Subchronic and chronic toxicity evaluation of inorganic nanoparticles for delivery applications

Advanced nanoparticle engineering for precision therapeutics of brain diseases

Despite the increasing global prevalence of neurological disorders, the development of nanoparticle (NP) technologies for brain-targeted therapies confronts considerable challenges. One of the key obstacles in treating brain diseases is the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which restricts the penetration of NP-based therapies into the brain. To address this issue, NPs can be installed with specific ligands or bioengineered to boost their precision and efficacy in targeting brain-diseased cells by navigating across the BBB, ultimately improving patient treatment outcomes. At the outset of this review, we highlighted the critical role of ligand-functionalized or bioengineered NPs in treating brain diseases from a clinical perspective. We then identified the key obstacles and challenges NPs encounter during brain delivery, including immune clearance, capture by the reticuloendothelial system (RES), the BBB, and the complex post-BBB microenvironment. Following this, we overviewed the recent progress in NPs engineering, focusing on ligand-functionalization or bionic designs to enable active BBB transcytosis and targeted delivery to brain-diseased cells. Lastly, we summarized the critical challenges hindering clinical translation, including scalability issues and off-target effects, while outlining future opportunities for designing cutting-edge brain delivery technologies.

Rational Design of Safer Inorganic Nanoparticles via Mechanistic Modeling-Informed Machine Learning

The safety of inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) remains a critical challenge for their clinical translation. To address this, we developed a machine learning (ML) framework that predicts NP toxicity both in vitro and in vivo, leveraging physicochemical properties and experimental conditions. A curated in vitro cytotoxicity dataset was used to train and validate binary classification models, with top-performing models undergoing explainability analysis to identify key determinants of toxicity and establish structure-toxicity relationships. External testing with diverse inorganic NPs validated the predictive accuracy of the framework for in vitro settings. To enable organ-specific toxicity predictions in vivo, we integrated a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model into the ML pipeline to quantify NP exposure across organs. Retraining the ML models with PBPK-derived exposure metrics yielded robust predictions of organ-specific nanotoxicity, further validating the framework. This PBPK-informed ML approach can thus serve as a potential alternative approach to streamline NP safety assessment, enabling the rational design of safer NPs and expediting their clinical translation.

Peptide-Based Strategies in PLGA-Enhanced Tumor Therapy

Peptide-based therapeutics have gained attention in cancer treatment because of their good specificity, low toxicity, and ability to modulate immune responses. However, challenges such as enzymatic degradation and poor bioavailability limit their clinical application. Peptide-functionalized poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) systems have emerged as a transformative platform in cancer therapy that offers unique advantages, including enhanced stability, sustained release, and precise delivery of therapeutic agents. This review highlights the synergistic integration of peptides with PLGA and addresses key challenges of peptide-based therapeutics. The application of peptide-functionalized PLGA systems encompasses a diverse range of strategies for cancer therapy. In chemotherapy, peptides disrupt critical tumor pathways, induce apoptosis, and inhibit angiogenesis, demonstrating their versatility in targeting various aspects of tumor progression. In immunotherapy, peptides act as antigens to stimulate robust immune responses or as immune checkpoint inhibitors to restore T cell activity, overcoming tumor immune evasion. These systems also harness the enhanced permeability and retention effect, facilitating preferential accumulation in tumor tissues while leveraging tumor microenvironment (TME)-responsive mechanisms, such as pH-sensitive or enzyme-triggered drug release, to achieve controlled, localized delivery. Collectively, peptide-functionalized PLGA systems represent a promising, versatile approach for precise cancer therapy that integrates innovative delivery strategies with highly specific, potent therapeutic agents.

A Critical View on the Biocompatibility of Silica Nanoparticles and Liposomes as Drug Delivery Systems

Silica-based materials and liposomes are widely employed in drug delivery systems, particularly as the most frequently evaluated platforms for intravenous drug administration. Their exceptional biocompatibility, versatile surface modification capabilities, and efficient encapsulation of a broad spectrum of therapeutic agents make them ideal for targeted and controlled drug delivery. Both nanodelivery systems interact with endothelial cells and various blood components, including erythrocytes (red blood cells) and white blood cells (lymphocytes, monocytes, and macrophages), potentially leading to cytotoxic effects. However, the detrimental impacts of silica nanoparticles (MSNs) and liposomes on healthy cells remain insufficiently investigated. The cytotoxicity of these carriers is strongly influenced by their physicochemical properties, such as size, surface charge, and functionalization, as well as the specific type of cells they encounter. This review aims to explore the molecular and cellular dysfunctions induced by MSNs and liposomes, which elicit various biological responses, including proinflammatory signaling, oxidative stress, and autophagy. Considering the toxicity associated with nanosilica and liposomes, strategies such as surface modifications and morphological adjustments may serve as effective approaches to mitigate these adverse effects. Implementing such modifications holds the potential to develop nanomaterials with lower toxicological profiles, thereby enhancing their safety and efficacy in clinical applications. By addressing these challenges, the advancement of silica-based materials and liposomes can be optimized for safer and more effective intravenous drug delivery systems.

Breaking barriers: Smart vaccine platforms for cancer immunomodulation

Despite significant advancements in cancer treatment, current therapies often fail to completely eradicate malignant cells. This shortfall underscores the urgent need to explore alternative approaches such as cancer vaccines. Leveraging the immune system's natural ability to target and kill cancer cells holds great therapeutic potential. However, the development of cancer vaccines is hindered by several challenges, including low stability, inadequate immune response activation, and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, which limit their efficacy. Recent progress in various fields, such as click chemistry, nanotechnology, exosome engineering, and neoantigen design, offer innovative solutions to these challenges. These achievements have led to the emergence of smart vaccine platforms (SVPs), which integrate protective carriers for messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) with functionalization strategies to optimize targeted delivery. Click chemistry further enhances SVP performance by improving the encapsulation of mRNA antigens and facilitating their precise delivery to target cells. This review highlights the latest developments in SVP technologies for cancer therapy, exploring both their opportunities and challenges in advancing these transformative approaches.

Manganese-based nanoenzymes: from catalytic chemistry to design principle and antitumor/antibacterial therapy

Manganese (Mn)-based materials have been extensively investigated for a wide range of biomedical applications owing to their remarkable catalytic chemistry, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) capacity, biodegradability, low toxicity, and good biosafety. In this review, we first elaborate on the catalytic principle of Mn-based nanoenzymes for antitumor and antibacterial therapy, followed by a comprehensive discussion of the interesting structural design engineering strategies used to achieve multi-dimensional Mn-based nanoarchitectures, such as zero-dimensional (0D) nanoparticles, 1D nanotubes, 2D nanosheets, 3D hollow porous Mn ball, and core-shell nanostructures. Moreover, the therapeutic applications of different Mn-based nanoenzymes, including manganese dioxide (MnO2)-based nanoenzymes that can trigger catalytic reactions, Mn2+-doped metal nanoenzymes and Mn2+-coordinated nanoenzymes that promote hydroxyl/reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and MnO2-based micro/nanorobots that can effectively penetrate tumor tissues, are critically reviewed. Finally, a brief overview of the potential challenges faced in the development of Mn-based nanoenzymes is presented, along with a comparative and balanced discussion of future prospects.

Phototherapy in cancer treatment: strategies and challenges

Phototherapy has emerged as a promising modality in cancer treatment, garnering considerable attention for its minimal side effects, exceptional spatial selectivity, and optimal preservation of normal tissue function. This innovative approach primarily encompasses three distinct paradigms: Photodynamic Therapy (PDT), Photothermal Therapy (PTT), and Photoimmunotherapy (PIT). Each of these modalities exerts its antitumor effects through unique mechanisms-specifically, the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), heat, and immune responses, respectively. However, significant challenges impede the advancement and clinical application of phototherapy. These include inadequate ROS production rates, subpar photothermal conversion efficiency, difficulties in tumor targeting, and unfavorable physicochemical properties inherent to traditional phototherapeutic agents (PTs). Additionally, the hypoxic microenvironment typical of tumors complicates therapeutic efficacy due to limited agent penetration in deep-seated lesions. To address these limitations, ongoing research is fervently exploring innovative solutions. The unique advantages offered by nano-PTs and nanocarrier systems aim to enhance traditional approaches' effectiveness. Strategies such as generating oxygen in situ within tumors or inhibiting mitochondrial respiration while targeting the HIF-1α pathway may alleviate tumor hypoxia. Moreover, utilizing self-luminescent materials, near-infrared excitation sources, non-photoactivated sensitizers, and wireless light delivery systems can improve light penetration. Furthermore, integrating immunoadjuvants and modulating immunosuppressive cell populations while deploying immune checkpoint inhibitors holds promise for enhancing immunogenic cell death through PIT. This review seeks to elucidate the fundamental principles and biological implications of phototherapy while discussing dominant mechanisms and advanced strategies designed to overcome existing challenges-ultimately illuminating pathways for future research aimed at amplifying this intervention's therapeutic efficacy.

Effects of particulate air pollution exposure on lung-brain axis and related miRNAs modulation in mouse models

Particulate matter exposure is linked to numerous health issues, including respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases. This review focuses on the biological mechanisms through which air pollution influences the lung-brain axis, highlighting the role of miRNAs in regulating gene pathways affected by PM. Some microRNAs (miRNAs) are identified as key modulators of cellular processes, including inflammation, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and blood-brain barrier integrity. Using mice models to study these effects allows for controlled experimentation on the systemic distribution of PM across biological barriers. Among the imaging technologies, Positron Emission Tomography is the best approach to monitor the distribution and effects of PM in vivo. The research underscores the importance of miRNA profiles as potential markers for the health effects of PM exposure, suggesting that specific miRNAs could serve as early indicators of damage to the lung-brain axis.

Polydopamine Nanocomposite Hydrogel for Drug Slow-Release in Bone Defect Repair: A Review of Research Advances

In recent years, hydrogels have emerged as promising candidates for bone defect repair due to their excellent biocompatibility, high porosity, and water-retentive properties. However, conventional hydrogels face significant challenges in clinical translation, including brittleness, low mechanical strength, and poorly controlled drug degradation rates. To address these limitations, as a multifunctional polymer, polydopamine (PDA) has shown great potential in both bone regeneration and drug delivery systems. Its robust adhesive properties, biocompatibility, and responsiveness to photothermal stimulation make it an ideal candidate for enhancing hydrogel performance. Integrating PDA into conventional hydrogels not only improves their mechanical properties but also creates an environment conducive to cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation, thereby promoting bone defect repair. Moreover, PDA facilitates controlled drug release, offering a promising approach to optimizing treatment outcomes. This paper first explores the mechanisms through which PDA promotes bone regeneration, laying the foundation for its clinical translation. Additionally, it discusses the application of PDA-based nanocomposite hydrogels as advanced drug delivery systems for bone defect repair, providing valuable insights for both research and clinical translation.

Self-assembled inorganic nanomaterials for biomedical applications

Controlled self-assembly of inorganic nanoparticles has the potential to generate complex nanostructures with distinctive properties. The advancement of more precise techniques empowers researchers in constructing and assembling diverse building blocks, marking a pivotal evolution in nanotechnology and biomedicine. This progress enables the creation of customizable biomaterials with unique characteristics and functions. This comprehensive review takes an innovative approach to explore the current state-of-the-art self-assembly methods and the key interactions driving the self-assembly processes and provides a range of examples of biomedical and therapeutic applications involving inorganic or hybrid nanoparticles and structures. Self-assembly methods applied to bionanomaterials are presented, ranging from commonly used methods in cancer phototherapy and drug delivery to emerging techniques in bioimaging and tissue engineering. The most promising in vitro and in vivo experimental results achieved thus far are presented. Additionally, the review engages in a discourse on safety and biocompatibility concerns related to inorganic self-assembled nanomaterials. Finally, opinions on future challenges and prospects anticipated in this evolving field are provided.

Mechanistic paradigms of immunotoxicity, triggered by nanoparticles - a review

Nanoparticles (NPs) possess the ability to penetrate cells and elicit a rapid and targeted immune response, influenced by their distinct physicochemical properties. These particles can engage with both micro and macromolecules, thereby impacting various downstream signaling pathways that may lead to cell death. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the primary mechanisms contributing to the immunotoxicity of both organic and inorganic nanoparticles. The effects of carbon-based nanomaterials (CNMs), including single-walled carbon nanotubes, multi-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene, and metal oxide nanoparticles, on various immune cell types such as macrophages, neutrophils, monocytes, dendritic cells (DCs), antigen-presenting cells (APCs), and RAW 264.7 cells are examined. The immune responses discussed encompass inflammation, oxidative stress, autophagy, and apoptosis. Additionally, the roles of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ, along with JAK/STAT signaling pathways, are highlighted. The interaction of NPs with oxidative stress pathways, including MAPK signaling and Nrf2/ARE signaling, is also explored. Furthermore, the mechanisms by which nanoparticles induce damage to organelles such as lysosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, exosomes, and Golgi bodies within the immune system are addressed. The review also emphasizes the genotoxic and epigenetic mechanisms associated with the immunotoxicity of NPs. Recent advancements regarding the immunotherapeutic potential of engineered NPs are reported. The roles of autophagy and apoptosis in the immunotoxicity of NPs merit further investigation. In conclusion, understanding how engineered nanoparticles modulate immune responses may facilitate the prevention and treatment of human diseases, including cancer and autoimmune disorders.

A kidney protection nanoparticle based on Alpinia oxyphylla fructus polysaccharide by modulating macrophage polarization

The use of natural polysaccharides from traditional Chinese medicine as carrier materials has great potentiality in drug delivery. Nootkatone (NKT) demonstrated good pharmacological activity in treating kidney injury, but its solubility and bioavailability are not very good which may affect the effectiveness of its therapeutic effect. Alpinia oxyphylla fructus polysaccharide (AOP), as a plant polysaccharide, has multiple pharmacological activities and may help to provide synergy for NKT. Therefore, AOP nanoparticles loaded with NKT (AOP-NKT NPs) were prepared for the prevention of acute kidney injury in this study. The sizes of AOP-NKT NPs are 291.60 ± 3.73 nm, and the Zeta potential values are 35.2 ± 0.65 mV. The nanoparticles exhibited excellent stability in pH, NaCl solution, temperature, and storage. The nanoparticles also improved the solubility and oral bioavailability of NKT. In biocompatibility experiments, AOP-NKT NPs showed lower macrophage toxicity than NKT, and the nanoparticles had good blood compatibility and in vivo biosafety. In vivo, prophylactic administration of this nanoparticle could enhance the ability of NKT in promoting macrophage M2 polarization, reducing renal inflammation and thus improve renal function and repair renal damage. In conclusion, the present study may provide the possibility for AOP as a nano delivery vehicle for renal injury protective drugs.

Review of carbonaceous nanoparticles for antibacterial uses in various dental infections

The mouth cavity is the second most complex microbial community in the human body. It is composed of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. An imbalance in the oral microbiota may lead to various conditions, including caries, soft tissue infections, periodontitis, root canal infections, peri-implantitis (PI), pulpitis, candidiasis, and denture stomatitis. Additionally, several locally administered antimicrobials have been suggested for dentistry in surgical and non-surgical applications. The main drawbacks are increased antimicrobial resistance, the risk of upsetting the natural microbiota, and hypersensitivity responses. Because of their unique physiochemical characteristics, nanoparticles (NPs) can circumvent antibiotic-resistance mechanisms and exert antimicrobial action via a variety of new bactericidal routes. Because of their anti-microbial properties, carbon-based NPs are becoming more and more effective antibacterial agents. Periodontitis, mouth infections, PI, dentin and root infections, and other dental diseases are among the conditions that may be treated using carbon NPs (CNPs) like graphene oxide and carbon dots. An outline of the scientific development of multifunctional CNPs concerning oral disorders will be given before talking about the significant influence of CNPs on dental health. Some of these illnesses include Periodontitis, oral infections, dental caries, dental pulp disorders, dentin and dental root infections, and PI. We also review the remaining research and application barriers for carbon-based NPs and possible future problems.

Advanced Solubilization of Brazilian Cerrado Byproduct Extracts Using Green Nanostructured Lipid Carriers and NaDESs for Enhanced Antioxidant Potentials

This study explores the development and characterization of lipid nanostructures (NLCs) containing natural deep eutectic solvents (NaDESs) derived from taperebá peel extract (Spondias mombin), a by-product rich in bioactive phenolic compounds, including ellagic acid and quercetin. The taperebá extract exhibited a high polyphenol content (2623 mg GAE/L) and notable antioxidant activity, as demonstrated by DPPH (258 mM TEAC/100 mL) and ABTS (495 mM TEAC/100 mL) assays. NLCs were developed using NaDESs to enhance the stability and bioavailability of the antioxidant compounds. Physicochemical characterization confirmed the formation of stable, nanometric, and monodispersed formulations with efficient encapsulation. Biological evaluation of the NLC-TAP-NaDES formulation demonstrated its remarkable capacity to mitigate oxidative stress in cells subjected to H2O2-induced ROS generation. Fluorescence imaging revealed a significant reduction in intracellular ROS levels in treated cells compared to untreated controls, confirming the antioxidant efficacy of the formulation. This outcome underscores the synergy between NaDESs and NLC systems in protecting and delivering phenolic compounds. This study highlights the potential of utilizing underexplored by-products, such as taperebá peels, to develop sustainable and effective antioxidant delivery systems. The NLC-TAP-NaDES platform combines nanotechnology with green chemistry principles, presenting significant implications for the treatment of oxidative stress-related conditions and broader applications in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical sciences. These findings contribute to advancing sustainable innovations in antioxidant therapies, leveraging the dual benefits of bioeconomy and high-performance nanomaterials.

Nanotechnology to Overcome Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability and Damage in Neurodegenerative Diseases

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a critical structure that maintains brain homeostasis by selectively regulating nutrient influx and waste efflux. Not surprisingly, it is often compromised in neurodegenerative diseases. In addition to its involvement in these pathologies, the BBB also represents a significant challenge for drug delivery into the central nervous system. Nanoparticles (NPs) have been widely explored as drug carriers capable of overcoming this barrier and effectively transporting therapies to the brain. However, their potential to directly address and ameliorate BBB dysfunction has received limited attention. In this review, we examine how NPs enhance drug delivery across the BBB to treat neurodegenerative diseases and explore emerging strategies to restore the integrity of this vital structure.

Rational Design of Safer Inorganic Nanoparticles via Mechanistic Modeling-informed Machine Learning

The safety of inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) remains a critical challenge for their clinical translation. To address this, we developed a machine-learning (ML) framework that predicts NP toxicity both in vitro and in vivo, leveraging physicochemical properties and experimental conditions. A curated in vitro cytotoxicity dataset was used to train and validate binary classification models, with top-performing models undergoing explainability analysis to identify key determinants of toxicity and establish structure-toxicity relationships. External testing with diverse mesoporous silica NPs validated the framework's predictive accuracy for in vitro settings. To enable organ-specific toxicity predictions in vivo, we integrated a physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model into the ML pipeline to quantify NP exposure across organs. Retraining the ML models with PBPK-derived exposure metrics yielded robust predictions of organ-specific nanotoxicity, further validating the framework. This PBPK-informed ML approach can thus serve as a potential Novel Alternative Method (NAM) to streamline NP safety assessment, enabling the rational design of safer NPs and expediting their clinical translation.

Stimuli-responsive mesoporous silica nanoplatforms for smart antibacterial therapies: From single to combination strategies

The demand for new antibacterial therapies is urgent and crucial in the clinical setting because of the growing degree of antibiotic resistance and the limits of conventional antibacterial therapies. Stimuli- responsive nanoplatforms, are sensitive to endogenous or exogenous stimulus (pH, temperature, light, and magnetic fields, etc.) which activate cargo release locally and on-demand, hold great potential in developing next generation personalized precision medicine. For instance, pH-sensitive nanoplatforms can selectively release antibacterial agents in the acidic environment of infection sites. To achieve the stimuli-responsive delivery, mesoporous silica nanoplatforms (MSNs) have demonstrated as prospective candidates for efficient cargo loading and controlled release through strategies such as tunable pore engineering, versatile surface modification/coating, and tailored framework composition. Furthermore, aiming for more precise delivery of MSNs, current research interests are increasingly shifting from single-stimuli antibacterial strategy to integrated strategy that combine multiple-stimulus. In this review, we briefly discuss the microenvironment of bacterial infections and provide a comprehensive summary of current stimuli-responsive strategies, and associated materials design principles of stimuli-responsive mesoporous silica-based smart nanoplatforms (SRMSNs). Additionally, integrative antibacterial strategies with synergistic effects, combining chemodynamic, photodynamic, photothermal, sonodynamic and gas therapies, have also been elaborated. Present research advances and limitations of SRMSNs-based antibacterial therapies, such as limited biodegradability and potential cytotoxicity, have been overviewed with future outlooks presented. This review aims to inspire and guide future research in developing novel antibacterial strategies with integrative solutions.

Progress in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease based on nanosized traditional Chinese medicines

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been employed for centuries in treating and managing Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, their effective delivery to target sites can be a major challenge. This is due to their poor water solubility, low bioavailability, and potential toxicity. Furthermore, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a major obstacle to effective TCM delivery, significantly reducing efficacy. Advancements in nanotechnology and its applications in TCM (nano-TCM) can deliver active ingredients or components of TCM across the BBB to the targeted brain area. This review summarizes the recent advances in nanocarrier-based delivery systems for different types of active constituents of TCM for AD, including terpenoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, and quinones. Besides, the main challenges and opportunities for the future development of these advanced TCM nanocarriers are emphasized. In conclusion, this review provides valuable insights and guidance for utilizing nanocarriers to shape future TCM drug delivery.

Nanotechnology and Artificial Intelligence in Dyslipidemia Management-Cardiovascular Disease: Advances, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

This narrative review explores emerging technologies in dyslipidemia management, focusing on nanotechnology and artificial intelligence (AI). It examines the current treatment recommendations and contrasts them with the future prospects enabled by these innovations. Nanotechnology shows significant potential in enhancing drug delivery systems, enabling more targeted and efficient lipid-lowering therapies. In parallel, AI offers advancements in diagnostics, cardiovascular risk prediction, and personalized treatment strategies. AI-based decision support systems and machine learning algorithms are particularly promising for analyzing large datasets and delivering evidence-based recommendations. Together, these technologies hold the potential to revolutionize dyslipidemia management, improving outcomes and optimizing patient care. In addition, this review covers key topics such as cardiovascular disease biomarkers and risk factors, providing insights into the current methods for assessing cardiovascular risk. It also discusses the current understanding of dyslipidemia, including pathophysiology and clinical management. Together, these insights and technologies hold the potential to revolutionize dyslipidemia management, improving outcomes and optimizing patient care.

Harnessing nanotechnology for cancer treatment

Nanotechnology has become a groundbreaking innovation force in cancer therapy, offering innovative solutions to the limitations of conventional treatments such as chemotherapy and radiation. By manipulating materials at the nanoscale, researchers have developed nanocarriers capable of targeted drug delivery, improving therapeutic efficacy while reducing systemic toxicity. Nanoparticles like liposomes, dendrimers, and polymeric nanomaterials have shown significant promise in delivering chemotherapeutic agents directly to tumor sites, enhancing drug bioavailability and minimizing damage to healthy tissues. In addition to drug delivery, with the utilization of tools such as quantum dots and nanosensors that enables more precise identification of cancer biomarkers, nanotechnology is also playing a pivotal role in early cancer detection and diagnosis. Furthermore, nanotechnology-based therapeutic strategies, including photothermal therapy, gene therapy and immunotherapy are offering novel ways to combat cancer by selectively targeting tumor cells and enhancing the immune response. Nevertheless, despite these progressions, obstacles still persist, particularly in the clinical translation of these technologies. Issues such as nanoparticle toxicity, biocompatibility, and the complexity of regulatory approval hinder the widespread adoption of nanomedicine in oncology. This review discusses different applications of nanotechnology in cancer therapy, highlighting its potential and the hurdles to its clinical implementation. Future research needs to concentrate on addressing these obstacles to unlock the full potential of nanotechnology in providing personalized, effective, and minimally invasive cancer treatments.

Theranostics Advances in the Treatment and Diagnosis of Neurological and Neurosurgical Diseases

Theranostics represents a significant advance in the fields of neurology and neurosurgery, offering innovative approaches that combine the diagnosis and treatment of various neurological disorders. This innovation serves as a cornerstone of personalized medicine, where therapeutic strategies are closely integrated with diagnostic tools to enable precise and targeted interventions. Primary research results emphasize the profound impact of theranostics in Neuro Oncol. In this context, it has provided valuable insights into the complexity of the tumor microenvironment and mechanisms of resistance. In addition, in the field of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), theranostics has facilitated the identification of distinct disease subtypes and novel therapeutic targets. It has also unravelled the intricate pathophysiology underlying conditions such as cerebrovascular disease (CVD) and epilepsy, setting the stage for more refined treatment approaches. As theranostics continues to evolve through ongoing research and refinement, its goals include further advancing the field of precision medicine, developing practical biomarkers for clinical use, and opening doors to new therapeutic opportunities. Nevertheless, the integration of these approaches into clinical settings presents challenges, including ethical considerations, the need for advanced data interpretation, standardization of procedures, and ensuring cost-effectiveness. Despite these obstacles, the promise of theranostics to significantly improve patient outcomes in the fields of neurology and neurosurgery remains a source of optimism for the future of healthcare.

Nanoparticles in Subunit Vaccines: Immunological Foundations, Categories, and Applications

Subunit vaccines, significant in next-generation vaccine development, offer precise targeting of immune responses by focusing on specific antigens. However, this precision often comes at the cost of eliciting strong and durable immunity, posing a great challenge to vaccine design. To address this limitation, recent advancements in nanoparticles (NPs) are utilized to enhance antigen delivery efficiency and boost vaccine efficacy. This review examines how the physicochemical properties of NPs influence various stages of the immune response during vaccine delivery and analyzes how different NP types contribute to immune activation and enhance vaccine performance. It then explores the unique characteristics and immune activation mechanisms of these NPs, along with their recent advancements, and highlights their application in subunit vaccines targeting infectious diseases and cancer. Finally, it discusses the challenges in NP-based vaccine development and proposes future directions for innovation in this promising field.

Combining external physical stimuli and nanostructured materials for upregulating pro-regenerative cellular pathways in peripheral nerve repair

Peripheral nerve repair remains a major clinical challenge, particularly in the pursuit of therapeutic approaches that ensure adequate recovery of patient's activity of daily living. Autografts are the gold standard in clinical practice for restoring lost sensorimotor functions nowadays. However, autografts have notable drawbacks, including dimensional mismatches and the need to sacrifice one function to restore another. Engineered nerve guidance conduits have therefore emerged as promising alternatives. While these conduits show surgical potential, their clinical use is currently limited to the repair of minor injuries, as their ability to reinnervate limiting gap lesions is still unsatisfactory. Therefore, improving patient functional recovery requires a deeper understanding of the cellular mechanisms involved in peripheral nerve regeneration and the development of therapeutic strategies that can precisely modulate these processes. Interest has grown in the use of external energy sources, such as light, ultrasound, electrical, and magnetic fields, to activate cellular pathways related to proliferation, differentiation, and migration. Recent research has explored combining these energy sources with tailored nanostructured materials as nanotransducers to enhance selectivity towards the target cells. This review aims to present the recent findings on this innovative strategy, discussing its potential to support nerve regeneration and its viability as an alternative to autologous transplantation.

Nanoparticles in drinking water: Assessing health risks and regulatory challenges

Nanoparticles (NPs) pose a significant concern in drinking water due to their potential health risks and environmental impact. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the current understanding of NP sources and contamination in drinking water, focusing on health concerns, mitigation strategies, regulatory frameworks, and future perspectives. This review highlights the importance of nano-specific pathways, fate processes, health risks & toxicity, and the need for realistic toxicity assessments. Different NPs like titanium dioxide, silver, nanoplastics, nanoscale liquid crystal monomers, copper oxide, and others pose potential health risks through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal exposure, impacting organs and potentially leading to oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, DNA damage, cytotoxicity, disrupt intracellular energetic mechanisms, reactive oxygen species generation, respiratory and immune toxicity, and genotoxicity in humans. Utilizing case studies and literature reviews, we investigate the health risks associated with NPs in freshwater environments, emphasizing their relevance to drinking water quality. Various mitigation and treatment strategies, including filtration systems (e.g., reverse osmosis, and ultra/nano-filtration), adsorption processes, coagulation/flocculation, electrocoagulation, advanced oxidation processes, membrane distillation, and ultraviolet treatment, all of which demonstrate high removal efficiencies for NPs from drinking water. Regulatory frameworks and challenges for the production, applications, and disposal of NPs at both national and international levels are discussed, emphasizing the need for tailored regulations to address NP contamination and standardize safety testing and risk assessment practices. Looking ahead, this review underscores the necessity of advancing detection methods and nanomaterial-based treatment technologies while stressing the pivotal role of public awareness and tailored regulatory guidelines in upholding drinking water quality standards. This review emphasizes the urgency of addressing NP contamination in drinking water and provides insights into potential solutions and future research directions. Lastly, this review worth concluded with future recommendations on advanced analytical techniques and sensitive sensors for NP detection for safeguarding public health and policy implementations.

Chondroitin sulfate functionalized nanozymes inhibit the inflammation feedback loop for enhanced atherosclerosis therapy by regulating intercellular crosstalk

In the inflammatory microenvironment of atherosclerotic plaques, metabolic dysregulation of superoxide anion (O2-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) leads to the activation of feedback mechanisms involving IL-1β, TNF-α, and MCP-1, which triggers inflammatory cascades between macrophages and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in atherosclerosis (AS). To address this, a chondroitin sulfate (CS)-functionalized dual-targeted engineered nanozyme, CS-Lip/PB@Rap, was developed by encapsulating mesoporous Prussian blue nanoparticles (PBs) loaded with rapamycin (Rap) within CS-modified liposomes. CS functionalization endowed CS-Lip/PB@Rap with a specific targeting ability for CD44 receptors, thus enabling targeted delivery to inflammatory macrophages and VSMCs. Moreover, its enhanced multiple enzyme-like activities effectively modulated the imbalance of oxidative stress. The underlying mechanism of crosstalk regulation by these engineered nanozymes may inhibit the NF-κB pathway by restoring normal metabolism of O2- and H2O2, thereby blocking the TNF-α, IL-1β, and MCP-1 feedback loops between macrophages and VSMCs. This process reduced the production of inflammatory macrophages and inhibited the VSMC transformation from a contractile phenotype to a synthetic phenotype, preventing the formation of fibrous caps. Furthermore, the elimination of oxidative stress could decrease the production of oxygenized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL), which inhibited the formation of foam cells and alleviated the atherogenic progression.

Taurine Protects against Silica Nanoparticle-Induced Apoptosis and Inflammatory Response via Inhibition of Oxidative Stress in Porcine Ovarian Granulosa Cells

Silica nanoparticles (SNPs) induce reproductive toxicity through ROS production, which significantly limits their application. The protective effects of taurine (Tau) against SNP-induced reproductive toxicity remain unexplored. So this study aims to investigate the impact of Tau on SNP-induced porcine ovarian granulosa cell toxicity. In vitro, granulosa cells were exposed to SNPs combined with Tau. The localization of SNPs was determined by TEM. Cell viability was examined by CCK-8 assay. ROS levels were measured by CLSM and FCM. SOD and CAT levels were evaluated using ELISA and qPCR. Cell apoptosis was detected by FCM, and pro-inflammatory cytokine transcription levels were measured by qPCR. The results showed that SNPs significantly decreased cell viability, while increased cell apoptosis and ROS levels. Moreover, SOD and CAT were decreased, while IFN-α, IFN-β, IL-1β, and IL-6 were increased after SNP exposures. Tau significantly decreased intracellular ROS, while it increased SOD and CAT compared to SNPs alone. Additionally, Tau exhibited anti-inflammatory effects and inhibited cell apoptosis. On the whole, these findings suggest that Tau mitigates SNP-induced cytotoxicity by reducing oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and cell apoptosis. Tau may be an effective strategy to alleviate SNP-induced toxicity and holds promising application prospects in the animal husbandry and veterinary industry.

Comprehensive insights into mechanism of nanotoxicity, assessment methods and regulatory challenges of nanomedicines

Nanomedicine has the potential to transform healthcare by offering targeted therapies, precise diagnostics, and enhanced drug delivery systems. The National Institutes of Health has coined the term "nanomedicine" to describe the use of nanotechnology in biological system monitoring, control, diagnosis, and treatment. Nanomedicine continues to receive increasing interest for the rationalized delivery of therapeutics and pharmaceutical agents to achieve the required response while reducing its side effects. However, as nanotechnology continues to advance, concerns about its potential toxicological effects have also grown. This review explores the current state of nanomedicine, focusing on the types of nanoparticles used and their associated properties that contribute to nanotoxicity. It examines the mechanisms through which nanoparticles exert toxicity, encompassing various cellular and molecular interactions. Furthermore, it discusses the assessment methods employed to evaluate nanotoxicity, encompassing in-vitro and in-vivo models, as well as emerging techniques. The review also addresses the regulatory issues surrounding nanotoxicology, highlighting the challenges in developing standardized guidelines and ensuring the secure translation of nanomedicine into clinical settings. It also explores into the challenges and ethical issues associated with nanotoxicology, as understanding the safety profile of nanoparticles is essential for their effective translation into therapeutic applications.

All organic nanomedicine for PDT-PTT combination therapy of cancer cells in hypoxia

Photodynamic and photothermal therapies are promising treatments for cancer, dermatological, and ophthalmological conditions. However, photodynamic therapy (PDT) is less effective in oxygen-deficient tumor environments. Combining PDT with photothermal therapy (PTT) can enhance oxygen supply and treatment efficacy. Inorganic PTT agents pose toxicity risks, limiting their clinical use despite their high performance. In this study, we developed a novel nanomedicine integrating an all-organic photothermal agent and an organic photosensitizer, creating a colocalized nanoplatform to enhance phototherapy efficacy in cancer treatment. PTT nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized through a thermal phase transition of organic chromophores, demonstrating superior photothermal properties and photostability. Utilizing this nanoplatform, we devised 'Combi NPs' for combined PDT-PTT nanomedicine. Tests on A549 cancer cell lines have revealed that Combi NPs exhibit superior cytotoxicity and induce apoptosis in hypoxic conditions, outperforming PTT-only NPs. The all-organic Combi NPs show significant potential for clinical cancer phototherapy in hypoxic microenvironments, potentially mitigating long-term nanomedicine accumulation and associated toxicity.

Nano-Assisted Radiotherapy Strategies: New Opportunities for Treatment of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer and a leading cause of cancer-related death, with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) being the most prevalent type. Over 70% of lung cancer patients require radiotherapy (RT), which operates through direct and indirect mechanisms to treat cancer. However, RT can damage healthy tissues and encounter radiological resistance, making it crucial to enhance its precision to optimize treatment outcomes, minimize side effects, and overcome radioresistance. Integrating nanotechnology into RT presents a promising method to increase its efficacy. This review explores various nano-assisted RT strategies aimed at achieving precision treatment. These include using nanomaterials as radiosensitizers, applying nanotechnology to modify the tumor microenvironment, and employing nano-based radioprotectors and radiation-treated cell products for indirect cancer RT. We also explore recent advancements in nano-assisted RT for NSCLC, such as biomimetic targeting that alters mesenchymal stromal cells, magnetic targeting strategies, and nanosensitization with high-atomic number nanomaterials. Finally, we address the existing challenges and future directions of precision RT using nanotechnology, highlighting its potential clinical applications.

Ultrasound-Based Micro-/Nanosystems for Biomedical Applications

Due to the intrinsic non-invasive nature, cost-effectiveness, high safety, and real-time capabilities, besides diagnostic imaging, ultrasound as a typical mechanical wave has been extensively developed as a physical tool for versatile biomedical applications. Especially, the prosperity of nanotechnology and nanomedicine invigorates the landscape of ultrasound-based medicine. The unprecedented surge in research enthusiasm and dedicated efforts have led to a mass of multifunctional micro-/nanosystems being applied in ultrasound biomedicine, facilitating precise diagnosis, effective treatment, and personalized theranostics. The effective deployment of versatile ultrasound-based micro-/nanosystems in biomedical applications is rooted in a profound understanding of the relationship among composition, structure, property, bioactivity, application, and performance. In this comprehensive review, we elaborate on the general principles regarding the design, synthesis, functionalization, and optimization of ultrasound-based micro-/nanosystems for abundant biomedical applications. In particular, recent advancements in ultrasound-based micro-/nanosystems for diagnostic imaging are meticulously summarized. Furthermore, we systematically elucidate state-of-the-art studies concerning recent progress in ultrasound-based micro-/nanosystems for therapeutic applications targeting various pathological abnormalities including cancer, bacterial infection, brain diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and metabolic diseases. Finally, we conclude and provide an outlook on this research field with an in-depth discussion of the challenges faced and future developments for further extensive clinical translation and application.

Advancements in oral insulin: A century of research and the emergence of targeted nanoparticle strategies

With the growing prevalence of diabetes, there is an urgent demand for a user‐friendly treatment option that minimizes side effects related to the use of subcutaneous injections. Scientists have dedicated over a century to developing an oral dosage form of insulin that can be administrated orally. The oral route of administration is the most desirable route for regularly dosed drugs in terms of safety and patient compliance. However, oral delivery of insulin remains a formidable challenge due to its intrinsically limited ability to cross the intestinal epithelium membrane and susceptibility to enzymatic degradation. This article reviews oral insulin research over the past decade, with a particular focus on surface modifications of nanoparticles (NPs). Various strategies involving controlling surface charges, utilizing protective proteins, and targeting specific receptors with ligands have been explored. Notably, surface modifications of the NPs for targeting specific intestinal receptors have shown promise in enhancing insulin oral absorption and bioavailability. Advanced technologies such as oral microneedles and gene therapy have also been developed, but their safety requires further assessment. Despite encouraging preclinical results across numerous strategies, the current clinical evidence is less optimistic. In summary, the present findings highlight the substantial journey that still lies ahead before achieving successful oral delivery of insulin.

Practical Applications: This review provides a summary of recent progress in oral insulin delivery, particularly highlighting surface‐modified functional nanoparticles serving as an effective drug delivery system, which offers valuable information to the researchers. Due to the limited effectiveness of oral protein drugs caused by biological barriers, innovative technologies and drug delivery systems have been developed to overcome these obstacles and achieve therapeutic goals. This review concluded that surface modifications to nanoparticles can improve insulin stability and permeability, thereby enhancing oral bioavailability. It could assist researchers in developing more effective and patient‐friendly oral drug delivery systems.

Advanced gene nanocarriers/scaffolds in nonviral-mediated delivery system for tissue regeneration and repair

Tissue regeneration technology has been rapidly developed and widely applied in tissue engineering and repair. Compared with traditional approaches like surgical treatment, the rising gene therapy is able to have a durable effect on tissue regeneration, such as impaired bone regeneration, articular cartilage repair and cancer-resected tissue repair. Gene therapy can also facilitate the production of in situ therapeutic factors, thus minimizing the diffusion or loss of gene complexes and enabling spatiotemporally controlled release of gene products for tissue regeneration. Among different gene delivery vectors and supportive gene-activated matrices, advanced gene/drug nanocarriers attract exceptional attraction due to their tunable physiochemical properties, as well as excellent adaptive performance in gene therapy for tissue regeneration, such as bone, cartilage, blood vessel, nerve and cancer-resected tissue repair. This paper reviews the recent advances on nonviral-mediated gene delivery systems with an emphasis on the important role of advanced nanocarriers in gene therapy and tissue regeneration.

De novo design of a nanoregulator for the dynamic restoration of ovarian tissue in cryopreservation and transplantation

The cryopreservation and transplantation of ovarian tissue underscore its paramount importance in safeguarding reproductive capacity and ameliorating reproductive disorders. However, challenges persist in ovarian tissue cryopreservation and transplantation (OTC-T), including the risk of tissue damage and dysfunction. Consequently, there has been a compelling exploration into the realm of nanoregulators to refine and enhance these procedures. This review embarks on a meticulous examination of the intricate anatomical structure of the ovary and its microenvironment, thereby establishing a robust groundwork for the development of nanomodulators. It systematically categorizes nanoregulators and delves deeply into their functions and mechanisms, meticulously tailored for optimizing ovarian tissue cryopreservation and transplantation. Furthermore, the review imparts valuable insights into the practical applications and obstacles encountered in clinical settings associated with OTC-T. Moreover, the review advocates for the utilization of microbially derived nanomodulators as a potent therapeutic intervention in ovarian tissue cryopreservation. The progression of these approaches holds the promise of seamlessly integrating nanoregulators into OTC-T practices, thereby heralding a new era of expansive applications and auspicious prospects in this pivotal domain.

Revolution in Cancer Treatment: How Are Intelligently Designed Nanostructures Changing the Game?

Nanoparticles (NPs) are extremely important tools to overcome the limitations imposed by therapeutic agents and effectively overcome biological barriers. Smart designed/tuned nanostructures can be extremely effective for cancer treatment. The selection and design of nanostructures and the adjustment of size and surface properties are extremely important, especially for some precision treatments and drug delivery (DD). By designing specific methods, an important era can be opened in the biomedical field for personalized and precise treatment. Here, we focus on advances in the selection and design of nanostructures, as well as on how the structure and shape, size, charge, and surface properties of nanostructures in biological fluids (BFs) can be affected. We discussed the applications of specialized nanostructures in the therapy of head and neck cancer (HNC), which is a difficult and aggressive type of cancer to treat, to give an impetus for novel treatment approaches in this field. We also comprehensively touched on the shortcomings, current trends, and future perspectives when using nanostructures in the treatment of cancer.

A multi-mode Rhein-based nano-platform synergizing ferrotherapy/chemotherapy-induced immunotherapy for enhanced tumor therapy

Ferroptosis has emerged as a promising strategy for treating triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) due to bypassing apoptosis and triggering immunogenic cell death (ICD) of tumor cells. However, the antitumor efficacy has been limited by the insufficient intracellular ferrous iron concentration required for ferroptosis and inadequate antitumor immune response. To address these limitations, we designed a multi-mode nano-platform (MP-FA@R-F NPs), which exhibited a synergistic effect of ferroptosis, apoptosis and induced immune response for enhanced antitumor therapy. MP-FA@R-F NPs target folate receptors, which are over-expressed on the tumor cell's surface to promote intracellular uptake. The cargoes, including Rhein and Fe3O4, would be released in intracellular acid, accelerating by NIR laser irradiation. The released Rhein induced apoptosis of tumor cells mediated by the caspase 3 signal pathway, while the released Fe3O4 triggered ferroptosis through the Fenton reaction and endowed the nanoplatform with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) capabilities. In addition, ferroptosis-dying tumor cells could release damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) to promote T cell activation and infiltration for immune response and induce immunogenic cell death (ICD) for tumor immunotherapy. Together, MP-FA@R-F NPs represent a potential synergistic ferro-/chemo-/immuno-therapy strategy with MRI guidance for enhanced antitumor therapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The massive strategies of cancer therapy based on ferroptosis have been emerging in recent years, which provided new insights into designing materials for cancer therapy. However, the antitumor efficacy of ferroptosis is still unsatisfactory, mainly due to insufficient intracellular pro-ferroptotic stimuli. In the current study, we designed a multi-mode nano-platform (MP-FA@R-F NPs), which represented a potential synergistic ferro-/chemo-/immuno-therapy strategy with MRI guidance for enhanced antitumor therapy.

Laser-Synthesized Germanium Nanoparticles as Biodegradable Material for Near-Infrared Photoacoustic Imaging and Cancer Phototherapy

Biodegradable nanomaterials can significantly improve the safety profile of nanomedicine. Germanium nanoparticles (Ge NPs) with a safe biodegradation pathway are developed as efficient photothermal converters for biomedical applications. Ge NPs synthesized by femtosecond-laser ablation in liquids rapidly dissolve in physiological-like environment through the oxidation mechanism. The biodegradation of Ge nanoparticles is preserved in tumor cells in vitro and in normal tissues in mice with a half-life as short as 3.5 days. Biocompatibility of Ge NPs is confirmed in vivo by hematological, biochemical, and histological analyses. Strong optical absorption of Ge in the near-infrared spectral range enables photothermal treatment of engrafted tumors in vivo, following intravenous injection of Ge NPs. The photothermal therapy results in a 3.9-fold reduction of the EMT6/P adenocarcinoma tumor growth with significant prolongation of the mice survival. Excellent mass-extinction of Ge NPs (7.9 L g-1 cm-1 at 808 nm) enables photoacoustic imaging of bones and tumors, following intravenous and intratumoral administrations of the nanomaterial. As such, strongly absorbing near-infrared-light biodegradable Ge nanomaterial holds promise for advanced theranostics.

In Vivo Toxicology of Metabolizable Atomically Precise Au25 Clusters at Ultrahigh Doses

Ultrasmall Au25(MPA)18 clusters show great potential in biocatalysts and bioimaging due to their well-defined, tunable structure and properties. Hence, in vivo pharmacokinetics and toxicity of Au nanoclusters (Au NCs) are very important for clinical translation, especially at high dosages. Herein, the in vivo hematological, tissue, and neurological effects following exposure to Au NCs (300 and 500 mg kg-1) were investigated, in which the concentration is 10 times higher than in therapeutic use. The biochemical and hematological parameters of the injected Au NCs were within normal limits, even at the ultrahigh level of 500 mg kg-1. Meanwhile, no histopathological changes were observed in the Au NC group, and immunofluorescence staining showed no obvious lesions in the major organs. Furthermore, real-time near-infrared-II (NIR-II) imaging showed that most of the Au25(MPA)18 and Au24Zn1(MPA)18 can be metabolized via the kidney. The results demonstrated that Au NCs exhibit good biosafety by evaluating the manifestation of toxic effects on major organs at ultrahigh doses, providing reliable data for their application in biomedicine.

Progress in the Treatment of Central Nervous System Diseases Based on Nanosized Traditional Chinese Medicine

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is widely used in clinical practice to treat diseases related to central nervous system (CNS) damage. However, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) constitutes a significant impediment to the effective delivery of TCM, thus substantially diminishing its efficacy. Advances in nanotechnology and its applications in TCM (also known as nano-TCM) can deliver active ingredients or components of TCM across the BBB to the targeted brain region. This review provides an overview of the physiological and pathological mechanisms of the BBB and systematically classifies the common TCM used to treat CNS diseases and types of nanocarriers that effectively deliver TCM to the brain. Additionally, drug delivery strategies for nano-TCMs that utilize in vivo physiological properties or in vitro devices to bypass or cross the BBB are discussed. This review further focuses on the application of nano-TCMs in the treatment of various CNS diseases. Finally, this article anticipates a design strategy for nano-TCMs with higher delivery efficiency and probes their application potential in treating a wider range of CNS diseases.

Tackling myelin deficits in neurodevelopmental disorders using drug delivery systems

Interest in myelin and its roles in almost all brain functions has been greatly increasing in recent years, leading to countless new studies on myelination, as a dominant process in the development of cognitive functions. Here, we explore the unique role myelin plays in the central nervous system and specifically discuss the results of altered myelination in neurodevelopmental disorders. We present parallel developmental trajectories involving myelination that correlate with the onset of cognitive impairment in neurodevelopmental disorders and discuss the key challenges in the treatment of these chronic disorders. Recent developments in drug repurposing and nano/micro particle-based therapies are reviewed as a possible pathway to circumvent some of the main hurdles associated with early intervention, including patient's adherence and compliance, side effects, relapse, and faster route to possible treatment of these disorders. The strategy of drug encapsulation overcomes drug solubility and metabolism, with the possibility of drug targeting to a specific compartment, reducing side effects upon systemic administration.

Pulmonary inhalation for disease treatment: Basic research and clinical translations

Pulmonary drug delivery has the advantages of being rapid, efficient, and well-targeted, with few systemic side effects. In addition, it is non-invasive and has good patient compliance, making it a highly promising drug delivery mode. However, there have been limited studies on drug delivery via pulmonary inhalation compared with oral and intravenous modes. This paper summarizes the basic research and clinical translation of pulmonary inhalation drug delivery for the treatment of diseases and provides insights into the latest advances in pulmonary drug delivery. The paper discusses the processing methods for pulmonary drug delivery, drug carriers (with a focus on various types of nanoparticles), delivery devices, and applications in pulmonary diseases and treatment of systemic diseases (e.g., COVID-19, inhaled vaccines, diagnosis of the diseases, and diabetes mellitus) with an updated summary of recent research advances. Furthermore, this paper describes the applications and recent progress in pulmonary drug delivery for lung diseases and expands the use of pulmonary drugs for other systemic diseases.

Spherical nucleic acids: emerging amplifiers for therapeutic nanoplatforms

Gene therapy is a revolutionary treatment approach in the 21st century, offering significant potential for disease prevention and treatment. However, the efficacy of gene delivery is often compromised by the inherent challenges of gene properties and vector-related defects. It is crucial to explore ways to enhance the curative effect of gene drugs and achieve safer, more widespread, and more efficient utilization, which represents a significant challenge in amplification gene therapy advancements. Spherical nucleic acids (SNAs), with their unique physicochemical properties, are considered an innovative solution for scalable gene therapy. This review aims to comprehensively explore the amplifying contributions of SNAs in gene therapy and emphasize the contribution of SNAs to the amplification effect of gene therapy from the aspects of structure, application, and recent clinical translation - an aspect that has been rarely reported or explored thus far. We begin by elucidating the fundamental characteristics and scaling-up properties of SNAs that distinguish them from traditional linear nucleic acids, followed by an analysis of combined therapy treatment strategies, theranostics, and clinical translation amplified by SNAs. We conclude by discussing the challenges of SNAs and provide a prospect on the amplification characteristics. This review seeks to update the current understanding of the use of SNAs in gene therapy amplification and promote further research into their clinical translation and amplification of gene therapy.

Nanotechnology's frontier in combatting infectious and inflammatory diseases: prevention and treatment

Inflammation-associated diseases encompass a range of infectious diseases and non-infectious inflammatory diseases, which continuously pose one of the most serious threats to human health, attributed to factors such as the emergence of new pathogens, increasing drug resistance, changes in living environments and lifestyles, and the aging population. Despite rapid advancements in mechanistic research and drug development for these diseases, current treatments often have limited efficacy and notable side effects, necessitating the development of more effective and targeted anti-inflammatory therapies. In recent years, the rapid development of nanotechnology has provided crucial technological support for the prevention, treatment, and detection of inflammation-associated diseases. Various types of nanoparticles (NPs) play significant roles, serving as vaccine vehicles to enhance immunogenicity and as drug carriers to improve targeting and bioavailability. NPs can also directly combat pathogens and inflammation. In addition, nanotechnology has facilitated the development of biosensors for pathogen detection and imaging techniques for inflammatory diseases. This review categorizes and characterizes different types of NPs, summarizes their applications in the prevention, treatment, and detection of infectious and inflammatory diseases. It also discusses the challenges associated with clinical translation in this field and explores the latest developments and prospects. In conclusion, nanotechnology opens up new possibilities for the comprehensive management of infectious and inflammatory diseases.

Applications of nanomaterials in anti-VEGF treatment for ophthalmic diseases

Angiogenesis has been determined to be essential in the occurrence and metastasis of diabetic retinopathy (DR), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), retinal vein occlusion (RVO), choroidal neovascularization (CNV), retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), tumor, etc. However, the clinical use of anti-vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF) drugs is currently limited due to its high cost, potential side effects, and need for repeated injections. In recent years, nanotechnology has shown promising results in inhibiting neovascularization and reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) or inflammatory factors. Some nanomaterials can also act as vehicles for drug delivery, such as lipid nanoparticles and PLGA. The process of angiogenesis and its molecular mechanism are discussed in this article. At the same time, this study aims to systematically review the research progress of nanotechnology and offer more treatment options for neovascularization-related diseases in clinical ophthalmology.

Nanotechnology-based non-viral vectors for gene delivery in cardiovascular diseases

Gene therapy is a technique that rectifies defective or abnormal genes by introducing exogenous genes into target cells to cure the disease. Although gene therapy has gained some accomplishment for the diagnosis and therapy of inherited or acquired cardiovascular diseases, how to efficiently and specifically deliver targeted genes to the lesion sites without being cleared by the blood system remains challenging. Based on nanotechnology development, the non-viral vectors provide a promising strategy for overcoming the difficulties in gene therapy. At present, according to the physicochemical properties, nanotechnology-based non-viral vectors include polymers, liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles. Non-viral vectors have an advantage in safety, efficiency, and easy production, possessing potential clinical application value when compared with viral vectors. Therefore, we summarized recent research progress of gene therapy for cardiovascular diseases based on commonly used non-viral vectors, hopefully providing guidance and orientation for future relevant research.

Future Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for Improved Management of Helicobacter pylori Infection

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a recalcitrant pathogen, which can cause gastric disorders. During the past decades, polypharmacy-based regimens, such as triple and quadruple therapies have been widely used against H. pylori. However, polyantibiotic therapies can disturb the host gastric/gut microbiota and lead to antibiotic resistance. Thus, simpler but more effective approaches should be developed. Here, some recent advances in nanostructured drug delivery systems to treat H. pylori infection are summarized. Also, for the first time, a drug release paradigm is proposed to prevent H. pylori antibiotic resistance along with an IVIVC model in order to connect the drug release profile with a reduction in bacterial colony counts. Then, local delivery systems including mucoadhesive, mucopenetrating, and cytoadhesive nanobiomaterials are discussed in the battle against H. pylori infection. Afterward, engineered delivery platforms including polymer-coated nanoemulsions and polymer-coated nanoliposomes are poposed. These bioinspired platforms can contain an antimicrobial agent enclosed within smart multifunctional nanoformulations. These bioplatforms can prevent the development of antibiotic resistance, as well as specifically killing H. pylori with no or only slight negative effects on the host gastrointestinal microbiota. Finally, the essential checkpoints that should be passed to confirm the potential effectiveness of anti-H. pylori nanosystems are discussed.

Nose-to-brain drug delivery for the treatment of glioblastoma multiforme: nanotechnological interventions

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive malignant brain tumor with a short survival rate. Extensive research is underway for the last two decades to find an effective treatment for GBM but the tortuous pathophysiology, development of chemoresistance, and presence of BBB are the major challenges, prompting scientists to look for alternative targets and delivery strategies. Therefore, the nose to brain delivery emerged as an unorthodox and non-invasive route, which delivers the drug directly to the brain via the olfactory and trigeminal pathways and also bypasses the BBB and hepatic metabolism of the drug. However, mucociliary clearance, low administration volume, and less permeability of nasal mucosa are the obstacles retrenching the brain drug concentration. Thus, nanocarrier delivery through this route may conquer these limitations because of their unique surface characteristics and smaller size. In this review, we have emphasized the advantages and limitations of nanocarrier technologies such as polymeric, lipidic, inorganic, and miscellaneous nanoparticles used for nose-to-brain drug delivery against GBM in the past 10 years. Furthermore, recent advances, patents, and clinical trials are highlighted. However, most of these studies are in the early stages, so translating their outcomes into a marketed formulation would be a milestone in the better progression and survival of glioma patients.

Nanomedicine for Diagnosis and Treatment of Atherosclerosis

With the changing disease spectrum, atherosclerosis has become increasingly prevalent worldwide and the associated diseases have emerged as the leading cause of death. Due to their fascinating physical, chemical, and biological characteristics, nanomaterials are regarded as a promising tool to tackle enormous challenges in medicine. The emerging discipline of nanomedicine has filled a huge application gap in the atherosclerotic field, ushering a new generation of diagnosis and treatment strategies. Herein, based on the essential pathogenic contributors of atherogenesis, as well as the distinct composition/structural characteristics, synthesis strategies, and surface design of nanoplatforms, the three major application branches (nanodiagnosis, nanotherapy, and nanotheranostic) of nanomedicine in atherosclerosis are elaborated. Then, state-of-art studies containing a sequence of representative and significant achievements are summarized in detail with an emphasis on the intrinsic interaction/relationship between nanomedicines and atherosclerosis. Particularly, attention is paid to the biosafety of nanomedicines, which aims to pave the way for future clinical translation of this burgeoning field. Finally, this comprehensive review is concluded by proposing unresolved key scientific issues and sharing the vision and expectation for the future, fully elucidating the closed loop from atherogenesis to the application paradigm of nanomedicines for advancing the early achievement of clinical applications.

Antitumor effect of algae silver nanoparticles on human triple negative breast cancer cells

In recent years, metallic nanoparticles have gained increasing attention due to their prospective applications in the field of nanomedicine, with increasing research into their use in cancer therapy. In this current research, we investigated the effect of green synthesized Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) capped with Noctiluca scintillans algae extract. The phytochemicals present in the shell of AgNPs were identified using GC-MS. Different compounds with anticancer activity such as n-hexadecanoic acid, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol and palmitic acid were detected among others. The effects of Algae-AgNPs synthesized were tested on MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells and HaCat human keratinocyte normal cells. Cell viability assay revealed a time and dose-dependent effect against breast cancer cells with a less potent effect against normal cells. The cell viability reduction is not attributed to a cytotoxic nor an antiproliferative effect of the Algae-AgNPs as attested by LDH release and BrdU incorporation. Algae-AgNPs exhibited an exceptional ability to specifically induce apoptosis in cancer cells and not normal cells. The observed effects are not attributed to the AgNPs, as demonstrated by the lack of impact of the Starch-AgNPs (used as a negative control) on cell survival and apoptosis. In addition to that, we show that Algae-AgNPs significantly reduced tumor cell migration by downregulation of matrix metalloprotease-9 levels. In vivo, the breast cancer xenograft model showed a significant reduction of tumor growth in mice treated with Algae-AgNPs. These findings highlight the promising potential of the green synthesized AgNPs as a safe targeted therapy for cancer treatment.