Emerging biomaterials for downstream manufacturing of therapeutic proteins

A high-density 4-vinylpyridine membrane for rapid purification of antibodies

In order to further investigate the mechanism of action of rituximab in humans and its biotransformation, it is essential to obtain high purity rituximab while maintaining its structural and functional integrity. In this study, we proposed and fabricated a small-molecule 4-vinylpyridine-modified high-density membrane material (P4VP@M) using the surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP) method. This approach can overcome the limitations of conventional enrichment materials, such as long incubation time and low adsorption capacity. P4VP@M incorporates high-density HEMA polymer brushes to prevent non-specific protein adsorption and 4-vinylpyridine polymer brushes for high-performance rituximab enrichment under mild conditions. In addition, P4VP@M has high permeability, hydrophilicity and mechanical strength. Compared to previous methods, this novel material showed excellent rituximab binding capacity (100.3 mg g-1), shorter processing time (only 15 min), and lower cost (only $2). Notably, P4VP@M was able to purify rituximab rapidly and efficiently from the mixture samples and exhibited good selectivity, recovery (>92.6%) and purity (>94.8%). Thus, this proposed purification strategy using P4VP@M has great potential in enriching target proteins from complex samples, as well as contributing to the in-depth study of their biological functions.

Biogenic metallic nanoparticles: from green synthesis to clinical translation

Biogenic metallic nanoparticles (NPs) have garnered significant attention in recent years due to their unique properties and various applications in different fields. NPs, including gold, silver, zinc oxide, copper, titanium, and magnesium oxide NPs, have attracted considerable interest. Green synthesis approaches, utilizing natural products, offer advantages such as sustainability and environmental friendliness. The theranostics applications of these NPs hold immense significance in the fields of medicine and diagnostics. The review explores intricate cellular uptake pathways, internalization dynamics, reactive oxygen species generation, and ensuing inflammatory responses, shedding light on the intricate mechanisms governing their behaviour at a molecular level. Intriguingly, biogenic metallic NPs exhibit a wide array of applications in medicine, including but not limited to anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-diabetic, anti-plasmodial, antiviral properties and radical scavenging efficacy. Their potential in personalized medicine stands out, with a focus on tailoring treatments to individual patients based on these NPs' unique attributes and targeted delivery capabilities. The article culminates in emphasizing the role of biogenic metallic NPs in shaping the landscape of personalized medicine. Harnessing their unique properties for tailored therapeutics, diagnostics and targeted interventions, these NPs pave the way for a paradigm shift in healthcare, promising enhanced efficacy and reduced adverse effects.

Direct Affinity Ligand Immobilization onto Bare Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Enables Efficient Magnetic Separation of Antibodies

Magnetic separation is a promising alternative to chromatography for enhancing the downstream processing (DSP) of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). However, there is a lack of efficient magnetic particles for successful application. Aiming to fill this gap, we demonstrate the suitability of bare iron oxide nanoparticles (BION) with physical site-directed immobilization of an engineered Protein A affinity ligand (rSpA) as an innovative magnetic material. The rSpA ligand contains a short peptide tag that enables the direct and stable immobilization onto the uncoated BION surface without commonly required laborious particle activation. The resulting BION@rSpA have beneficial characteristics outperforming conventional Protein A-functionalized magnetic particles: a simple, fast, low-cost synthesis, a particle size in the nanometer range with a large effective specific surface area enabling large immunoglobulin G (IgG) binding capacity, and a high magnetophoretic velocity advantageous for fast processing. We further show rapid interactions of IgG with the easily accessible rSpA ligands. The binding of IgG to BION@rSpA is thereby highly selective and not impeded by impurity molecules in perfusion cell culture supernatant. Regarding the subsequent acidic IgG elution from BION@rSpA@IgG, we observed a hampering pH increase caused by the protonation of large iron oxide surfaces after concentrating the particles in 100 mM sodium acetate buffer. However, the pH can be stabilized by adding 50 mM glycine to the elution buffer, resulting in recoveries above 85% even at high particle concentrations. Our work shows that BION@rSpA enable efficient magnetic mAb separation and could help to overcome emerging bottlenecks in DSP.

Biomimetic affinity membrane roll column for rapid purification of C-reactive protein

To in-depth explore the action mechanism of C-reactive protein (CRP) and precisely study its signaling pathways, it is essential to acquire high-purity CRP while preserving its intact structure and functionality. In this study, we propose and fabricate a high-density 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC)-modified membrane roll column (MPC-MRC) using a surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP) approach, which can overcome these limitations (long incubation time and low adsorption capacity) of conventional enrichment materials. The MPC-MRC incorporates a high-density 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate polymer brush to prevent non-specific protein adsorption and multiple MPC polymer brush layers for high-performance enrichment of CRP in the company of calcium ions. Furthermore, the MPC-MRC exhibits high permeability, hydrophilicity, and mechanical strength. Compared to previous technologies, this novel material demonstrates significantly higher CRP binding capacity (310.3 mg/g), shorter processing time (only 15 min), and lower cost (only 12 USD/column). Notably, the MPC-MRC enables fast and effective purification of CRP from both human and rat serum, exhibiting good selectivity, recovery (> 91.3 %), and purity (> 95.2 %). Thus, this proposed purification approach based on MPC-MRC holds great potential for target protein enrichment from complex samples, as well as facilitating in-depth studies of its biological functions.

Artificial intelligence-driven systems engineering for next-generation plant-derived biopharmaceuticals

Recombinant biopharmaceuticals including antigens, antibodies, hormones, cytokines, single-chain variable fragments, and peptides have been used as vaccines, diagnostics and therapeutics. Plant molecular pharming is a robust platform that uses plants as an expression system to produce simple and complex recombinant biopharmaceuticals on a large scale. Plant system has several advantages over other host systems such as humanized expression, glycosylation, scalability, reduced risk of human or animal pathogenic contaminants, rapid and cost-effective production. Despite many advantages, the expression of recombinant proteins in plant system is hindered by some factors such as non-human post-translational modifications, protein misfolding, conformation changes and instability. Artificial intelligence (AI) plays a vital role in various fields of biotechnology and in the aspect of plant molecular pharming, a significant increase in yield and stability can be achieved with the intervention of AI-based multi-approach to overcome the hindrance factors. Current limitations of plant-based recombinant biopharmaceutical production can be circumvented with the aid of synthetic biology tools and AI algorithms in plant-based glycan engineering for protein folding, stability, viability, catalytic activity and organelle targeting. The AI models, including but not limited to, neural network, support vector machines, linear regression, Gaussian process and regressor ensemble, work by predicting the training and experimental data sets to design and validate the protein structures thereby optimizing properties such as thermostability, catalytic activity, antibody affinity, and protein folding. This review focuses on, integrating systems engineering approaches and AI-based machine learning and deep learning algorithms in protein engineering and host engineering to augment protein production in plant systems to meet the ever-expanding therapeutics market.

Engineered therapeutic proteins for sustained-release drug delivery systems

Proteins play a vital role in diverse biological processes in the human body, and protein therapeutics have been applied to treat different diseases such as cancers, genetic disorders, autoimmunity, and inflammation. Protein therapeutics have demonstrated their advantages, such as specific pharmaceutical effects, low toxicity, and strong solubility. However, several disadvantages arise in clinical applications, including short half-life, immunogenicity, and low permeation, leading to reduced drug effectiveness. The structure of protein therapeutics can be modified to increase molecular size, leading to prolonged stability and increased plasma half-life. Notably, the controlled-release delivery systems for the sustained release of protein drugs and preserving the stability of cargo proteins are envisioned as a potential approach to overcome these challenges. In this review, we summarize recent research progress related to structural modifications (PEGylation, glycosylation, poly amino acid modification, and molecular biology-based strategies) and promising long-term delivery systems, such as polymer-based systems (injectable gel/implants, microparticles, nanoparticles, micro/nanogels, functional polymers), lipid-based systems (liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers), and inorganic nanoparticles exploited for protein therapeutics. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: In this review, we highlight recent advances concerning modifying proteins directly to enhance their stability and functionality and discuss state-of-the-art methods for the delivery and controlled long-term release of active protein therapeutics to their target site. In terms of drug modifications, four widely used strategies, including PEGylation, poly amino acid modification, glycosylation, and genetic, are discussed. As for drug delivery systems, we emphasize recent progress relating to polymer-based systems, lipid-based systems developed, and inorganic nanoparticles for protein sustained-release delivery. This review points out the areas requiring focused research attention before the full potential of protein therapeutics for human health and disease can be realized.

Experimental and computational analysis of the injection-induced mechanical changes in the skin microenvironment during subcutaneous injection of biologics

Subcutaneous (SQ) injection is an effective delivery route for various biologics, including proteins, antibodies, and vaccines. However, pain and discomfort induced during SQ injection pose a notable challenge for the broader and routine use of biologics. Understanding the underlying mechanism and quantification of injection-induced pain and discomfort (IPD) are urgently needed. A crucial knowledge gap is what changes in the skin tissue microenvironment are induced by the SQ injection, which may ultimately cause the IPD. In this study, thus, a hypothesis is postulated that the injection of biologics solution through the skin tissue microenvironment induces spatiotemporal mechanical changes. Specifically, the injection leads to tissue swelling and subsequent increases in the interstitial fluid pressure (IFP) and matrix stress around the injection site, which ultimately causes the IPD. To test this hypothesis, an engineered SQ injection model is developed capable of measuring tissue swelling during SQ injection. The injection model consists of a skin equivalent with quantum dot-labeled fibroblasts, which enables the measurement of injection-induced spatiotemporal deformation. The IFP and matrix stress are further estimated by computational analysis approximating the skin equivalent as a nonlinear poroelastic material. The result confirms significant injection-induced tissue swelling and increases in IFP and matrix stress. The extent of deformation is correlated to the injection rate. The results also suggest that the size of biologics particulates significantly affects the pattern and extent of the deformation. The results are further discussed to propose a quantitative understanding of the injection-induced changes in the skin microenvironment.

Molecular engineering of cyclic azobenzene-peptide hybrid ligands for the purification of human blood Factor VIII via photo-affinity chromatography

The use of benign stimuli to control the binding and release of labile biologics for their isolation from complex feedstocks is a key goal of modern biopharmaceutical technology. This study introduces cyclic azobenzene-peptide (CAP) hybrid ligands for the rapid and discrete photo-responsive capture and release of blood coagulation Factor VIII (FVIII). A predictive method - based on amino acid sequence and molecular architecture of CAPs - was developed to correlate the conformation of cis/trans CAP photo-isomers to FVIII binding and release. The combined in silico and in vitro analysis of FVIII:peptide interactions guided the design of a rational approach to optimize isomerization kinetics and biorecognition of CAPs. A photoaffinity adsorbent, prepared by conjugating selected CAP G-cycloAZOB[Lys-YYKHLYN-Lys]-G on translucent chromatographic beads, featured high binding capacity (> 6 mg of FVIII per mL of resin) and rapid photo-isomerization kinetics (τ < 30s) when exposed to 420-450 nm light at the intensity of 0.1 W·cm-2. The adsorbent purified FVIII from a recombinant harvest using a single mobile phase, affording high product yield (>90%), purity (>95%), and blood clotting activity. The CAPs introduced in this report demonstrate a novel route integrating gentle operational conditions in a rapid and efficient bioprocess for the purification of life-saving biotherapeutics.

Development of a Genetically Encoded Magnetic Platform in Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense MSR-1 for Downstream Processing of Protein Expression System

Background

Protein downstream processing remains a challenge in protein production, especially in low yields of products, in spite of ensuring effective disruption of cell and separation of target proteins. It is complicated, expensive and time-consuming. Here, we report a novel nano-bio-purification system for producing recombinant proteins of interest with automatic purification from engineered bacteria.

Results

This system employed a complete genetic engineering downstream processing platform for proteins at low expression levels, referred to as a genetically encoded magnetic platform (GEMP). GEMP consists of four elements as follows. (1) A truncated phage lambda lysis cassette (RRz/Rz1) is controllable for lysis of Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense MSR-1 (host cell). (2) A surface-expressed nuclease (NucA) is to reduce viscosity of homogenate by hydrolyzing long chain nucleic acids. (3) A bacteriogenic magnetic nanoparticle, known as magnetosome, allows an easy separation system in a magnetic field. (4) An intein realizes abscission of products (nanobodies against tetrabromobisphenol A) from magnetosome.

Conclusions

In this work, removal of most impurities greatly simplified the subsequent purification procedure. The system also facilitated the bioproduction of nanomaterials. The developed platform can substantially simplify industrial protein production and reduce its cost.

Non-Affinity Purification of Antibodies

Currently, purification of antibodies is mainly carried out using a platform technology composed primarily of Protein A chromatography as a capture step, regardless of the scale. However, Protein A chromatography has a number of drawbacks, which are summarized in this review. As an alternative, we propose a simple small-scale purification protocol without Protein A that uses novel agarose native gel electrophoresis and protein extraction. For large-scale antibody purification, we suggest mixed-mode chromatography that can in part mimic the properties of Protein A resin, focusing on 4-Mercapto-ethyl-pyridine (MEP) column chromatography.

Minimally invasive, sustained-release relaxin-2 microparticles reverse arthrofibrosis

Substantial advances in biotherapeutics are distinctly lacking for musculoskeletal diseases. Musculoskeletal diseases are biomechanically complex and localized, highlighting the need for novel therapies capable of addressing these issues. All frontline treatment options for arthrofibrosis, a debilitating musculoskeletal disease, fail to treat the disease etiology-the accumulation of fibrotic tissue within the joint space. For millions of patients each year, the lack of modern and effective treatment options necessitates surgery in an attempt to regain joint range of motion (ROM) and escape prolonged pain. Human relaxin-2 (RLX), an endogenous peptide hormone with antifibrotic and antifibrogenic activity, is a promising biotherapeutic candidate for musculoskeletal fibrosis. However, RLX has previously faltered through multiple clinical programs because of pharmacokinetic barriers. Here, we describe the design and in vitro characterization of a tailored drug delivery system for the sustained release of RLX. Drug-loaded, polymeric microparticles released RLX over a multiweek time frame without altering peptide structure or bioactivity. In vivo, intraarticular administration of microparticles in rats resulted in prolonged, localized concentrations of RLX with reduced systemic drug exposure. Furthermore, a single injection of RLX-loaded microparticles restored joint ROM and architecture in an atraumatic rat model of arthrofibrosis with clinically derived end points. Finally, confirmation of RLX receptor expression, RXFP1, in multiple human tissues relevant to arthrofibrosis suggests the clinical translational potential of RLX when administered in a sustained and targeted manner.

Current research approaches in downstream processing of pharmaceutically relevant proteins

Biopharmaceuticals and their production are on the rise. They are needed to treat and to prevent multiple diseases. Therefore, an urgent need for process intensification in downstream processing (DSP) has been identified to produce biopharmaceuticals more efficiently. The DSP currently accounts for the majority of production costs of pharmaceutically relevant proteins. This short review gathers essential research over the past 3 years that addresses novel solutions to overcome this bottleneck. The overview includes promising studies in the fields of chromatography, aqueous two-phase systems, precipitation, crystallization, magnetic separation, and filtration for the purification of pharmaceutically relevant proteins.

Hydrophilized Ultrafiltration Membranes Synthesized from Acrylic Acid Grafted Polyethersulfone for Downstream Processing of Therapeutic Insulin and Cobalamin

The present study focuses on synthesis of novel high-performance acrylic acid (AA) grafted polyethersulfone (PES) ultrafiltration (UF) membranes for purification of small therapeutic biomolecules such as urea, insulin, and cobalamin. The membranes were indigenously synthesized by adding polyethylene glycol (PEG) of 6 kDa M.Wt. as a pore former and subsequent grafting of AA using 2 to 6 wt.% concentrations under UV-induced photo grafting. Scanning electron microscopy reveals that the PEG additive profoundly influences the pore density on the membrane surface. FTIR spectra confirm the graft polymerization of AA with the PES substrate. Separation performance of the grafted membranes was evaluated to establish the trade-off between the degree of grafting and MWCO. From the experimental results, the pure water flux (PWF) of 6% grafted PES membrane was enhanced from 8.5 (PES [0] [6]) to 18.20 l m^-2 h^-1 (PES [6 +] [6]) in the presence of PEG pore former, respectively. The grafting concentration window of 2-6% resulted in selective membranes to altogether remove uremic toxins into the permeate with retention of high molecular size proteins. Hence, 5 and 6 wt.% AA grafted membranes exhibited > 90% rejection for insulin and cobalamin biomolecules along with 24.5 and 23.8 l m^-2 h^-1 bar^-1 permeability towards urea, respectively. The process results correlate well with the MWCO values of membranes ranging from 1 to 10 kDa. This work provides the efficacy of these grafted membranes for potential application in the downstream processing of therapeutic biomolecules such as insulin and cobalamin.

Selective Adsorption and Separation of Proteins by Ligand-Modified Nanofiber Fabric

Electrospun polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) nanofiber fabric was modified by Cibacron Blue F3GA (CB) to enhance the affinity of the fabric. Batch experiments were performed to study the nanofiber fabric's bovine hemoglobin (BHb) adsorption capacity at different protein concentrations before and after modification. The maximum BHb adsorption capacity of the modified nanofiber fabric was 686 mg/g, which was much larger than the 58 mg/g of the original fabric. After that, the effect of feed concentration and permeation rate on the dynamic adsorption behaviors for BHb of the nanofiber fabric was investigated. The pH impact on BHb and bovine serum albumin (BSA) adsorption was examined by static adsorption experiments of single protein solutions. The selective separation experiments of the BHb-BSA binary solution were carried out at the optimal pH value, and a high selectivity factor of 5.45 for BHb was achieved. Finally, the reusability of the nanofiber fabric was examined using three adsorption-elution cycle tests. This research demonstrated the potential of the CB-modified PVA nanofiber fabric in protein adsorption and selective separation.

Development of a Fast Organic Extraction-Precipitation Method for Improved Purification of Elastin-Like Polypeptides That Is Independent of Sequence and Molecular Weight

Elastin-like polypeptides (ELP), an increasingly popular tag for protein purification, commonly rely upon inverse transition cycling (ITC) to exploit their lower critical solution temperature characteristics for purification. While considerably faster than chromatography, ITC is still time consuming and often fails to remove host cell contaminants to an acceptable level for in vivo experiments. Here, we present a rapid purification workflow for ELP of broadly varying molecular weight and sequence using a polar organic solvent extraction and precipitation strategy. Four different ELP purification methods were directly compared for their ability to remove host cell protein, nucleic acids, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) contaminants using a model ELP. On the basis of these findings, an optimized extraction-precipitation method was developed that gave highly pure ELP from bacterial pellets in approximately 2.5 h while removing major host cell contaminants, including LPS to levels below 1 EU/mL, to produce highly pure material that is suitable for in vivo applications. Application of this method to the rapid purification of an ELP-epidermal growth factor fusion gave an isolate that retained its capacity to bind to epidermal growth factor receptor positive cells, thereby demonstrating that this method is capable of producing a functional construct after purification by organic extraction-precipitation.

Bio-nano interactions: binding proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids onto magnetic nanoparticles

The major interest in nanoparticles as an application platform for biotechnology arises from their high surface-to-volume ratio. Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) are particularly appealing due to their superparamagnetic behavior, which enables bioseparation using external magnetic fields. In order to design advanced biomaterials, improve binding capacities and develop innovative processing solutions, a thorough understanding of the factors governing organic-inorganic binding in solution is critical but has not yet been achieved, given the wide variety of chemical and physical influences. This paper offers a critical review of experimental studies of the interactions between low cost IONPs (bare iron oxides, silica-coated or easily-functionalized surfaces) and the main groups of biomolecules: proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and carbohydrates. Special attention is devoted to the driving forces and interdependencies responsible of interactions at the solid-liquid interface, to the unique structural characteristics of each biomolecular class, and to environmental conditions influencing adsorption. Furthermore, studies focusing on mixtures, which are still rare, but absolutely necessary to understand the biocorona, are also included. This review concludes with a discussion of future work needed to fill the gaps in knowledge of bio-nano interactions, seeking to improve nanoparticles' targeting capabilities in complex systems, and to open the door for multipurpose recognition and bioseparation processes.

Biomimetic and bioinspired silicifications: Recent advances for biomaterial design and applications

The rational design and controllable synthesis of functional silica-based materials have gained increased interest in a variety of biomedical and biotechnological applications due to their unique properties. The current review shows that marine organisms, such as siliceous sponges and diatoms, could be the inspiration for the fabrication of advanced biohybrid materials. Several biomolecules were involved in the molecular mechanism of biosilicification in vivo. Mimicking their behavior, functional silica-based biomaterials have been generated via biomimetic and bioinspired silicification in vitro. Additionally, several advanced technologies were developed for in vitro and in vivo immobilization of biomolecules with potential applications in biocatalysis, biosensors, bioimaging, and immunoassays. A thin silica layer could coat a single living cell or virus as a protective shell offering new opportunities in biotechnology and nanomedicine fields. Promising nanotechnologies have been developed for drug encapsulation and delivery in a targeted and controlled manner, in particular for poorly soluble hydrophobic drugs. Moreover, biomimetic silica, as a morphogenetically active biocompatible material, has been utilized in the field of bone regeneration and in the development of biomedical implantable devices. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: In nature, silica-based biomaterials, such as diatom frustules and sponge spicules, with high mechanical and physical properties were created under biocompatible conditions. The fundamental knowledge underlying the molecular mechanisms of biosilica formation could inspire engineers and chemists to design novel hybrid biomaterials using molecular biomimetic strategies. The production of such biohybrid materials brings the biosilicification field closer to practical applications. This review starts with the biosilicification process of sponges and diatoms with recently updated researches. Then, this article covers recent advances in the design of silica-based biomaterials and their potential applications in the fields of biotechnology and nanomedicine, highlighting several promising technologies for encapsulation of functional proteins and living cells, drug delivery and the preparation of scaffolds for bone regeneration.

Microporous poly(glycidyl methacrylate-co-ethylene glycol dimethyl acrylate) microspheres: synthesis, functionalization and applications

As a new kind of functional material, micron-sized porous polymer microspheres are a hot research topic in the field of polymer materials.

Protein Purification Technologies

Protein Biotechnology is an exciting and fast- growing area of research, with numerous industrial applications. The growing demand for developing efficient and rapid protein purification methods is driving research and growth in this area. Advances and progress in the techniques and methods of protein purification have been such that one can reasonably expect that any protein of a given order of stability may be purified to currently acceptable standards of homogeneity. However, protein manufacturing cost remains extremely high, with downstream processing constituting a substantial proportion of the overall cost. Understanding of the methods and optimization of the experimental conditions have become critical to the manufacturing industry in order to minimize production costs while satisfying the quality as well as all regulatory requirements. New purification processes exploiting specific, effective and robust methods and chromatographic materials are expected to guide the future of the protein purification market.

Quality-Related Properties of Equine Immunoglobulins Purified by Different Approaches

Whole IgG antivenoms are prepared from hyperimmune animal plasma by various refinement strategies. The ones most commonly used at industrial scale are precipitation by sodium or ammonium sulphate (ASP), and caprylic acid precipitation (CAP) of non-immunoglobulin proteins. The additional procedures, which have so far been used for experimental purposes only, are anion-exchange (AEX) and cation-exchange chromatography (CEX), as well as affinity chromatography (AC) using IgG’s Fc-binding ligands. These protocols extract the whole IgG fraction from plasma, which contains both venom-specific and therapeutically irrelevant antibodies. Such preparations represent a complex mixture of various IgG subclasses whose functional and/or structural properties, as well as relative distribution, might be affected differently, depending on employed purification procedure. The aim of this work was to compare the influence of aforementioned refinement strategies on the IgG subclass distribution, venom-specific protective efficacy, thermal stability, aggregate formation and retained impurity profile of the final products. A unique sample of Vipera ammodytes ammodytes specific hyperimmune horse plasma was used as a starting material, enabling direct comparison of five purification approaches. The highest purity was achieved by CAP and AC (above 90% in a single step), while the lowest aggregate content was present in samples from AEX processing. Albumin was the main contaminant in IgG preparations obtained by ASP and CEX, while transferrin dominantly contaminated IgG sample from AEX processing. Alpha-1B-glycoprotein was present in CAP IgG fraction, as well as in those from ASP- and AEX-based procedures. AC approach induced the highest loss of IgG(T) subclass. CEX and AEX showed the same tendency, while CAP and ASP had almost no impact on subclass distribution. The shift in IgG subclass composition influenced the specific protective efficacy of the respective final preparation as measured in vivo. AC and CEX remarkably affected drug’s venom-neutralization activity, in contrary to the CAP procedure, that preserved protective efficacy of the IgG fraction. Presented data might improve the process of designing and establishing novel downstream processing strategies and give guidance for optimization of the current ones by providing information on potency-protecting and purity-increasing properties of each purification principle.

Rapid preparation of 1-vinylimidazole based non-affinity polymers for the highly-selective purification of antibodies from multiple biological sources

There is an urgent need for developing advanced purification techniques with the merits of low cost and satisfactory capacity in order to meet the challenges in the current downstream purification of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Herein, a simple and inexpensive nitrogen heterocycle molecule, 1-vinylimidazole (VIM), was proposed as the capture ligand of antibodies for the first time. The corresponding VIM-based non-affinity polymeric material (polyVIM) was then fabricated via a one-step polymerization for use in the highly selective purification of antibodies. Compared to the previously reported materials, this novel material exhibited many advantages without clearly sacrificing selectivity, such as a simpler and faster fabrication (within 1.5 h), comparable or even higher binding capacity (saturated static adsorption capacity > 190 mg/g polymer, dynamic binding capacity about 31.62 mg/g polymer), lower non-specific protein adsorption, and much lower cost. Notably, the polyVIM can effectively purify the antibodies from multiple biological sources with high purity (95.4% for mAbs in the cell culture medium, 93.3% for hIgG in the human serum), with an acceptable recovery (91.6% for mAbs, 77.0% for hIgG), and good reusability (> 10 times). Moreover, the target ELISA binding assay and NFAT-luc reporter gene assay demonstrated that the enriched antibodies can well maintain their binding activity and bioactivity during the whole purification process. The excellent performance of the polyVIM material may be attributed to the high recognition ability of VIM for antibodies, as well as the biocompatible and antifouling properties of the porous polymer. This study provides a promising alternative material for the purification of mAbs in downstream processes and the enrichment of hIgG in human serum.

Electric-field-enhanced selective separation of products of an enzymatic reaction in a membrane micro-contactor

Processes employed in separations of products of enzyme reactions are often driven by diffusion, and their efficiency can be limited. Here, we exploit the effect of a direct current (DC) electric field that intensifies mass transfer through a semipermeable membrane for fast, continuous, and selective separation of electrically charged molecules. Specifically, we separate low-molecular-weight reaction products (phenylacetic acid, 6-aminopenicillanic acid) from the original reaction mixture containing a free enzyme (penicillin acylase). The developed microfluidic dialysis-membrane contactor allows a stable counter-current arrangement of the retentate and permeates liquid streams on which DC electric field is perpendicularly applied. The applied electric field significantly accelerates the transport of electrically charged products through the semipermeable membrane yielding high separation efficiencies at short residence times. The residence time of 5 min is sufficient to reach 100% separation yield in the electric field. The same residence time provides only a 50% yield in the diffusion-controlled experiments. We experimentally demonstrated that a combined microreactor-microextractor with a recycle of the soluble penicillin acylase can continuously produce both the reaction products at high concentrations. The developed membrane-contactor is a versatile platform allowing to tune its characteristics, such as selectivity given by the membrane, or the type of the retentate phase, for a specific application.

Selective Capture and Recovery of Monoclonal Antibodies by Self-Assembling Supramolecular Polymers of High Affinity for Protein Binding

The separation and purification of therapeutic proteins from their biological resources pose a great limitation for industrial manufacturing of biologics in an efficient and cost-effective manner. We report here a supramolecular polymeric system that can undergo multiple reversible processes for efficient capture, precipitation, and recovery of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). These supramolecular polymers, namely immunofibers (IFs), are formed by coassembly of a mAb-binding peptide amphiphile with a rationally designed filler molecule of varying stoichiometric ratios. Under the optimized conditions, IFs can specifically capture mAbs with a precipitation yield greater than 99%, leading to an overall mAb recovery yield of 94%. We also demonstrated the feasibility of capturing and recovering two mAbs from clarified cell culture harvest. These results showcase the promising potential of peptide-based supramolecular polymers as reversible affinity precipitants for mAb purification.

Recent advances on protein separation and purification methods

Protein, as the material basis of vita, is the crucial undertaker of life activities, which constitutes the framework and main substance of human tissues and organs, and takes part in various forms of life activities in organisms. Separating proteins from biomaterials and studying their structures and functions are of great significance for understanding the law of life activities and clarifying the essence of life phenomena. Therefore, scientists have proposed the new concept of proteomics, in which protein separation technology plays a momentous role. It has been diffusely used in the food industry, agricultural biological research, drug development, disease mechanism, plant stress mechanism, and marine environment research. In this paper, combined with the recent research situation, the progress of protein separation technology was reviewed from the aspects of extraction, precipitation, membrane separation, chromatography, electrophoresis, molecular imprinting, microfluidic chip and so on.

Polysaccharide-based chromatographic adsorbents for virus purification and viral clearance

Viruses still pose a significant threat to human and animal health worldwide. In the fight against viral infections, high-purity viral stocks are needed for manufacture of safer vaccines. It is also a priority to ensure the viral safety of biopharmaceuticals such as blood products. Chromatography techniques are widely implemented at both academic and industrial levels in the purification of viral particles, whole viruses and virus-like particles to remove viral contaminants from biopharmaceutical products. This paper focuses on polysaccharide adsorbents, particulate resins and membrane adsorbers, used in virus purification/removal chromatography processes. Different chromatographic modes are surveyed, with particular attention to ion exchange and affinity/pseudo-affinity adsorbents among which commercially available agarose-based resins (Sepharose®) and cellulose-based membrane adsorbers (Sartobind®) occupy a dominant position. Mainly built on the development of new ligands coupled to conventional agarose/cellulose matrices, the development perspectives of polysaccharide-based chromatography media in this antiviral area are stressed in the conclusive part.

Mechanistic Modeling of Preparative Column Chromatography for Biotherapeutics

Chromatography has long been, and remains, the workhorse of downstream processing in the production of biopharmaceuticals. As bioprocessing has matured, there has been a growing trend toward seeking a detailed fundamental understanding of the relevant unit operations, which for some operations include the use of mechanistic modeling in a way similar to its use in the conventional chemical process industries. Mechanistic models of chromatography have been developed for almost a century, but although the essential features are generally understood, the specialization of such models to biopharmaceutical processing includes several areas that require further elucidation. This review outlines the overall approaches used in such modeling and emphasizes current needs, specifically in the context of typical uses of such models; these include selection and improvement of isotherm models and methods to estimate isotherm and transport parameters independently. Further insights are likely to be aided by molecular-level modeling, as well as by the copious amounts of empirical data available for existing processes.

Rational design of affinity ligands for bioseparation

Affinity adsorbents have been the cornerstone in protein purification. The selective nature of the molecular recognition interactions established between an affinity ligands and its target provide the basis for efficient capture and isolation of proteins. The plethora of affinity adsorbents available in the market reflects the importance of affinity chromatography in the bioseparation industry. Ligand discovery relies on the implementation of rational design techniques, which provides the foundation for the engineering of novel affinity ligands. The main goal for the design of affinity ligands is to discover or improve functionality, such as increased stability or selectivity. However, the methodologies must adapt to the current needs, namely to the number and diversity of biologicals being developed, and the availability of new tools for big data analysis and artificial intelligence. In this review, we offer an overview on the development of affinity ligands for bioseparation, including the evolution of rational design techniques, dating back to the years of early discovery up to the current and future trends in the field.