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D'Aquila PS. Dopamine, activation of ingestion and evaluation of response efficacy: a focus on the within-session time-course of licking burst number. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024; 241:1111-1124. [PMID: 38702473 PMCID: PMC11106101 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-024-06600-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
RATIONALE Evidence on the effect of dopamine D1-like and D2-like receptor antagonists on licking microstructure and the forced swimming response led us to suggest that (i) dopamine on D1-like receptors plays a role in activating reward-directed responses and (ii) the level of response activation is reboosted based on a process of evaluation of response efficacy requiring dopamine on D2-like receptors. A main piece of evidence in support of this hypothesis is the observation that the dopamine D2-like receptor antagonist raclopride induces a within-session decrement of burst number occurring after the contact with the reward. The few published studies with a detailed analysis of the time-course of this measure were conducted in our laboratory. OBJECTIVES The aim of this review is to recapitulate and discuss the evidence in support of the analysis of the within-session burst number as a behavioural substrate for the study of the mechanisms governing ingestion, behavioural activation and the related evaluation processes, and its relevance in the analysis of drug effects on ingestion. CONCLUSIONS The evidence gathered so far suggests that the analysis of the within-session time-course of burst number provides an important behavioural substrate for the study of the mechanisms governing ingestion, behavioural activation and the related evaluation processes, and might provide decisive evidence in the analysis of the effects of drugs on ingestion. However, further evidence from independent sources is necessary to validate the use and the proposed interpretation of this measure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo S D'Aquila
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Sassari, Viale S. Pietro 43/b, Sassari, 07100, Italy.
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Lewis CA, Grahlow M, Kühnel A, Derntl B, Kroemer NB. Women compared with men work harder for small rewards. Sci Rep 2023; 13:5456. [PMID: 37016145 PMCID: PMC10073246 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32391-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In cost-benefit decision-making, women and men often show different trade-offs. However, surprisingly little is known about sex differences in instrumental tasks, where physical effort is exerted to gain rewards. To this end, we tested 81 individuals (47 women) with an effort allocation task, where participants had to repeatedly press a button to collect food and money tokens. We analyzed the motivational phases of invigoration and effort maintenance with varying reward magnitude, difficulty, and reward type. Whereas women and men did not differ in invigoration, we found that women showed higher effort maintenance as well as higher subjective wanting and exertion ratings for small rewards compared with men. Notably, men increased their effort more than women for higher rewards to match women's levels of performance. Crucially, we found no sex differences depending on reward type or difficulty, indicating that sex differences were specific to the encoding of the magnitude of benefits, not costs. To summarize, women exerted higher physical effort for small rewards, which corresponded with an elevated subjective value in women compared with men. Therefore, sex differences in perceived reward magnitude may contribute to differential behavioral preferences highlighting the potential of cost-benefit decision-making to provide insights about potential mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin A Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Emotion Neuroimaging Lab, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
- International Max Planck Research School on Neuroscience of Communication: Function, Structure, and Plasticity, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Melina Grahlow
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Graduate Training Centre of Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Anne Kühnel
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bonn, Venusberg Campus 1, 53127, Bonn, Germany
| | - Birgit Derntl
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Nils B Kroemer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bonn, Venusberg Campus 1, 53127, Bonn, Germany.
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Białaszek W, Marcowski P, Mizak S. Everything Comes at a Price: Considerations in Modeling Effort-Based Choice. Behav Processes 2022; 200:104692. [PMID: 35753582 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
When observing human behavior, one of the key factors determining choice is effort. It is often assumed that people prefer an easier course of action when the alternative yields the same benefits. However, recent research demonstrates that this is not always the case: effort is not always costly and can also add value. A promising avenue to study effort-based choice is to utilize formal decision models that enable quantitative modeling. In this paper, we aim to present an overview of the current approaches to modeling effort-based choice and discuss some considerations that stem from theoretical and practical issues (present and previous) in studies on the role of effort, focusing on the connections and discrepancies between formal models and the findings from the body of empirical research. Considering that effort can, in some circumstances, act as a cost and as a benefit, reconciling these discrepancies is a practical and theoretical challenge that can ultimately lead to better predictions and increased model validity. Our review identifies and discusses these discrepancies providing direction for future empirical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Białaszek
- SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, DecisionLab: Center for Behavioral Research in Decision Making, Institute of Psychology, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Przemysław Marcowski
- SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, DecisionLab: Center for Behavioral Research in Decision Making, Institute of Psychology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Szymon Mizak
- SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, DecisionLab: Center for Behavioral Research in Decision Making, Institute of Psychology, Warsaw, Poland
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Ghanamah R, Eghbaria-Ghanamah H, Karni A, Adi-Japha E. Practice schedule and testing per se affect children's transfer abilities in a grapho-motor task. J Exp Child Psychol 2021; 215:105323. [PMID: 34864374 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2021] [Revised: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Children's ability to transfer the gains of a motor experience, such as learning to write a letter, to novel conditions, such as cursive writing of the same letter, are affected by the way in which the learning experience is parsed. Parsing may have limitations because a short session may hamper the engagement of procedural memory consolidation processes. Here, we compared the effects of two practice schedules with the total amount of practice identical training provided in a single-session practice versus multi-session practice, wherein each session on its own was insufficient for generating long-term gains. A total of 40 7- and 8-year-old children practiced the production of a novel letter form by connecting dots, namely, the Invented Letter Task (ILT). Multiple ILT-related transfer tasks were assessed at 24 h post-training and again at 4-5 weeks post-training. Although by the end of training the single-session practice group outperformed the multi-session practice group in speed and accuracy, at 24 h post-training both groups showed comparable gains. However, after multi-session practice, children were as fast or faster and more accurate in the transfer tasks. By 4-5 weeks post-training, the multi-session practice group showed larger gains in the trained condition, a speed advantage in the transfer tasks, and a significant improvement on the transfer tasks. The results suggest that parsing training over several brief sessions may lead to long-term gains in children's grapho-motor skills. Moreover, multi-session practice protocols may contribute to the potential for transfer and to more effective learning from experiences such as transfer tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafat Ghanamah
- Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel; Oranim Academic College of Education, Kiryat Tevon 3600600, Israel.
| | - Hazar Eghbaria-Ghanamah
- Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel
| | - Avi Karni
- Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel; Sagol Department of Neurobiology, Brain-Behavior Research Center, University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel
| | - Esther Adi-Japha
- School of Education, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel; Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
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5
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Abstract
We confirm that rats can act as rational economic agents, making choices about how much work to do to obtain a reward in a way that optimally trades off the value of the reward against the cost of the effort. Contrary to the notion that bigger rewards are more motivating, rats worked harder in economies where rewards were small, ensuring a sufficient minimum income of water. But they chose to earn and consume more water per day when water was “cheap” (available for little work). We present a mathematical model explaining why rats work when they do (surprisingly, not just when they are thirsty) and suggesting where in the brain animals might compute the current value of working for water. In the laboratory, animals’ motivation to work tends to be positively correlated with reward magnitude. But in nature, rewards earned by work are essential to survival (e.g., working to find water), and the payoff of that work can vary on long timescales (e.g., seasonally). Under these constraints, the strategy of working less when rewards are small could be fatal. We found that instead, rats in a closed economy did more work for water rewards when the rewards were stably smaller, a phenomenon also observed in human labor supply curves. Like human consumers, rats showed elasticity of demand, consuming far more water per day when its price in effort was lower. The neural mechanisms underlying such “rational” market behaviors remain largely unexplored. We propose a dynamic utility maximization model that can account for the dependence of rat labor supply (trials/day) on the wage rate (milliliter/trial) and also predict the temporal dynamics of when rats work. Based on data from mice, we hypothesize that glutamatergic neurons in the subfornical organ in lamina terminalis continuously compute the instantaneous marginal utility of voluntary work for water reward and causally determine the amount and timing of work.
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Miller MW. Dopamine as a Multifunctional Neurotransmitter in Gastropod Molluscs: An Evolutionary Hypothesis. THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2020; 239:189-208. [PMID: 33347799 PMCID: PMC8016498 DOI: 10.1086/711293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThe catecholamine 3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine, or dopamine, acts as a neurotransmitter across a broad phylogenetic spectrum. Functions attributed to dopamine in the mammalian brain include regulation of motor circuits, valuation of sensory stimuli, and mediation of reward or reinforcement signals. Considerable evidence also supports a neurotransmitter role for dopamine in gastropod molluscs, and there is growing appreciation for its potential common functions across phylogeny. This article reviews evidence for dopamine's transmitter role in the nervous systems of gastropods. The functional properties of identified dopaminergic neurons in well-characterized neural circuits suggest a hypothetical incremental sequence by which dopamine accumulated its diverse roles. The successive acquisition of dopamine functions is proposed in the context of gastropod feeding behavior: (1) sensation of potential nutrients, (2) activation of motor circuits, (3) selection of motor patterns from multifunctional circuits, (4) valuation of sensory stimuli with reference to internal state, (5) association of motor programs with their outcomes, and (6) coincidence detection between sensory stimuli and their consequences. At each stage of this sequence, it is proposed that existing functions of dopaminergic neurons favored their recruitment to fulfill additional information processing demands. Common functions of dopamine in other intensively studied groups, ranging from mammals and insects to nematodes, suggest an ancient origin for this progression.
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Neuser MP, Teckentrup V, Kühnel A, Hallschmid M, Walter M, Kroemer NB. Vagus nerve stimulation boosts the drive to work for rewards. Nat Commun 2020; 11:3555. [PMID: 32678082 PMCID: PMC7366927 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-17344-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Interoceptive feedback transmitted via the vagus nerve plays a vital role in motivation by tuning actions according to physiological needs. Whereas vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) reinforces actions in animals, motivational effects elicited by VNS in humans are still largely elusive. Here, we applied non-invasive transcutaneous auricular VNS (taVNS) on the left or right ear while participants exerted effort to earn rewards using a randomized cross-over design (vs. sham). In line with preclinical studies, acute taVNS enhances invigoration of effort, and stimulation on the left side primarily facilitates invigoration for food rewards. In contrast, we do not find conclusive evidence that acute taVNS affects effort maintenance or wanting ratings. Collectively, our results suggest that taVNS enhances reward-seeking by boosting invigoration, not effort maintenance and that the stimulation side affects generalization beyond food reward. Thus, taVNS may enhance the pursuit of prospective rewards which may pave avenues to treat motivational deficiencies. The vagus nerve transmits signals between the gut and the brain thereby tuning motivated behavior to physiological needs. Here, the authors show that acute non-invasive stimulation of the vagus nerve via the ear enhances the invigoration of effort for rewards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monja P Neuser
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Vanessa Teckentrup
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Anne Kühnel
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry and International Max Planck Research School for Translational Psychiatry (IMPRS-TP), Kraeplinstraße 2-10, 80804, Munich, Germany
| | - Manfred Hallschmid
- Department of Medical Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Tübingen, Otfried-Müller-Straße 25, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Otfried-Müller-Straße 10, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Institute for Diabetes Research and Metabolic Diseases of the Helmholtz Center Munich at the Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Otfried-Müller-Str. 10, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Martin Walter
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Jena, Philosophenweg 3, 07743, Jena, Germany.,Department of Behavioral Neurology, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Brenneckestr 6, 39118, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Nils B Kroemer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
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Alabi OO, Fortunato MP, Fuccillo MV. Behavioral Paradigms to Probe Individual Mouse Differences in Value-Based Decision Making. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:50. [PMID: 30792620 PMCID: PMC6374631 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Value-based decision making relies on distributed neural systems that weigh the benefits of actions against the cost required to obtain a given outcome. Perturbations of these systems are thought to underlie abnormalities in action selection seen across many neuropsychiatric disorders. Genetic tools in mice provide a promising opportunity to explore the cellular components of these systems and their molecular foundations. However, few tasks have been designed that robustly characterize how individual mice integrate differential reward benefits and cost in their selection of actions. Here we present a forced-choice, two-alternative task in which each option is associated with a specific reward outcome, and unique operant contingency. We employed global and individual trial measures to assess the choice patterns and behavioral flexibility of mice in response to differing "choice benefits" (modeled as varying reward magnitude ratios) and different modalities of "choice cost" (modeled as either increasing repetitive motor output to obtain reward or increased delay to reward delivery). We demonstrate that (1) mouse choice is highly sensitive to the relative benefit of outcomes; (2) choice costs are heavily discounted in environments with large discrepancies in relative reward; (3) divergent cost modalities are differentially integrated into action selection; (4) individual mouse sensitivity to reward benefit is correlated with sensitivity to reward costs. These paradigms reveal stable individual animal differences in value-based action selection, thereby providing a foundation for interrogating the neural circuit and molecular pathophysiology of goal-directed dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Opeyemi O Alabi
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Neuroscience Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Michael P Fortunato
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Marc V Fuccillo
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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Bonney E, Jelsma D, Ferguson G, Smits-Engelsman B. Variable training does not lead to better motor learning compared to repetitive training in children with and without DCD when exposed to active video games. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2017; 62:124-136. [PMID: 28157565 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2017.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2016] [Revised: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 01/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Little is known about the influence of practice schedules on motor learning and skills transfer in children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Understanding how practice schedules affect motor learning is necessary for motor skills development and rehabilitation. AIMS The study investigated whether active video games (exergames) training delivered under variable practice led to better learning and transfer than repetitive practice. METHODS AND PROCEDURES 111 children aged 6-10 years (M=8.0, SD=1.0) with no active exergaming experience were randomized to receive exergames training delivered under variable (Variable Game Group (VGG), n=56) or repetitive practice schedule (Repetitive Game Group (RGG), n=55). Half the participants were identified as DCD using the DSM-5 criteria, while the rest were typically developing (TD), age-matched children. Both groups participated in two 20min sessions per week for 5 weeks. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS Both participant groups (TD and DCD) improved equally well on game performance. There was no significant difference in positive transfer to balance tasks between practice schedules (Repetitive and Variable) and participant groups (TD and DCD). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Children with and without DCD learn balance skills quite well when exposed to exergames. Gains in learning and transfer are similar regardless of the form of practice schedule employed. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS This is the first paper to compare the effect of practice schedules on learning in children with DCD and those with typical development. No differences in motor learning were found between repetitive and variable practice schedules. When children with and without DCD spend the same amount of time on exergames, they do not show any differences in acquisition of motor skills. Transfer of motor skills is similar in children with and without DCD regardless of differences in practice schedules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Bonney
- Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Cape Town, South Africa; Department of Physiotherapy, School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Ghana.
| | - Dorothee Jelsma
- Developmental and Clinical Neuropsychology, University of Groningen, Grote Kruisstraat 2-1, 9712 TS Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gillian Ferguson
- Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Cape Town, South Africa
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