the other amino acids resulted in the synthesis of an unphosphorylated N and reduction of viral transcription and replication in the minigenome. Mutations from S to A and S to D also resulted in reduction of both viral transcription and replication in full-length infectious viruses. Growth curve studies indicated that production of the mutant virus with the S-to-A mutation (L16A) was as much as 10,000-fold less than that of the wild-type virus (L16). Northern blot hybridization with rabies virus gene probes revealed that the rates of viral transcription and replication were reduced by as much as 10-fold in the mutant viruses when the N was not phosphorylated. Interpretation of the data from the minigenome system and the full-length infectious virus indicates that phosphorylation of rabies virus N is necessary for replication. Further studies involving cycloheximide treatment of infected cells revealed that viral transcription was also reduced when the N was not phosphorylated. Taken together, these results provide definitive evidence that N phosphorylation plays an important role in the processes of rabies virus transcription and replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianfu Wu
- Department of Pathology, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
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20
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Yan X, Prosniak M, Curtis MT, Weiss ML, Faber M, Dietzschold B, Fu ZF. Silver-haired bat rabies virus variant does not induce apoptosis in the brain of experimentally infected mice. J Neurovirol 2001; 7:518-27. [PMID: 11704884 DOI: 10.1080/135502801753248105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
To examine whether induction of apoptosis plays a role in the pathogenesis of street rabies, we compared the distribution of viral antigens, histopathology, and the induction of apoptosis in the brain of mice infected with a street rabies virus (silver-haired bat rabies virus, SHBRV) and with a mouse-adapted laboratory rabies virus strain (challenge virus standard, CVS-24). Inflammation was identified in the meninges, but not in the parenchyma of the brain of mice infected with either CVS-24 or SHBRV. Necrosis was present in numerous cortical, hippocampal, and Purkinje neurons in CVS-24-infected mice, but only minimal necrosis was identified in mice infected with SHBRV. Likewise, extensive terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-digoxigenin nick end-labeling (TUNEL) staining was observed in the brain of mice infected with CVS-24 but little or none in the brain of mice infected with SHBRV. Rabies virus antigens were distributed similarly in the CNS infected with either virus. However, the expression of the glycoprotein (G) is more widespread and the staining of G is generally stronger in CVS- than SHBRV-infected mice, whereas the expression of rabies virus nucleoprotein (N) is similar in mice infected with either CVS or SHBRV. The positive TUNEL staining thus correlates with the high level of G expression in CVS-infected mouse brain. Northern blot hybridization revealed that the ratio between the N and G transcripts is similar in brains infected with either virus, indicating that the reduced expression of G protein is not caused by reduced transcription in SHBRV-infected animals. Taken together, these observations suggest that apoptosis is not an essential pathogenic mechanism for the outcome of a street rabies virus infection and that other pathologic processes may contribute to the profound neuronal dysfunction characteristic of street rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Yan
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, GA 30602-7388, USA
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21
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Affiliation(s)
- L Richter
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research Inc., Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
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22
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Niedrig M, Stolte N, Fuchs D, Hunsmann G, Stahl-Hennig C. Intra-nasal infection of macaques with Yellow Fever (YF) vaccine strain 17D: a novel and economical approach for YF vaccination in man. Vaccine 1999; 17:1206-10. [PMID: 10195634 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(98)00344-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Investigating new and simple application routes for YF vaccine, four groups of 4-6 rhesus monkeys were vaccinated with live attenuated 17D YF-vaccine. In two groups the vaccine was administered either as spray into the oral cavity, or as an encapsulated form directly into the stomach. Only one out of eight animals developed a humoral immune response against 17D. In the third group receiving the vaccine intranasally by spray and in the fourth group serving as control all ten monkeys developed an immune response. From all except one of these seroconverted monkeys virus could be detected either by virus reisolation or RT-PCR. All these animals showed a serological immune response in immunofluorescence and neutralisation test. Parallel to viremia, an increase of neopterin as an unspecified immune activation marker could be demonstrated for these animals. Intra-nasal application of 17D-vaccine seems to be a good alternative to subcutaneous immunisation in mass vaccination campaigns.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Niedrig
- Robert Koch-Institut, Berlin, Germany.
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23
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24
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Modelska A, Dietzschold B, Sleysh N, Fu ZF, Steplewski K, Hooper DC, Koprowski H, Yusibov V. Immunization against rabies with plant-derived antigen. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998; 95:2481-5. [PMID: 9482911 PMCID: PMC19382 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.95.5.2481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/19/1997] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that recombinant plant virus particles containing a chimeric peptide representing two rabies virus epitopes stimulate virus neutralizing antibody synthesis in immunized mice. We show here that mice immunized intraperitoneally or orally (by gastric intubation or by feeding on virus-infected spinach leaves) with engineered plant virus particles containing rabies antigen mount a local and systemic immune response. After the third dose of antigen, given intraperitoneally, 40% of the mice were protected against challenge infection with a lethal dose of rabies virus. Oral administration of the antigen stimulated serum IgG and IgA synthesis and ameliorated the clinical signs caused by intranasal infection with an attenuated rabies virus strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Modelska
- Biotechnology Foundation Laboratories at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
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25
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Luke CJ, Huebner RC, Kasmiersky V, Barbour AG. Oral delivery of purified lipoprotein OspA protects mice from systemic infection with Borrelia burgdorferi. Vaccine 1997; 15:739-46. [PMID: 9178476 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(97)00219-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The lipoprotein outer surface protein A (OspA) of the Lyme disease agent. Borrelia burgdorferi, has provided protection to mice and other animals against systemic infection when delivered orally as a recombinant protein in Escherichia coli, bacille Calmette. Guerin or Salmonella typhimurium. In the present study purified recombinant strain B31 OspA or outer surface protein D (OspD), another lipoprotein of B. burgdorferi, were administered either subcutaneously (s.c.) or orally without cell carrier or adjuvant to mice. In comparison to the OspD preparation, the OspA protein was 256-fold more resistant to trypsin. Whereas OspA in the suspension was in regular complexes of 17-25 nm in size, OspD formed amorphous globules of different sizes. Animals received a primary immunization and at least one booster. Mice immunized s.c. with either OspA or OspD had detectable antibodies to B. burgdorferi by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), growth inhibition assay (GIA) and immunoblot. Delivered orally, OspA but not OspD elicited a specific antibody response, including IgA, as determined by these assays. The geometric mean titre of sera from mice who received 4 micrograms of OspA orally on days 1, 2, 4, 21 and 22 was 1470 by Ig ELISA, 320 by IgA ELISA and 128 by GIA. In infectious challenge experiments with B. burgdorferi strain Sh2-2-82 (OspA+ OspD- ) inoculated intradermally at 100 x the ID 50 all eight mice immunized with the 4 micrograms dose of OspA were protected, none of the mice immunized with the 4 micrograms dose of OspD were protected (P < 0.001 by Fisher exact test). These studies indicate that the lipoprotein OspA provides protection against systemic B. burgdorferi infection when delivered orally as a purified protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Luke
- Department of Microbiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio 78284, USA
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26
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27
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Plana-Duran J, Bastons M, Rodriguez MJ, Climent I, Cortés E, Vela C, Casal I. Oral immunization of rabbits with VP60 particles confers protection against rabbit hemorrhagic disease. Arch Virol 1996; 141:1423-36. [PMID: 8856024 DOI: 10.1007/bf01718245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) causes more than 90% mortality in adult rabbits. In this study, the cDNA of the VP60 coding sequence of RHDV was cloned under the control of the polyhedrin and p10 promoters of baculovirus to be expressed in insect cells. The expression of RHDV VP60 under the control of the p10 promoter was 5-10 times higher than using the polyhedrin promoter. The p10-derived VP60 was able to assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs). RHDV VLPs were successfully used to protect rabbits against the disease even at doses as low as 0.5 micrograms when injected intramuscularly or subcutaneously. The ability to elicit an immune response was independent of the adjuvant or the route of immunization. Remarkably, oral administration of RHDV VLPs efficiently induced protecting antibodies to RHD at doses as low as 3 micrograms. The use of binary ethylenimine for the stabilization of the VLPs was decisive for eliciting a good oral immunity. This report demonstrates the potential use of these procapsids in obtaining RHD oral vaccines and opens the door to the use of these capsids for the prevention of the disease in wild animals. Therefore, a new, and potentially important application of recombinant VLPs in the induction of protective immunity by the oral route is foreseen.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Plana-Duran
- Laboratorios Sobrino-Cyanamid, Vall de Bianya, Madrid, Spain
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28
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McGarvey PB, Hammond J, Dienelt MM, Hooper DC, Fu ZF, Dietzschold B, Koprowski H, Michaels FH. Expression of the rabies virus glycoprotein in transgenic tomatoes. BIO/TECHNOLOGY (NATURE PUBLISHING COMPANY) 1995; 13:1484-7. [PMID: 9636308 DOI: 10.1038/nbt1295-1484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We have engineered tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill var. UC82b) to express a gene for the glycoprotein (G-protein), which coats the outer surface of the rabies virus. The recombinant constructs contained the G-protein gene from the ERA strain of rabies virus, including the signal peptide, under the control of the 35S promoter of cauliflower mosaic virus. Plants were transformed by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of cotyledons and tissue culture on selective media. PCR confirmed the presence of the G-protein gene in plants surviving selection. Northern blot analysis indicated that RNA of the appropriate molecular weight was produced in both leaves and fruit of the transgenic plants. The recombinant G-protein was immunoprecipitated and detected by Western blot from leaves and fruit using different antisera. The G-protein expressed in tomato appeared as two distinct bands with apparent molecular mass of 62 and 60 kDa as compared to the 66 kDa observed for G-protein from virus grown in BHK cells. Electron microscopy of leaf tissue using immunogold-labeling and antisera specific for rabies G-protein showed localization of the G-protein to the Golgi bodies, vesicles, plasmalemma and cell walls of vascular parenchyma cells. In light of our previous demonstration that orally administered rabies G-protein from the same ERA strain elicits protective immunity in animals, these transgenic plants should provide a valuable tool for the development of edible oral vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- P B McGarvey
- Thomas Jefferson University, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
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29
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Wilkerson JA. Rabies: epidemiology, diagnosis, prevention, and prospects for worldwide control. Wilderness Environ Med 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/s1080-6032(13)80009-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Santiago N, Haas S, Baughman RA. Vehicles for oral immunization. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 1995; 6:413-38. [PMID: 7551228 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-1823-5_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- N Santiago
- Emisphere Technologies, Inc., Hawthorne, New York 10532, USA
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32
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Hooper DC, Pierard I, Modelska A, Otvos L, Fu ZF, Koprowski H, Dietzschold B. Rabies ribonucleocapsid as an oral immunogen and immunological enhancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1994; 91:10908-12. [PMID: 7971982 PMCID: PMC45135 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.91.23.10908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The administration of rabies ribonucleocapsid (RNP) by oral as well as parenteral routes was found to prime specific T cells and elicit N-protein-specific antibodies. per os and intramuscular immunization led to the production of antibodies of the IgA and IgG isotypes, respectively. Mice primed orally with RNP produced significantly enhanced amounts of virus-neutralizing antibody, compared with non-immune controls, upon subsequent parenteral booster immunization with inactivated rabies virus. Thus oral immunization with rabies RNP primed cells capable of mediating a secondary systemic response to rabies virus. The results of experiments in which peptide and protein antigens were administered either physically coupled to or mixed with RNP indicate that RNP has an inherent capacity to enhance immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- D C Hooper
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107-6799
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Rupprecht CE, Shankar V, Hanlon CA, Hamir A, Koprowski H. Beyond Pasteur to 2001: future trends in lyssavirus research? Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1994; 187:325-40. [PMID: 7859497 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-78490-3_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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