1
|
DeFrancesco-Lisowitz A, Lindborg JA, Niemi JP, Zigmond RE. The neuroimmunology of degeneration and regeneration in the peripheral nervous system. Neuroscience 2015; 302:174-203. [PMID: 25242643 PMCID: PMC4366367 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Revised: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Peripheral nerves regenerate following injury due to the effective activation of the intrinsic growth capacity of the neurons and the formation of a permissive pathway for outgrowth due to Wallerian degeneration (WD). WD and subsequent regeneration are significantly influenced by various immune cells and the cytokines they secrete. Although macrophages have long been known to play a vital role in the degenerative process, recent work has pointed to their importance in influencing the regenerative capacity of peripheral neurons. In this review, we focus on the various immune cells, cytokines, and chemokines that make regeneration possible in the peripheral nervous system, with specific attention placed on the role macrophages play in this process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - J A Lindborg
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4975
| | - J P Niemi
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4975
| | - R E Zigmond
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4975
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
A critical role for macrophages near axotomized neuronal cell bodies in stimulating nerve regeneration. J Neurosci 2013; 33:16236-48. [PMID: 24107955 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3319-12.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages have been implicated in peripheral nerve regeneration for some time, supposedly through their involvement in Wallerian degeneration, the process by which the distal nerve degenerates after axotomy and is cleared by phagocytosis. Thus, in several studies in which macrophage accumulation in the distal nerve was reduced and Wallerian degeneration inhibited, regeneration was delayed. However, this interpretation ignores the more recent findings that macrophages also accumulate around axotomized cell bodies. The function of macrophage action at this second site has not been clear. In two mutant strains of mice, the slow Wallerian degeneration (Wld(s)) mouse and the chemokine receptor CCR2 knock-out mouse, we report that macrophage accumulation after axotomy was abolished in both the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and the distal sciatic nerve. To measure neurite outgrowth, DRG neurons were given a conditioning lesion, and outgrowth was measured in vitro 7 d later in the absence of the distal nerve segment. The increased growth normally seen after a conditioning lesion did not occur or was reduced in Wld(s) or CCR2(-/-) mice. In the superior cervical ganglion (SCG), particularly in Wld(s) mice, macrophage accumulation was reduced but not abolished after axotomy. In SCG neurons from Wld(s) mice, the conditioning lesion response was unchanged; however, in CCR2(-/-) mice in which the effect on macrophage accumulation was greater, SCG neurite outgrowth was significantly reduced. These results indicate that macrophages affect neurite outgrowth by acting at the level of peripheral ganglia in addition to any effects they might produce by facilitation of Wallerian degeneration.
Collapse
|
3
|
Cytokines that promote nerve regeneration. Exp Neurol 2012; 238:101-6. [PMID: 22981450 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2012] [Revised: 08/01/2012] [Accepted: 08/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
4
|
Shoemaker SE, Sachs HH, Vaccariello SA, Zigmond RE. Reduction in nerve growth factor availability leads to a conditioning lesion-like effect in sympathetic neurons. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 66:1322-37. [PMID: 16967509 DOI: 10.1002/neu.20297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Axotomized peripheral neurons are capable of regeneration, and the rate of regeneration can be enhanced by a conditioning lesion (i.e., a lesion prior to the lesion after which neurite outgrowth is measured). A possible signal that could trigger the conditioning lesion effect is the reduction in availability of a target-derived factor resulting from the disconnection of a neuron from its target tissue. We tested this hypothesis with respect to nerve growth factor (NGF) and sympathetic neurons by administering an antiserum to NGF to adult mice for 7 days prior to explantation or dissociation of the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) and subsequently measuring neurite outgrowth. The antiserum treatment dramatically lowered the concentration of NGF in the SCG and increased the rate of neurite outgrowth in both explants and cell cultures. The increase in neurite outgrowth was similar in magnitude to that seen after a conditioning lesion. To determine if exogenous NGF could block the effect of a conditioning lesion, mice were injected with NGF or cytochrome C immediately prior to unilateral axotomy of the SCG, and for 7 days thereafter. A conditioning lesion effect of similar magnitude was seen in NGF-treated and control animals. While NGF treatment increased NGF levels in the contralateral control ganglion, it did not significantly elevate levels in the axotomized ganglion. The results suggest that the decreased availability of NGF after axotomy is a sufficient stimulus to induce the conditioning lesion effect in sympathetic neurons. While NGF administration did not prevent the conditioning lesion effect, this may be due to the markedly decreased ability of sympathetic neurons to accumulate the growth factor after axotomy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S E Shoemaker
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106-4975, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Shoemaker SE, Sachs HH, Vaccariello SA, Zigmond RE. A conditioning lesion enhances sympathetic neurite outgrowth. Exp Neurol 2005; 194:432-43. [PMID: 16022869 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2005.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2004] [Revised: 02/22/2005] [Accepted: 02/25/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Axonal regeneration can be influenced by a conditioning lesion (an axonal injury made prior to a second test lesion). Previously, sympathetic neurons in vivo were shown to respond to a conditioning lesion with decreased neurite outgrowth, in contrast to the enhanced outgrowth observed in all other peripheral neurons examined. The present experiments tested the effects of a conditioning lesion on neurite outgrowth in vitro from the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) and the impact of several factors on that response. Ganglia axotomized 1 week earlier and then explanted in Matrigel or collagen gel responded with a significant increase in neurite extension compared to sham-operated ganglia. A distal axotomy produced by unilateral removal of the salivary glands (sialectomy) caused an increase in neurite outgrowth similar to that of a proximal axotomy. These conditioning lesions induced both an increase in the rate of elongation, and, in the case of the proximally axotomized SCG, a shorter initial delay of outgrowth. The enhanced outgrowth following sialectomy was specific to the nerve containing the majority of axons projecting to the salivary glands, suggesting that the conditioning lesion effect is restricted to previously injured neurons. Deletion of the gene for leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), a gene induced by axotomy, did not abolish the conditioning lesion effect in SCG explants or dissociated cell cultures. In conclusion, sympathetic neurons are capable of responding to a conditioning lesion with increased neurite outgrowth. The hypothesis that the neuronal cell body response to axotomy plays an important role in the conditioning lesion response is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S E Shoemaker
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106-4975, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ohka S, Matsuda N, Tohyama K, Oda T, Morikawa M, Kuge S, Nomoto A. Receptor (CD155)-dependent endocytosis of poliovirus and retrograde axonal transport of the endosome. J Virol 2004; 78:7186-98. [PMID: 15194795 PMCID: PMC421661 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.13.7186-7198.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2003] [Accepted: 02/18/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Poliovirus (PV), when injected intramuscularly into the calf, is incorporated into the sciatic nerve and causes an initial paralysis of the inoculated limb in transgenic mice carrying the human PV receptor (hPVR/CD155) gene. Here, we demonstrated by using an immunoelectron microscope that PV particles exist on vesicle structures in nerve terminals of neuromuscular junctions. We also demonstrated in glutathione S-transferase pull-down experiments that the dynein light chain, Tctex-1, interacts directly with the cytoplasmic domain of hPVR. In the axons of differentiated rat PC12 cells transfected with expression vectors for hPVRs, vesicles composed of PV and hPVR alpha, as well as a mutant hPVR alpha (hPVRM alpha) that had a reduced ability to bind Tctex-1, colocalized with Tctex-1. However, vesicles containing PV, dextran, and hPVR alpha had only retrograde motion, while those containing PV, dextran, and hPVRM alpha had anterograde or retrograde motion. Topical application of the antimicrotubule agent vinblastine to the sciatic nerve reduced the amount of virus transported from the calf to the spinal cord. These results suggest that direct efficient interaction between the cytoplasmic domain and Tctex-1 is essential for the efficient retrograde transport of PV-containing vesicles along microtubules in vivo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seii Ohka
- Department of Microbiology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) appears as a key player at both central and peripheral terminals in early degenerative pathology and pain behavior after peripheral nerve injury. Recent studies suggest that TNF may be axonally transported and thereby contribute to these central and peripheral actions. To characterize this transport, we used a double ligation (DL) procedure that distinguishes between anterograde and retrograde flow to visualize the axonal transport of endogenous TNF compared with the neurotrophin nerve growth factor (NGF) and to the neuropeptide calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP). In the intact nerve, TNF and CGRP immunoreactivity predominantly accumulated proximal to the DL (anterograde transport), whereas NGF displayed exclusive retrograde transport. At 20 hr after chronic constrictive injury (CCI), the anterograde transport of TNF and CGRP to the nerve injury site was dramatically increased. The results were corroborated by the analysis of axonal transport of exogenously applied 125I-TNF and 125I-NGF. After intraneural injection, 125I-TNF accumulated proximally to a DL, suggesting anterograde transport. In the unligated nerve, 125I-TNF was specifically transported anterogradely to the innervated muscle but not to skin. After CCI, 125I-TNF accumulated proximally to the peripheral nerve injury site, and endogenous TNF was exclusively increased in medium-sized and large dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, suggesting that DRG neurons are a major contributing source of increased TNF traffic in the injured sciatic nerve. Our results suggest that anterograde transport of TNF plays a major role in the early neuronal response to peripheral nerve injury at sites distal to the cell body.
Collapse
|
8
|
Widerberg A, Kanje M, Dahlin LB. C-terminal flanking peptide of neuropeptide Y in DRG following nerve compression. Neuroreport 2001; 12:3193-6. [PMID: 11711854 DOI: 10.1097/00001756-200110290-00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The C-terminal flanking peptide of neuropeptide Y (CPON) was studied in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) by immunocytochemistry after different recovery periods (3, 6,14 and 28 days) following tourniquet compression of the rat hindlimb (sciatic nerve; 150 or 300 mmHg; 2 h). Compression induced a transient increase in the number of CPON-positive DRG-neurons (the contralateral uninjured side was devoid of CPON-positive cells). The compression-induced increase in CPON was less than that observed in separate rats subjected to sciatic nerve transection. The results show that compression induces regenerative changes in peripheral neurons and that such an injury of the nerve trunk is not limited to the site of the compression but results in the activation of the entire neuron.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Widerberg
- Department of Hand Surgery, Malmö University Hospital, SE-205 02 Malmö, Sweden
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Megighian A, Germinario E, Rossini K, Midrio M, Danieli-Betto D. Nerve control of type 2A MHC isoform expression in regenerating slow skeletal muscle. Muscle Nerve 2001; 24:47-53. [PMID: 11150965 DOI: 10.1002/1097-4598(200101)24:1<47::aid-mus5>3.0.co;2-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Bupivacaine-induced regeneration was studied in rat soleus muscle under several conditions, with the focus on type 2A and type 1 myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform expression. In denervated muscles, type 1 was absent, whereas type 2A was widely expressed, a pattern of regeneration which appeared to be independent of fibrillation activity of the muscle. Both type 1 and type 2A isoforms were absent in muscles regenerated during tetrodotoxin (TTX) block of impulse conduction in the sciatic nerve, but type 2A was still present when the TTX block was associated with the vinblastine block of axoplasmic flow; vinblastine block alone caused the coexpression of type 1 and type 2A isoforms in the majority of fibers. These results suggest that axoplasmic flow carries some chemical factor that inhibits 2A MHC isoform expression. The results are also of clinical interest, contributing to the understanding of factors controlling muscle differentiation and adaptation.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Anesthetics, Local/pharmacology
- Animals
- Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic/pharmacology
- Axonal Transport/drug effects
- Bupivacaine/pharmacology
- Electrophoresis, Polyacrylamide Gel
- Fasciculation/drug therapy
- Female
- Immunohistochemistry
- Male
- Muscle Denervation
- Muscle Fibers, Slow-Twitch/drug effects
- Muscle Fibers, Slow-Twitch/metabolism
- Muscle Fibers, Slow-Twitch/pathology
- Muscle, Skeletal/drug effects
- Muscle, Skeletal/innervation
- Muscle, Skeletal/metabolism
- Muscle, Skeletal/pathology
- Myosin Heavy Chains/biosynthesis
- Procainamide/pharmacology
- Protein Isoforms
- Rats
- Rats, Wistar
- Regeneration/drug effects
- Regeneration/physiology
- Sciatic Nerve/drug effects
- Sciatic Nerve/physiology
- Sciatic Nerve/ultrastructure
- Tetrodotoxin/pharmacology
- Vinblastine/pharmacology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Megighian
- Department of Human Anatomy and Physiology, Section of Physiology, University of Padua, Via Marzolo 3, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
White DM. Neurotrophin-3 antisense oligonucleotide attenuates nerve injury-induced Abeta-fibre sprouting. Brain Res 2000; 885:79-86. [PMID: 11121532 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(00)02940-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
It is proposed that following peripheral nerve injury abnormal sprouting of Abeta-fibre primary afferent neurons in the spinal cord contributes to the allodynia that often occurs with such injury. Allodynia is characterized as pain due to a stimulus which is normally non-noxious. Our recent in vivo experiments show that intrathecal administration of neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), in normal animals, induces allodynia and sprouting of Abeta-fibres. In this study, we examine whether intrathecal administration of NT-3 antisense oligonucleotides (50 microM), via an osmotic pump for 14 days, attenuates nerve injury-induced sprouting and allodynia. The oligonucleotides used in this study were phosphorothioate modified and control experiments, using an ELISA, confirm that intrathecal administration of the antisense induces a significant decrease in NT-3 levels in the spinal cord. All surgery was conducted on anaesthetized Wistar rats (sodium pentobarbitone, i.p. 50 mg/kg). Consistent with previous studies, transganglionic labelling of Abeta-fibres with choleragenoid-horseradish peroxidase (C-HRP) shows that complete transection of the sciatic nerve induces an expansion of C-HRP label into lamina II of the spinal dorsal horn. Using image analysis, we find that intrathecal administration of NT-3 antisense attenuates the density of C-HRP labelling in lamina II in nerve injured animals. A NT-3 sense oligonucleotide (50 microM) has no effect. To test the effect of NT-3 antisense on allodynia, the nociceptive flexion reflex is examined, using an Ugo Basile Analgesymeter, in animals with partial sciatic nerve ligation. Intrathecal administration of 50 microM NT-3 antisense significantly attenuates nerve injury-induced allodynia, whereas the sense oligonucleotide has no effect. These results provide further evidence that endogenous NT-3 contributes to both nerve injury-induced Abeta-fibre sprouting and allodynia and demonstrates the potential of neurotrophin-3 antisense oligonucleotides as therapeutic agents for neuropathic pain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D M White
- Department of Anaesthesia and Pain Management, University of Sydney, Royal North Shore Hospital, N.S.W. 2065, St. Leonards, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Zhou XF, Deng YS, Xian CJ, Zhong JH. Neurotrophins from dorsal root ganglia trigger allodynia after spinal nerve injury in rats. Eur J Neurosci 2000; 12:100-5. [PMID: 10651864 DOI: 10.1046/j.1460-9568.2000.00884.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Injury to peripheral nerves often results in chronic pain which is difficult to relieve. The mechanism underlying the pain syndrome remains largely unknown. In previous studies we showed that neurotrophins are up-regulated in satellite cells around sensory neurons following sciatic nerve lesion. In the present study, we have examined whether the neurotrophins in the dorsal root ganglia play any role in allodynia after nerve injury. Antibodies to different neurotrophins, directly delivered to injured dorsal root ganglia, significantly reduced (with different time sequences) the percentage of foot withdrawal responses evoked by von Frey hairs. The antibodies to nerve growth factor acted during the early phase but antibodies to neurotrophin-3 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor were effective during the later phase. Exogenous nerve growth factor or brain-derived neurotrophic factor, but not neurotrophin-3, directly delivered to intact dorsal root ganglia, trigger a persistent mechanical allodynia. Our results showed that neurotrophins within the dorsal root ganglia after peripheral nerve lesion are involved in the generation of allodynia at different stages. These studies provide the first evidence that ganglia-derived neurotrophins are a source of nociceptive stimuli for neuropathic pain after peripheral nerve injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- X F Zhou
- Department of Human Physiology, Flinders University of South Australia, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide 5001, Australia.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Zhou XF, Chie ET, Deng YS, Zhong JH, Xue Q, Rush RA, Xian CJ. Injured primary sensory neurons switch phenotype for brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the rat. Neuroscience 1999; 92:841-53. [PMID: 10426526 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(99)00027-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injury results in plastic changes in the dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord, and is often complicated with neuropathic pain. The mechanisms underlying these changes are not known. We have now investigated the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the dorsal root ganglia with histochemical and biochemical methods following sciatic nerve lesion in the rat. The percentage of neurons immunoreactive for brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the ipsilateral dorsal root ganglia was significantly increased as early as 24 h after the nerve lesion and the increase lasted for at least two weeks. The level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor messenger RNA was also significantly increased in the ipsibut not contralateral dorsal root ganglia. Both neurons and satellite cells in the lesioned dorsal root ganglia synthesized brain-derived neurotrophic factor messenger RNA after the nerve lesion. There was a dramatic shift in size distribution of positive neurons towards large sizes seven days after sciatic nerve lesion. Morphometric analysis and retrograde tracing studies showed that no injured neurons smaller than 600 microm2 were immunoreactive for brain-derived neurotrophic factor, whereas the majority of large injured neurons were immunoreactive in the ipsilateral dorsal root ganglia seven days postlesion. The brain-derived neurotrophic factor-immunoreactive nerve terminals in the ipsilateral spinal cord were reduced in the central region of lamina II, but increased in more medial regions or deeper into laminae III/IV. These studies indicate that sciatic nerve injury results in a differential regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in different subpopulations of sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglia. Small neurons switched off their normal synthesis of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, whereas larger ones switched to a brain-derived neurotrophic factor phenotype. The phenotypic switch may have functional implications in neuronal plasticity and generation of neuropathic pain after nerve injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- X F Zhou
- Department of Human Physiology and Centre for Neuroscience, Flinders University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|