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Aung SH, Abeyrathne EDNS, Hossain MA, Jung DY, Kim HC, Jo C, Nam KC. Comparative Quality Traits, Flavor Compounds, and Metabolite Profile of Korean Native Black Goat Meat. Food Sci Anim Resour 2023; 43:639-658. [PMID: 37483995 PMCID: PMC10359836 DOI: 10.5851/kosfa.2023.e25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Although goat meat has several health benefits than other red meats but comsumers reluctant it due to its unpleasant flavor. This study aimed to investigate the odorant of goat meat as well as compare the quality traits of meat regarding sex status. The loin meats [non-castrated male (NCM), castrated male (CM), and female (FM)] were collected and stored at 4°C in a laboratory refrigerator and analyzed on the 1st, 5th, and 8th consecutive days. The moisture content was the lowest and the protein content was highest in FM (p<0.05). Fat and ash content in NCM and FM were similar while lowest in CM. The CIE L* was significantly higher in NCM, but there were no significant differences of CIE a* and CIE b* within groups at initial day. The color intensity increased on the 5th storage day and decreased again after the 8th storage day, except in NCM. NCM displayed the highest thiobarbituric acid reactive substances value (p<0.05), whereas CM displayed a higher pH value than other groups throughout the storage period. Indole levels were the highest in NCM (0.031 mg/kg); however, skatole levels were not significant differences across all treatments (p>0.05). No significant difference was observed in the fatty acid composition between NCM and CM (p>0.05), whereas a significant difference was observed in FM (p<0.05). Most of the water-soluble metabolites showed significant differences between sexes. Overall, sex status effects on quality properties of meat and castration can improve the overall sensory acceptance by reducing goaty flavor of Korean native black goat meat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shine Htet Aung
- Department of Animal Science and
Technology, Sunchon National University, Suncheon 57922,
Korea
- Department of Zoology, Kyaukse
University, Kyaukse 05151, Myanmar
| | - Edirisinghe Dewage Nalaka Sandun Abeyrathne
- Department of Animal Science and
Technology, Sunchon National University, Suncheon 57922,
Korea
- Department of Animal Science, Uva Wellassa
University, Badulla 90000, Sri Lanka
| | - Md. Altaf Hossain
- Department of Animal Science and
Technology, Sunchon National University, Suncheon 57922,
Korea
- Department of Applied Food Science and
Nutrition, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences
University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh
| | - Doo Yeon Jung
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology,
Center for Food and Bioconvergence, and Research Institute of Agriculture
and Life Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826,
Korea
| | - Hyun Cheol Kim
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology,
Center for Food and Bioconvergence, and Research Institute of Agriculture
and Life Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826,
Korea
| | - Cheorun Jo
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology,
Center for Food and Bioconvergence, and Research Institute of Agriculture
and Life Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826,
Korea
| | - Ki-Chang Nam
- Department of Animal Science and
Technology, Sunchon National University, Suncheon 57922,
Korea
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2
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Lee YJ, Lee S, Kim DM. Translational Detection of Indole by Complementary Cell-free Protein Synthesis Assay. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:900162. [PMID: 35646868 PMCID: PMC9136167 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.900162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The information encoded in a single copy of DNA is processed into a plethora of protein molecules via the cascade of transcription and translation. Thus, the molecular process of gene expression can be considered an efficient biological amplifier from the viewpoint of synthetic biology. Cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) enables the implementation of this amplification module for in vitro analysis of important biomolecules and avoids many of the problems associated with whole cell-based approaches. Here, we developed a method to analyze indole by using a combination of enzymatic conversion of indole and amino acid-dependent CFPS. In this method, indole molecules in the assay sample are used to generate tryptophan, which is incorporated into signal-generating proteins in the subsequent cell-free synthesis reaction. The activity of cell-free synthesized proteins was successfully used to estimate the indole concentration in the assay sample. In principle, the developed method could be extended to analyses of other important bioactive compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- You Jin Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Soojin Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Dong-Myung Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, Daejeon, Korea
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3
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Shi J, Zhao D, Song S, Zhang M, Zamaratskaia G, Xu X, Zhou G, Li C. High-Meat-Protein High-Fat Diet Induced Dysbiosis of Gut Microbiota and Tryptophan Metabolism in Wistar Rats. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:6333-6346. [PMID: 32432868 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Meat-diet-induced changes in gut microbiota are often accompanied with the development of various metabolic and inflammatory disorders. The exact biochemical mechanism underlying these effects is not well elucidated. This study aims to evaluate how meat proteins in high-fat diets affect tryptophan metabolism in rats. The high-chicken-protein (HFHCH) or high-pork-protein (HFHP) diets increased levels of skatole and indole in cecal and colonic contents, feces, and subcutaneous adipose tissue. The HFHCH and HFHP diets also increased the abundance of Lactobacillus, the Family XIII AD3011 group, and Desulfovibrio in the cecum and colon, which may be involved in the production of skatole and indole. Additionally, high-meat-protein diets induced lower activity of skatole- and indole-metabolizing enzyme CYP2E1 in liver compared with low-meat-protein diets. This work highlights the negative impact of high meat proteins on physiological responses by inducing dysbiosis of gut microbiota and tryptophan metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Shi
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, Ministry of Education; Key Laboratory of Meat Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; Jiangsu Synergistic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality Control, College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, 210095 Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Di Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, Ministry of Education; Key Laboratory of Meat Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; Jiangsu Synergistic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality Control, College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, 210095 Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Shangxin Song
- School of Food Science, Nanjing Xiaozhuang University, 211171 Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Miao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, Ministry of Education; Key Laboratory of Meat Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; Jiangsu Synergistic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality Control, College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, 210095 Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Galia Zamaratskaia
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden
- South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Zatisi 728/II, 389 25 Vodnany, Czech Republic
| | - Xinglian Xu
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, Ministry of Education; Key Laboratory of Meat Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; Jiangsu Synergistic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality Control, College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, 210095 Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Guanghong Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, Ministry of Education; Key Laboratory of Meat Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; Jiangsu Synergistic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality Control, College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, 210095 Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Chunbao Li
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, Ministry of Education; Key Laboratory of Meat Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; Jiangsu Synergistic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality Control, College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, 210095 Nanjing, P. R. China
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4
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Westmacott KL, Crew AP, Doran O, Hart JP. Novel, rapid, low-cost screen-printed (bio)sensors for the direct analysis of boar taint compounds androstenone and skatole in porcine adipose tissue: Comparison with a high-resolution gas chromatographic method. Biosens Bioelectron 2019; 150:111837. [PMID: 31735622 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2019.111837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
This is the first report on the fabrication, characterisation and application of an electrochemical (bio)sensor system for the simultaneous measurement of skatole and androstenone. A biosensor for androstenone was fabricated using a Meldola's Blue modified SPCE (MB-SPCE) by depositing NADH and the enzyme 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase onto the MB-SPCE surface; samples of adipose tissue were analysed using the biosensors in conjunction with chronoamperometry. Cyclic voltammetry was used to investigate the electrochemical behaviour of skatole at a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE vs. Ag/AgCl). An oxidation peak was observed around +0.55 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) and differential pulse voltammetry was applied for quantification of skatole in adipose tissue (in-situ). Quantitative analysis was achieved using calibration plots obtained from fortified meat samples. The concentrations obtained by the electrochemical and gas chromatographic (GC) methods demonstrated a good positive correlation. The (bio)sensor system completed both measurements within 60 s, as compared to several hours for GC, and at a considerably reduced cost and complexity. Consequently, the novel (bio)sensor system should have applications for analysis of carcasses on the abattoir processing line.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Westmacott
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK
| | - A P Crew
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK
| | - O Doran
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK
| | - J P Hart
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK.
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Lucas D, Siqueira E, Haguiwara M, Azevedo S, Yotsuyanagi S, Silva T, Soto F. Effect of piglet castration with nonsurgical sterilant on the zootechnical performance and pork carcass quality. ARQ BRAS MED VET ZOO 2016. [DOI: 10.1590/1678-4162-9154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT A non-surgical sterilant (NSS) was used with the objective of assessing the zootechnical performance, carcass and meat quality, and hormone levels. 90 male piglets were selected with birthweights varying between 1.5kg to 2.0kg. The control group was constituted of 45 males castrated by the conventional surgical method, at the seventh day of age, and the treated group was constituted of 45 males castrated with NSS (active principle of zinc gluconate in the concentration of 26.2mg/mL associated to the dimethyl sulfoxide at 0.5%), with the application of the first dose on the seventh day of age and the second dose on the fourteenth day of age. The zootechnical assessments were carried out on the farm and consisted: weight gain in the periods per animal and feed conversion. The slaughter of the animals and the assessment of the carcass and meat quality and hormone levels were carried out in a slaughterhouse and the municipality of Campinas (SP). The study demonstrated that the use of NSS was a viable alternative in relation to the zootechnical performance and the carcass quality. In relation to the meat quality there was no significant difference in the majority of the assessed parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - F.R.M. Soto
- Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de São Paulo, Brazil
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6
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Wesoly R, Stefanski V, Weiler U. Influence of sampling procedure, sampling location and skin contamination on skatole and indole concentrations in adipose tissue of pigs. Meat Sci 2015; 111:85-91. [PMID: 26348413 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Skatole leads to off-odor in pork and is influenced by several factors such as sex and management conditions of pigs, but the causal relationships have not yet been clarified. In the present study, physiological skatole concentrations along the carcass were monitored and the transdermal diffusion of skatole was experimentally studied with skatole-spiked feces. Additionally, the impact of different biopsy techniques on skatole in fat and blood was studied. Monitoring of skatole along the carcass revealed higher skatole concentrations in the belly than in dorsal cuts. Topical application of spiked feces increased skatole in fat strictly at the application site. In contrast to punch biopsies, surgical biopsies significantly affected skatole and cortisol levels in blood, but not in fat. We conclude that biopsies for skatole measurements should be taken without anesthesia from the dorsal side of the animals. Fecal contaminations on the ventral side are not likely to influence overall concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffael Wesoly
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Animal Science, Department of Behavioral Physiology of Farm Animals, Garbenstrasse 17, D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Volker Stefanski
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Animal Science, Department of Behavioral Physiology of Farm Animals, Garbenstrasse 17, D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Ulrike Weiler
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Animal Science, Department of Behavioral Physiology of Farm Animals, Garbenstrasse 17, D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany.
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7
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Sørensen KM, Westley C, Goodacre R, Engelsen SB. Simultaneous quantification of the boar-taint compounds skatole and androstenone by surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and multivariate data analysis. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:7787-95. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8945-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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8
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El-Kosasy A, Hussin L, Ayad MF, Fares N. Optimization of Extraction, HPLC and Kinetic Studies for Determination of Some Food Tainting Compounds in Different Food Matrices. J Chromatogr Sci 2015; 53:1504-19. [DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bmv046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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9
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Wesoly R, Jungbluth I, Stefanski V, Weiler U. Pre-slaughter conditions influence skatole and androstenone in adipose tissue of boars. Meat Sci 2015; 99:60-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Revised: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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10
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Influence of sex and immunocastration on feed intake behavior, skatole and indole concentrations in adipose tissue of pigs. Animal 2012; 7:300-8. [PMID: 23031607 DOI: 10.1017/s175173111200167x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Feed intake behavior was studied between 9 weeks of age and slaughter in a total of 36 gilts, 32 immunocastrates, 33 surgically castrated barrows and 33 boars from 36 litters. Consequences for the concentration of substances contributing to off odor of pork (skatole, indole) were evaluated. Animals were kept in groups of 12 pigs of the same sex and treatment and fed ad libitum (13.4 MJ ME, 17% CP, 1.1% lysine). Individual feed intake behavior was recorded continuously by an electronic feeder. Immunocastration was carried out with two injections of Improvac with at least 4 weeks between both injections (1st: 12 to 17 weeks of age, 2nd: 19 to 21 weeks of age). Feed intake/day increased from an average of 0.91 ± 0.02 kg/day up to 3.15 ± 0.04 kg/day before slaughter. This increase was associated with a 50% reduction in the number of meals/day (from 15.8 ± 0.44 to 7.2 ± 0.29 meals/day). The larger meal sizes resulted from an increase in both, the duration of feed intake/meal and the feed intake rate (g/min). In addition, sex and treatment differences were observed: Feed intake in boars was lower than in all other groups due to a reduction in the number of meals/day and in the time spent feeding/day. In females, time spent feeding/day was quite similar to boars, but resulted from a higher number of meals of shorter duration. Barrows had a significantly higher feed intake because of a higher number of meals/day resulting in more time spent feeding/day. The feed intake rate was similar in boars, gilts and barrows and showed an increasing trend during the study, starting from about 15 g/min up to four times the amount. Immunocastration affected feed intake behavior severely, especially the meal size increased dramatically because of higher feed intake rate, which exceeded that of all other groups by 25% at the end of the study. The number of meals/day was not influenced by immunocastration and was almost identical to that of boars. Highest skatole concentrations were measured in fat of boars, whereas indole concentrations were higher in immunocastrates than in all other groups. In gilts and barrows, skatole concentrations were related to growth rate. Additionally, the feeding rate was an important factor explaining the variability in skatole/indole concentrations in adipose tissue. The physiological mechanisms however need further clarification.
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11
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Jaturasitha S, Pichitpantapong S, Leangwunta V, Khiaosa-ard R, Suppadit T, Kreuzer M. Increasing the Slaughter Weight of Boars: Effects on Performance and Pork Quality. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/09712119.2006.9706817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Jaturasitha
- a Department of Animal Science Faculty of Agriculture , Chiang Mai University , Chiang Mai , 50200 , Thailand
| | - S. Pichitpantapong
- a Department of Animal Science Faculty of Agriculture , Chiang Mai University , Chiang Mai , 50200 , Thailand
| | - V. Leangwunta
- a Department of Animal Science Faculty of Agriculture , Chiang Mai University , Chiang Mai , 50200 , Thailand
| | - R. Khiaosa-ard
- a Department of Animal Science Faculty of Agriculture , Chiang Mai University , Chiang Mai , 50200 , Thailand
| | - T. Suppadit
- b The Graduate Program in Environmental Management Center of Graduate Studies Development , National Institute of Development Administration , Bangkok , 10240 , Thailand
| | - M. Kreuzer
- c Institute of Animal Science Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) , ETH Centre, CH-8092 , Zurich , Switzerland
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12
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Fischer J, Elsinghorst PW, Bücking M, Tholen E, Petersen B, Wüst M. Development of a Candidate Reference Method for the Simultaneous Quantitation of the Boar Taint Compounds Androstenone, 3α-Androstenol, 3β-Androstenol, Skatole, and Indole in Pig Fat by Means of Stable Isotope Dilution Analysis–Headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction–Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2011; 83:6785-91. [DOI: 10.1021/ac201465q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jochen Fischer
- Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Bioanalytics, University of Bonn, Endenicher Allee 11-13, D-53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Paul W. Elsinghorst
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Mark Bücking
- Divison of Applied Ecology, Fraunhofer Institute, Auf dem Aberg 1, D-57392 Schmallenberg, Germany
| | - Ernst Tholen
- Institute of Animal Science, Animal Breeding and Husbandry Group, University of Bonn, Endenicher Allee 15, D-53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Brigitte Petersen
- Institute of Animal Science, Preventive Health Management, University of Bonn, Katzenburgweg 7-9, D-53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Matthias Wüst
- Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Bioanalytics, University of Bonn, Endenicher Allee 11-13, D-53115 Bonn, Germany
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Haugen JE, Brunius C, Zamaratskaia G. Review of analytical methods to measure boar taint compounds in porcine adipose tissue: the need for harmonised methods. Meat Sci 2011; 90:9-19. [PMID: 21803507 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2011.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2011] [Revised: 07/06/2011] [Accepted: 07/08/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This comprehensive review describes the analytical methods developed for quantification of the boar taint compounds skatole and androstenone in porcine adipose tissue. The following parts are considered; sampling, sample preparation, calibration and instrumentation. Additionally, method performance characteristics and level of validation of the existing methodology are discussed. It is concluded that there is a need for further validation of existing methods and need for standardisation of methodology to quantify boar taint compounds. Facing a possible near future ban of castration of male piglets would enforce further method harmonisation in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- J-E Haugen
- Nofima AS Division Food, Osloveien 1, NO-1430 Aas, Norway.
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14
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Leung MCK, Bowley KL, Squires EJ. Examination of testicular gene expression patterns in Yorkshire pigs with high and low levels of boar taint. Anim Biotechnol 2010; 21:77-87. [PMID: 20379884 DOI: 10.1080/10495390903500607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Boar taint refers to the objectionable odor and flavor in meat of some uncastrated male pigs, which is primarily due to high levels of androstenone, a steroid produced in the testis, and 3-methylindole (skatole) which is produced by bacterial degradation of tryptophan in the intestinal tract. We determined testicular gene expression patterns of Yorkshire pigs with high and low levels of boar taint using swine DNA microarrays with two-color hybridization. The microarrays contained 19486 annotated probes; the expressions of 8719 genes were detected. Fifty-three genes were significantly up-regulated in the high boar taint group and four were significantly down-regulated (p < 0.05; fold change > +/-1.55). Gene ontology (GO) analysis short-listed 11 significant GO terms (p < 0.05), most of which are associated with steroid metabolism and mitochondrial components. Comparing the results of this study with published work on Duroc and Norwegian Landrace boars,(1) eleven genes (HSB17B4, FDX1, CYP11A1, DHRS4, PRDX1, CYB5, CYP17A1, FTL, IDI1, SULT2A1, and RDH12) were over-expressed in all three breeds with a high androstenone level. The current findings confirmed a number of candidate genes identified in previous functional studies and suggest several new genes differentially expressed with different levels of boar taint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxwell C K Leung
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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15
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Lanthier F, Lou Y, Squires E. Skatole metabolism in the intact pre-pubescent male pig: The relationship between hepatic enzyme activity and skatole concentrations in plasma and fat. Livest Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.livsci.2006.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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16
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Lanthier F, Lou Y, Terner MA, Squires EJ. Characterizing developmental changes in plasma and tissue skatole concentrations in the prepubescent intact male pig. J Anim Sci 2006; 84:1699-708. [PMID: 16775053 DOI: 10.2527/jas.2005-633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The accumulation of skatole in boars to concentrations resulting in carcass taint has been associated with elevated concentrations of steroid hormones in plasma. Studying boar taint in vivo has been challenging because steroid hormones are highly variable between individual boars. However, a peak in steroid hormones occurs between 2 and 4 wk postpartum; therefore, skatole production was investigated in the prepubescent pig. Plasma concentrations of estrone sulphate, dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate, and testosterone peaked between 2 and 4 wk postpartum in intact male pigs, whereas plasma concentrations of these steroid hormones remained low or undetectable in gilts and barrows. However, plasma skatole concentration peaked in all 3 groups of animals between 2 and 3 wk postweaning. The effects of weaning time, intestinal cell turnover, and diet on tissue skatole concentrations were then investigated. Intact male piglets were weaned at 14, 21, 28, or 35 d of age. Plasma skatole concentrations were measured weekly for a period of 63 d and peaked at 17 +/- 1, 14 +/- 1, 13 +/- 1, and 10 +/- 2 d postweaning, respectively. Intestinal cell turnover, as evaluated by villous height:crypt depth ratio, was not correlated with skatole concentrations in cecal contents, suggesting that cellular debris did not constitute a gross source of tryptophan for hindgut fermentation. The inclusion of 10% chicory inulin to piglet diets suppressed the postweaning increase in plasma skatole. Cecal skatole concentrations were also 3.3-fold lower in inulin-supplemented piglets compared with controls. The rise in plasma skatole in the prepubescent intact male pig was not associated with increased steroidogenesis but is likely due to the postweaning adaptation of the intestinal flora to an abrupt dietary change.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Lanthier
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
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17
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Zamaratskaia G, Jastrebova J. Application of LC–MS for Determination of Indole and 3-Methylindole in Porcine Adipose Tissue. Chromatographia 2006. [DOI: 10.1365/s10337-006-0044-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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18
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Lösel D, Lacorn M, Büttner D, Claus R. Flavor improvement in pork from barrows and gilts via inhibition of intestinal skatole formation with resistant potato starch. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2006; 54:5990-5. [PMID: 16881706 DOI: 10.1021/jf0608017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Skatole originates from microbial processing of tryptophan in the large intestine of pigs and accumulates in adipose tissue. Formation may be inhibited by the anti-apoptotic function of butyrate formed out of raw potato starch. Two groups of pigs (each consisting of gilts and barrows) were fed from 30 to 110 kg life weight either a conventional diet (controls; n = 35) or an isocaloric diet containing 300 g of raw potato starch/kg of body weight (RS; n = 34). Skatole concentrations were measured in colon content, blood, and adipose tissue. Odor of cooked meat samples was evaluated by a test panel. RS reduced concentrations in colon content and blood plasma (P < 0.001). Back fat concentrations were decreased significantly from 25 to 1.40 ng/g (barrows; P < 0.001) and from 40 to 9 ng/g (gilts; P < 0.001). Odor rating (scale of 1-5 from very unpleasant to very pleasant) was 3.07 for low skatole concentrations and 2.66 for both medium and high skatole concentrations (P < 0.05).
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothea Lösel
- Institut für Tierhaltung und Tierzüchtung, Universität Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
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Andersen JR. Sorting criteria. Methods for on-line/at-line sorting of entire male carcasses with emphasis on the Danish method based on skatole content. Acta Vet Scand 2006. [DOI: 10.1186/1751-0147-48-s1-s14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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Chen G, Zamaratskaia G, Madej A, Lundström K. Effect of hCG administration on the relationship between testicular steroids and indolic compounds in fat and plasma in entire male pigs. Meat Sci 2006; 72:339-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2005.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2005] [Revised: 06/24/2005] [Accepted: 08/01/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Lösel D, Claus R. Dose-dependent effects of resistant potato starch in the diet on intestinal skatole formation and adipose tissue accumulation in the pig. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 52:209-12. [PMID: 15943603 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0442.2005.00716.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Resistant starch (RS) intake leads to a reduction of apoptosis in the pig colon and thus to a reduction of skatole in the carcass. To determine the minimal amount of RS which is required for the effect, diets with varying amounts (20, 30 and 40%) of RS were fed to barrows and gilts. Controls were fed instead with 55% pre-gelatinized starch. Skatole was determined after slaughter in distal colon content and in adipose tissue (flare fat and belly fat). Resistant starch led to a dose-dependent reduction of skatole in the gut content from 134 microg/g dry matter (controls) to 4.8 microg/g in the 40% group. Flare fat concentrations were decreased from 159 to 20 ng/g fat and belly fat concentrations from 64 to 16 ng/g fat. Strategies to improve sensorial quality by feeding RS continuously or for only 1 week prior to slaughter are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Lösel
- FG Tierhaltung und Leistungsphysiologie, Institut Tierhaltung und Tierzüchtung, Universität Hohenheim, Garbenstr. 17, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
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Claus R, Lösel D, Lacorn M, Mentschel J, Schenkel H. Effects of butyrate on apoptosis in the pig colon and its consequences for skatole formation and tissue accumulation. J Anim Sci 2003; 81:239-48. [PMID: 12597395 DOI: 10.2527/2003.811239x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence exists that butyrate inhibits apoptosis of colon crypt cells in vivo so that less tryptophan from cell debris is available for skatole formation by microbes in the pig colon. In this study, potato starch containing a high proportion of resistant starch was fed to test the hypothesis that increased butyrate formation will occur in the colon and contribute to reduced epithelial cell apoptosis, thus leading to reduced skatole formation and absorption. Two groups of six barrows were provided with catheters in the jugular vein and fed either a ration with pregelatinized starch (high ileal digestibility; controls) or potato starch (low ileal digestibility; PS) as the main carbohydrate. All pigs were fed 31 MJ of metabolizable energy and 381 g of crude protein per day. The controls were fed for 19 d. The PS group received the same control ration for 10 d, and then changed to the PS ration. The total feeding period of PS consisted of a 5 d adaptation period followed by another 19 d. In the continously sampled feces, pH, short chain fatty acids, and skatole were determined. Skatole was additionally measured in blood plasma that was sampled daily. After killing barrows at the end of the feeding period, fat tissue for skatole measurement and colon tissue for histological quantification of mitosis and apoptosis were obtained. Feeding potato starch led to a rapid 2.2 fold increase of fecal butyrate when compared both with the control period of the PS group and the control group (P < 0.001). PS feeding resulted in a decrease in pH from 7.3 to 5.3 (P < 0.001) and apoptosis from 2.06 cells/crypt to 0.90 cells (P < 0.01), whereas there was no change in mitosis. Consequently, skatole decreased both in feces (controls vs PS group: 120.0 vs 1.9 microg/g; P < 0.001) and in blood plasma (1.6 vs 0.2 ng/mL; P < 0.001). The mean concentration of skatole in fat tissue was 167 ng/g tissue in controls, and below the detection limit (0.8 ng/g) in the PS group (P < 0.001). It is concluded that butyrate-dependent inhibition of apoptosis in the colon due to potato starch feeding efficiently inhibits skatole production in barrows. Because of the depressed skatole levels, improved sensory quality of pork is possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Claus
- FG Tierhaltung und Leistungsphysiologie, Institut Tierhaltung und Tierztichtung, Stuttgart, Germany
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Metz C, Hohl K, Waidelich S, Drochner W, Claus R. Active immunization of boars against GnRH at an early age: consequences for testicular function, boar taint accumulation and N-retention. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0301-6226(01)00292-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Rius M, Garcı́a-Regueiro J. Skatole and indole concentrations in Longissimus dorsi and fat samples of pigs. Meat Sci 2001; 59:285-91. [DOI: 10.1016/s0309-1740(01)00081-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/1999] [Revised: 02/20/2001] [Accepted: 03/09/2001] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Bonneau M, Kempster A, Claus R, Claudi-Magnussen C, Diestre A, Tornberg E, Walstra P, Chevillon P, Weiler U, Cook G. An international study on the importance of androstenone and skatole for boar taint: I. Presentation of the programme and measurement of boar taint compounds with different analytical procedures. Meat Sci 2000; 54:251-9. [DOI: 10.1016/s0309-1740(99)00102-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/1998] [Revised: 03/05/1999] [Accepted: 04/30/1999] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Walstra P, Claudi-Magnussen C, Chevillon P, von Seth G, Diestre A, Matthews K, Homer D, Bonneau M. An international study on the importance of androstenone and skatole for boar taint: levels of androstenone and skatole by country and season. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s0301-6226(99)00054-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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ZABOLOTSKY D, CHEN L, PATTERSON J, FORREST J, LIN H, GRANT A. Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction of Androstenone and Skatole from Pork Fat. J Food Sci 1995. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1995.tb06280.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Hansen-Møller J. Rapid high-performance liquid chromatographic method for simultaneous determination of androstenone, skatole and indole in back fat from pigs. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY. B, BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 1994; 661:219-30. [PMID: 7894661 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(94)80049-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
A rapid high-performance reversed-phase liquid chromatographic method for the simultaneous quantitative determination of the main boar taint compounds androstenone, skatole (3-methylindole) and indole, in back fat from pigs has been developed. The compounds are extracted by a simple homogenisation of adipose tissue in methanol; interfering lipids are removed by precipitation after cooling and centrifugation. Androstenone is derivatized pre-column with dansylhydrazine (5 min at ambient temperature) using BF3 as catalyst. The compounds are separated on a 60 x 4.6 mm I.D., 3 microns Hypersil ODS column (Hewlett-Packard) using a step-gradient; total time for the separation is 15 min. Fluorescence is used for selective detection. The limit of quantitation for indole and skatole is 30 ng/g and for androstenone 200 ng/g back fat. The results for skatole obtained by the present method were compared with those of colorimetric method, while androstenone determinations were compared with two GC-MS methods and a RIA method. The correlations observed were in the range of 0.946-0.993. The average contents of androstenone and skatole were 640 +/- 700 and 78 +/- 113 ng/g (n = 1162 male pigs), respectively.
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