Subcellular visualization: Organelle-specific targeted drug delivery and discovery

Advances in fluorescent natural products for imaging localization and biological applications

Natural products play a crucial role in biological activities, yet the quest for novel natural products faces increasing challenges due to the complexities of structural exploration and efficacy evaluation. Besides, traditional methods for evaluating natural products primarily focus on non-fluorescent efficacy studies at animal level or multicellular accumulation level, lacking of intuitive fluorescence presentation at the single cell or organelle level. This limitation disrupts our understanding of the effectiveness of natural products and constrains their biological activities. The most striking example is that fluorescent natural products offer a unique but often overlooked dual function: they not only exhibit biological activities but also may provide real-time fluorescent signals for tracking within biological systems. This review highlights the exciting advances in imaging localization of fluorescent natural products combined with advanced imaging techniques, summarizes the structural characteristics and application criteria of fluorescent natural products, and explores their feasibility in visual localization and biological activities. This synthesis underscores the need for a systematic exploration of fluorescent natural products, towards a transformative impact on drug development and disease understanding.

Organelle-oriented nanomedicines in tumor therapy: Targeting, escaping, or collaborating?

Precise tumor therapy is essential for improving treatment specificity, enhancing efficacy, and minimizing side effects. Targeting organelles is a key strategy for achieving this goal and is a frontier research area attracting a considerable amount of attention. The concept of organelle targeting has a significant effect on the structural design of the nanodrugs employed. Most notably, the intricate interactions among different organelles in a tumor cell essentially create a unified system. Unfortunately, this aspect might have been somewhat overlooked when existing organelle-targeting nanodrugs were designed. In this review, we underscore the synergistic relationship among the various organelles and advocate for a holistic view of organelle-targeting design. Through the integration of biology and material science, recent advancements in organelle targeting, escaping, and collaborating are consolidated to offer fresh perspectives for the development of antitumor nanomedicines.

Targeting lipid metabolism via nanomedicine: A prospective strategy for cancer therapy

Lipid metabolism has been increasingly recognized to play an influencing role in tumor initiation, progression, metastasis, and therapeutic drug resistance. Targeting lipid metabolic reprogramming represents a promising therapeutic strategy. Despite their structural complexity and poor targeting efficacy, lipid-metabolizing drugs, either used alone or in combination with chemotherapeutic agents, have been employed in clinical practice. The advent of nanotechnology offers new approaches to enhancing therapeutic effects, includingthe targeted delivery and integration of lipid metabolic reprogramming with chemotherapy, photodynamic therapy (PDT), and immunotherapy. The integrated nanoformulation, nanomedicine, could significantly advance the field of lipid metabolism therapy. In this review, we will briefly introduce the concept of cancer lipid metabolism reprogramming, then elaborate the latest advances in engineered nanomedicine for targeting lipid metabolism during cancer treatment, and finally provide our insights into future perspectives of nanomedicine for interference with lipid metabolism in the tumor microenvironment.

DNA Nanostructures for Rational Regulation of Cellular Organelles

DNA nanotechnology has revolutionized materials science and biomedicine by enabling precise manipulation of matter at the nanoscale. DNA nanostructures (DNs) in particular represent a promising frontier for targeted therapeutics. Engineered DNs offer unprecedented molecular programmability, biocompatibility, and structural versatility, making them ideal candidates for advanced drug delivery, organelle regulation, and cellular function modulation. This Perspective explores the emerging role of DNs in modulating cellular behavior through organelle-targeted interventions. We highlight current advances in nuclear, mitochondrial, and lysosomal targeting, showcasing applications ranging from gene delivery to cancer therapeutics. For instance, DNs have enabled precision mitochondrial disruption in cancer cells, lysosomal pH modulation to enhance gene silencing, and nuclear delivery of gene-editing templates. While DNs hold immense promise for advancing nanomedicine, outstanding challenges include optimizing biological interactions and addressing safety concerns. This Perspective highlights the current potential of DNs for rational control of targeted organelles, which could lead to novel therapeutic strategies and advancement of precision nanomedicines in the future.

Magnetic hyperthermia-triggered multi-functional thermo-responsive lipid nanoparticles for enhanced paclitaxel release and cytotoxicity

The inadequate safety and efficacy of chemotherapy have led cancer medicine to focus on localizing drug delivery to the target. Thermoresponsive nanocarriers (liposomes and polymeric networks) exploit local hyperthermia to trigger targeted payload release; however, their low stability and unpredictable fate in vivo have led to failure in clinical studies. To overcome these challenges, we reported first-of-its-kind thermoresponsive lipid nanoparticles (TLNs) that undergo solid-liquid phase transition under hyperthermia to release the payload. This study enabled TLNs with on-demand drug delivery functionality to breast cancer cells by incorporating magnetically activated iron oxide nanoparticles (γ-Fe2O3) into a lauric and oleic acid-based phase-changing lipid-matrix to synthesize paclitaxel (PTX)- and γ-Fe2O3-loaded TLNs (P-γ-TLN). Critical independent variables were selected and then optimized using a central composite design to obtain the optimized formulation, P-γ-TLN 12, with a size of ∼183 nm, polydispersity of 0.50, zeta potential of -22 mV, and encapsulation efficiencies of 85% for PTX and 60.49% for γ-Fe2O3. Thermoresponsive delivery was confirmed, with TLNs remaining relatively stable at 37 °C for 72 h, releasing only 34.26% of the drug, whereas exposure to 45 °C resulted in more than a two-fold increase, releasing 79.35% over the same period. Under an external alternating magnetic field, γ-Fe2O3 generated hyperthermia and induced a phase transition in P-γ-TLN, leading to abrupt drug release. Both γ-Fe2O3 and TLNs exhibited high biocompatibility, but TLN encapsulation significantly improved uptake in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Under AMF, P-γ-TLN showed enhanced PTX release, resulting in more potent cytotoxicity against MCF-7 cells. The combination of high payload capacity, stimuli-responsive release, thermotherapy, and enhanced chemotherapeutic response highlights the substantial potential for TLNs in cancer therapy.

Proteomics and Machine Learning-Based Approach to Decipher Subcellular Proteome of Mouse Heart

Protein compartmentalization to distinctive subcellular niches is critical for cardiac function and homeostasis. Here, we employed a rapid and robust workflow based on differential centrifugal-based fractionation with mass spectrometry-based proteomics and bioinformatic analyses for systemic mapping of the subcellular proteome of mouse heart. Using supervised machine learning of 450 hallmark protein markers from 16 subcellular niches, we further refined the subcellular information of 2083 proteins with high confidence. Our data validation focused on specific subcellular niches such as mitochondria, cell surface, cardiac dyad, myofibril, and nuclear, unfolding dominant subcellular localization of proteins in their native environment of mouse heart. We further provide targeted nuclear enrichment and co-immunoprecipitation-based proteomic validation from the heart of nuclear-localizing protein networks. This study provides novel insights into the molecular landscape of different subcellular niches of the heart and serves as a draft map for heart subcellular proteome.

Advances in Cytosolic Delivery of Proteins: Approaches, Challenges, and Emerging Technologies

Although therapeutic proteins have achieved recognized clinical success, they are inherently membrane impermeable, which limits them to acting only on extracellular or membrane-associated targets. Developing an efficient protein delivery method will provide a unique opportunity for intracellular target-related therapeutic proteins. In this review article, we summarize the different pathways by which cells take up proteins. These pathways fall into two main categories: One in which proteins are transported directly across the cell membrane and the other through endocytosis. At the same time, important features to ensure successful delivery through these pathways are highlighted. We then provide a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in the transduction of covalent protein modifications, such as coupling cell-penetrating motifs and supercharging, as well as the use of nanocarriers to mediate protein transport, such as liposomes, polymers, and inorganic nanoparticles. Finally, we emphasize the existing challenges of cytoplasmic protein delivery and provide an outlook for future progress.

Subcellular Organelle Targeting as a Novel Approach to Combat Tumor Metastasis

Tumor metastasis, the spread of cancer cells from the primary site to distant organs, remains a formidable challenge in oncology. Central to this process is the involvement of subcellular organelles, which undergo significant functional and structural changes during metastasis. Targeting these specific organelles offers a promising avenue for enhanced drug delivery and metastasis therapeutic efficacy. This precision increases the potency and reduces potential off-target effects. Moreover, by understanding the role of each organelle in metastasis, treatments can be designed to disrupt the metastatic process at multiple stages, from cell migration to the establishment of secondary tumors. This review delves deeply into tumor metastasis processes and their connection with subcellular organelles. In order to target these organelles, biomembranes, cell-penetrating peptides, localization signal peptides, aptamers, specific small molecules, and various other strategies have been developed. In this review, we will elucidate targeting delivery strategies for each subcellular organelle and look forward to prospects in this domain.

SubCELL: the landscape of subcellular compartment-specific molecular interactions

The subcellular compartment-specific molecular interactions (SCSIs) are the building blocks for most molecular functions, biological processes and disease pathogeneses. Extensive experiments have therefore been conducted to accumulate the valuable information of SCSIs, but none of the available databases has been constructed to describe those data. In this study, a novel knowledge base SubCELL is thus introduced to depict the landscape of SCSIs among DNAs/RNAs/proteins. This database is UNIQUE in (a) providing, for the first time, the experimentally-identified SCSIs, (b) systematically illustrating a large number of SCSIs inferred based on well-established method and (c) collecting experimentally-determined subcellular locations for the DNAs/RNAs/proteins of diverse species. Given the essential physiological/pathological role of SCSIs, the SubCELL is highly expected to have great implications for modern molecular biological study, which can be freely accessed with no login requirement at: https://idrblab.org/subcell/.

Triphenylphosphine-Modified IridiumIII, RhodiumIII, and RutheniumII Complexes to Achieve Enhanced Anticancer Selectivity by Targeting Mitochondria

The incorporation of an organelle-targeting moiety into compounds has proven to be an effective strategy in the development of targeted anticancer drugs. We herein report the synthesis, characterization, and biological evaluation of novel triphenylphosphine-modified half-sandwich iridiumIII, rhodiumIII, and rutheniumII complexes. The primary goal was to enhance anticancer selectivity through mitochondrial targeting. All these triphenylphosphine-modified complexes exhibited promising cytotoxicity in the micromolar range (5.13-23.22) against A549 and HeLa cancer cell lines, surpassing the activity of comparative complexes that lack the triphenylphosphine moiety. Noteworthy is their good selectivity toward cancer cells compared to normal BEAS-2B cells, underscored by selectivity index ranging from 7.3 to >19.5. Mechanistically, these complexes primarily target mitochondria rather than interacting with DNA. The targeting of mitochondria and triggering mitochondrial dysfunction were confirmed using both confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. Their ability to depolarize mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and enhance reactive oxygen species (ROS) was observed, thereby leading to intrinsic apoptotic pathways. Moreover, these complexes lead to cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase and demonstrated antimigration effects, significantly inhibiting the migration of A549 cells in wound-healing assays.

AI-driven precision subcellular navigation with fluorescent probes

Precise navigation within intricate biological systems is pivotal for comprehending cellular functions and diagnosing diseases. Fluorescent molecular probes, designed to target specific biological molecules, are indispensable tools for this endeavor. This paper delves into the revolutionary potential of artificial intelligence (AI) in crafting highly precise and effective fluorescent probes. We will discuss how AI can be employed to: design new subcellular dyes by optimizing physicochemical properties; design prospective subcellular targeting probes based on specific receptors; quantitatively explore the potential chemical laws of fluorescent molecules to optimize the optical properties of fluorescent probes; optimize the comprehensive properties of the probe and guide the construction of multifunctional targeting probes. Additionally, we showcase recent AI-driven advancements in probe development and their successful biomedical applications, while addressing challenges and outlining future directions towards transforming subcellular research, diagnostics, and drug discovery.

Spontaneous-stimulated Raman co-localization dual-modal analysis approach for efficient identification of tumor cells

The study of highly heterogeneous tumor cells, especially acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells, usually relies on invasive analytical methods such as morphology, immunology, cytogenetics, and molecular biology classification, which are complex and time-consuming to perform. Mortality is high if patients are not diagnosed in a timely manner, so rapid label-free analysis of gene expression and metabolites within single-cell substructures is extremely important for clinical diagnosis and treatment. As a label-free and non-destructive vibrational detection technique, spontaneous Raman scattering provides molecular information across the full spectrum of the cell but lacks rapid imaging localization capabilities. In contrast, stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) provides a high-speed, high-resolution imaging view that can offer real-time subcellular localization assistance for spontaneous Raman spectroscopic detection. In this paper, we combined multi-color SRS microscopy with spontaneous Raman to develop a co-localized Raman imaging and spectral detection system (CRIS) for high-speed chemical imaging and quantitative spectral analysis of subcellular structures. Combined with multivariate statistical analysis methods, CRIS efficiently differentiated AML from normal leukocytes with an accuracy of 98.1 % and revealed the differences in the composition of nuclei and cytoplasm of AML relative to normal leukocytes. Compared to conventional Raman spectroscopy blind sampling without imaging localization, CRIS increased the efficiency of single-cell detection by at least three times. In addition, using the same approach for further identification of AML subtypes M2 and M3, we demonstrated that intracytoplasmic differential expression of proteins is a marker for their rapid and accurate classifying. CRIS analysis methods are expected to pave the way for clinical translation of rapid tumor cell identification.

Subcellular targeting strategies for protein and peptide delivery

Cytosolic delivery of proteins and peptides provides opportunities for effective disease treatment, as they can specifically modulate intracellular processes. However, most of protein-based therapeutics only have extracellular targets and are cell-membrane impermeable due to relatively large size and hydrophilicity. The use of organelle-targeting strategy offers great potential to overcome extracellular and cell membrane barriers, and enables localization of protein and peptide therapeutics in the organelles. Although progresses have been made in the recent years, organelle-targeted protein and peptide delivery is still challenging and under exploration. We reviewed recent advances in subcellular targeted delivery of proteins/peptides with a focus on targeting mechanisms and strategies, and highlight recent examples of active and passive organelle-specific protein and peptide delivery systems. This emerging platform could open a new avenue to develop more effective protein and peptide therapeutics.

Precise subcellular targeting approaches for organelle-related disorders

Pharmacological research has expanded to the nanoscale level with advanced imaging technologies, enabling the analysis of drug distribution at the cellular organelle level. These advances in research techniques have contributed to the targeting of cellular organelles to address the fundamental causes of diseases. Beyond navigating the hurdles of reaching lesion tissues upon administration and identifying target cells within these tissues, controlling drug accumulation at the organelle level is the most refined method of disease management. This approach opens new avenues for the development of more potent therapeutic strategies by delving into the intricate roles and interplay of cellular organelles. Thus, organelle-targeted approaches help overcome the limitations of conventional therapies by precisely regulating functionally compartmentalized spaces based on their environment. This review discusses the basic concepts of organelle targeting research and proposes strategies to target diseases arising from organelle dysfunction. We also address the current challenges faced by organelle targeting and explore future research directions.

Quantitative Three-Dimensional Imaging Analysis of HfO2 Nanoparticles in Single Cells via Deep Learning Aided X-ray Nano-Computed Tomography

It is crucial for understanding mechanisms of drug action to quantify the three-dimensional (3D) drug distribution within a single cell at nanoscale resolution. Yet it remains a great challenge due to limited lateral resolution, detection sensitivities, and reconstruction problems. The preferable method is using X-ray nano-computed tomography (Nano-CT) to observe and analyze drug distribution within cells, but it is time-consuming, requiring specialized expertise, and often subjective, particularly with ultrasmall metal nanoparticles (NPs). Furthermore, the accuracy of batch data analysis through conventional processing methods remains uncertain. In this study, we used radioenhancer ultrasmall HfO2 nanoparticles as a model to develop a modular and automated deep learning aided Nano-CT method for the localization quantitative analysis of ultrasmall metal NPs uptake in cancer cells. We have established an ultrasmall objects segmentation method for 3D Nano-CT images in single cells, which can highly sensitively analyze minute NPs and even ultrasmall NPs in single cells. We also constructed a localization quantitative analysis method, which may accurately segment the intracellularly bioavailable particles from those of the extracellular space and intracellular components and NPs. The high bioavailability of HfO2 NPs in tumor cells from deeper penetration in tumor tissue and higher tumor intracellular uptake provide mechanistic insight into HfO2 NPs as advanced radioenhancers in the combination of quantitative subcellular image analysis with the therapeutic effects of NPs on 3D tumor spheroids and breast cancer. Our findings unveil the substantial uptake rate and subcellular quantification of HfO2 NPs by the human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7). This revelation explicates the notable efficacy and safety profile of HfO2 NPs in tumor treatment. These findings demonstrate that this 3D imaging technique promoted by the deep learning algorithm has the potential to provide localization quantitative information about the 3D distributions of specific molecules at the nanoscale level. This study provides an approach for exploring the subcellular quantitative analysis of NPs in single cells, offering a valuable quantitative imaging tool for minute amounts or ultrasmall NPs.

In situ visualization of the cellular uptake and sub-cellular distribution of mussel oligosaccharides

Unlike chemosynthetic drugs designed for specific molecular and disease targets, active small-molecule natural products typically have a wide range of bioactivities and multiple targets, necessitating extensive screening and development. To address this issue, we propose a strategy for the direct in situ microdynamic examination of potential drug candidates to rapidly identify their effects and mechanisms of action. As a proof-of-concept, we investigated the behavior of mussel oligosaccharide (MOS-1) by tracking the subcellular dynamics of fluorescently labeled MOS-1 in cultured cells. We recorded the entire dynamic process of the localization of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-MOS-1 to the lysosomes and visualized the distribution of the drug within the cell. Remarkably, lysosomes containing FITC-MOS-1 actively recruited lipid droplets, leading to fusion events and increased cellular lipid consumption. These drug behaviors confirmed MOS-1 is a candidate for the treatment of lipid-related diseases. Furthermore, in a high-fat HepG2 cell model and in high-fat diet-fed apolipoprotein E (ApoE) -/- mice, MOS-1 significantly promoted triglyceride degradation, reduced lipid droplet accumulation, lowered serum triglyceride levels, and mitigated liver damage and steatosis. Overall, our work supports the prioritization of in situ visual monitoring of drug location and distribution in subcellular compartments during the drug development phase, as this methodology contributes to the rapid identification of drug indications. Collectively, this methodology is significant for the screening and development of selective small-molecule drugs, and is expected to expedite the identification of candidate molecules with medicinal effects.

The interactions of subcellular organelles in pulmonary fibrosis induced by carbon black nanoparticles: a comprehensive review

Owing to the widespread use and improper emissions of carbon black nanoparticles (CBNPs), the adverse effects of CBNPs on human health have attracted much attention. In toxicological research, carbon black is frequently utilized as a negative control because of its low toxicity and poor solubility. However, recent studies have indicated that inhalation exposure to CBNPs could be a risk factor for severe and prolonged pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis. At present, the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis induced by CBNPs is still not fully elucidated, but it is known that with small particle size and large surface area, CBNPs are more easily ingested by cells, leading to organelle damage and abnormal interactions between organelles. Damaged organelle and abnormal organelles interactions lead to cell structure and function disorders, which is one of the important factors in the development and occurrence of various diseases, including pulmonary fibrosis. This review offers a comprehensive analysis of organelle structure, function, and interaction mechanisms, while also summarizing the research advancements in organelles and organelle interactions in CBNPs-induced pulmonary fibrosis.

Dendritic Polymer-Based Nanomedicines Remodel the Tumor Stroma: Improve Drug Penetration and Enhance Antitumor Immune Response

The dense extracellular matrix (ECM) in solid tumors, contributed by cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), hinders penetration of drugs and diminishes their therapeutic outcomes. A sequential treatment strategy of remodeling the ECM via a CAF modifier (dasatinib, DAS) is proposed to promote penetration of an immunogenic cell death (ICD) inducer (epirubicin, Epi) via apoptotic vesicles, ultimately enhancing the treatment efficacy against breast cancer. Dendritic poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate) (POEGMA)-based nanomedicines (poly[OEGMA-Dendron(G2)-Gly-Phe-Leu-Gly-DAS] (P-DAS) and poly[OEGMA-Dendron(G2)-hydrazone-Epi] (P-Epi)) are developed for sequential delivery of DAS and Epi, respectively. P-DAS reprograms CAFs to reduce collagen by downregulating collagen anabolism and energy metabolism, thereby reducing the ECM deposition. The regulated ECM can enhance tumor penetration of P-Epi to strengthen its ICD effect, leading to an amplified antitumor immune response. In breast cancer-bearing mice, this approach alleviates the ECM barrier, resulting in reduced tumor burden and increased cytotoxic T lymphocyte infiltration, and more encouragingly, synergizes effectively with anti-programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) therapy, significantly inhibiting tumor growth and preventing lung metastasis. Furthermore, systemic toxicity is barely detectable after sequential treatment with P-DAS and P-Epi. This approach opens a new avenue for treating desmoplastic tumors by metabolically targeting CAFs to overcome the ECM barrier.

A high-throughput lysosome trafficking assay guides ligand selection and elucidates differences in CD22-targeted nanodelivery

Targeted nanoparticles offer potential to selectively deliver therapeutics to cells; however, their subcellular fate following endocytosis must be understood to properly design mechanisms of drug release. Here we describe a nanoparticle platform and associated cell-based assay to observe lysosome trafficking of targeted nanoparticles in live cells. The nanoparticle platform utilizes two fluorescent dyes loaded onto PEG-poly(glutamic acid) and PEG-poly(Lysine) block co-polymers that also comprise azide reactive handles on PEG termini to attach antibody-based targeting ligands. Fluorophores were selected to be pH-sensitive (pHrodo Red) or pH-insensitive (Alexafluor 488) to report when nanoparticles enter low pH lysosomes. Dye-labelled block co-polymers were further assembled into polyion complex micelle nanoparticles and crosslinked through amide bond formation to form stable nano-scaffolds for ligand attachment. Cell binding and lysosome trafficking was determined in live cells by fluorescence imaging in 96-well plates and quantification of red- and green-fluorescence signals over time. The platform and assay was validated for selection of optimal antibody-derived targeting ligands directed towards CD22 for nanoparticle delivery. Kinetic analysis of uptake and lysosome trafficking indicated differences between ligand types and the ligand with the highest lysosome trafficking efficiency translated into effective DNA delivery with nanoparticles bearing the optimal ligand.

Unlocking the Mitochondria for Nanomedicine-based Treatments: Overcoming Biological Barriers, Improving Designs, and Selecting Verification Techniques

Enhanced targeting approaches will support the treatment of diseases associated with dysfunctional mitochondria, which play critical roles in energy generation and cell survival. Obstacles to mitochondria-specific targeting include the presence of distinct biological barriers and the need to pass through (or avoid) various cell internalization mechanisms. A range of studies have reported the design of mitochondrially-targeted nanomedicines that navigate the complex routes required to influence mitochondrial function; nonetheless, a significant journey lies ahead before mitochondrially-targeted nanomedicines become suitable for clinical use. Moving swiftly forward will require safety studies, in vivo assays confirming effectiveness, and methodologies to validate mitochondria-targeted nanomedicines' subcellular location/activity. From a nanomedicine standpoint, we describe the biological routes involved (from administration to arrival within the mitochondria), the features influencing rational design, and the techniques used to identify/validate successful targeting. Overall, rationally-designed mitochondria-targeted-based nanomedicines hold great promise for precise subcellular therapeutic delivery.

Super-resolution imaging for in situ monitoring sub-cellular micro-dynamics of small molecule drug

Small molecule drugs play a pivotal role in the arsenal of anticancer pharmacological agents. Nonetheless, their small size poses a challenge when directly visualizing their localization, distribution, mechanism of action (MOA), and target engagement at the subcellular level in real time. We propose a strategy for developing triple-functioning drug beacons that seamlessly integrate therapeutically relevant bioactivity, precise subcellular localization, and direct visualization capabilities within a single molecular entity. As a proof of concept, we have meticulously designed and constructed a boronic acid fluorescence drug beacon using coumarin-hemicyanine (CHB). Our CHB design includes three pivotal features: a boronic acid moiety that binds both adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP), thus depleting their levels and disrupting the energy supply within mitochondria; a positively charged component that targets the drug beacon to mitochondria; and a sizeable conjugated luminophore that emits fluorescence, facilitating the application of structured illumination microscopy (SIM). Our study indicates the exceptional responsiveness of our proof-of-concept drug beacon to ADP and ATP, its efficacy in inhibiting tumor growth, and its ability to facilitate the tracking of ADP and ATP distribution around the mitochondrial cristae. Furthermore, our investigation reveals that the micro-dynamics of CHB induce mitochondrial dysfunction by causing damage to the mitochondrial cristae and mitochondrial DNA. Altogether, our findings highlight the potential of SIM in conjunction with visual drug design as a potent tool for monitoring the in situ MOA of small molecule anticancer compounds. This approach represents a crucial advancement in addressing a current challenge within the field of small molecule drug discovery and validation.

Unravelling the potential of mitochondria-targeted liposomes for enhanced cancer treatment

Mitochondria are the primary organelles of cells involved in various physiochemical and biochemical processes. Owing to their crucial role in cellular metabolism, mitochondria are favored therapeutic targets for the treatment and prevention of cancers. Recently, there has been growing interest in the use of mitochondria-specific functional nanoparticles for targeted delivery of therapeutic agents to these organelles. Among several nanosystems, liposomes have garnered considerable attention owing to their exceptional drug delivery capabilities, biocompatibility, biodegradability, ease of manufacturing and established regulatory guidelines for market approval. In this context, the present review provides a brief insight into the association between mitochondria and tumor formation and advantages of mitochondrial targeting in cancer therapy. Furthermore, it discusses mitochondria-targeting functional liposomes for the treatment of various cancers, such as breast, lung, colon, among others.

Mitochondrial nucleoid condensates drive peripheral fission through high membrane curvature

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles that undergo fusion and fission events, in which the mitochondrial membrane and DNA (mtDNA) play critical roles. The spatiotemporal organization of mtDNA reflects and impacts mitochondrial dynamics. Herein, to study the detailed dynamics of mitochondrial membrane and mtDNA, we rationally develop a dual-color fluorescent probe, mtGLP, that could be used for simultaneously monitoring mitochondrial membrane and mtDNA dynamics via separate color outputs. By combining mtGLP with structured illumination microscopy to monitor mitochondrial dynamics, we discover the formation of nucleoid condensates in damaged mitochondria. We further reveal that nucleoid condensates promoted the peripheral fission of damaged mitochondria via asymmetric segregation. Through simulations, we find that the peripheral fission events occurred when the nucleoid condensates interacted with the highly curved membrane regions at the two ends of the mitochondria. Overall, we show that mitochondrial nucleoid condensates utilize peripheral fission to maintain mitochondrial homeostasis.

Probing the dynamic crosstalk of lysosomes and mitochondria with structured illumination microscopy

Structured illumination microscopy (SIM) is a super-resolution technology for imaging living cells and has been used for studying the dynamics of lysosomes and mitochondria. Recently, new probes and analyzing methods have been developed for SIM imaging, enabling the quantitative analysis of these subcellular structures and their interactions. This review provides an overview of the working principle and advances of SIM, as well as the organelle-targeting principles and types of fluorescence probes, including small molecules, metal complexes, nanoparticles, and fluorescent proteins. Additionally, quantitative methods based on organelle morphology and distribution are outlined. Finally, the review provides an outlook on the current challenges and future directions for improving the combination of SIM imaging and image analysis to further advance the study of organelles. We hope that this review will be useful for researchers working in the field of organelle research and help to facilitate the development of SIM imaging and analysis techniques.

Application of super-resolution microscopy in mitochondria-dynamic diseases

Limited by spatial and temporal resolution, traditional optical microscopy cannot image the delicate ultra-structure organelles and sub-organelles. The emergence of super-resolution microscopy makes it possible. In this review, we focus on mitochondria. We summarize the process of mitochondrial dynamics, the primary proteins that regulate mitochondrial morphology, the diseases related to mitochondrial dynamics. The purpose is to apply super-resolution microscopy developed during recent years to the mitochondrial research. By providing the right research tools, we will help to promote the application of this technique to the in-depth elucidation of the pathogenesis of diseases related to mitochondrial dynamics, assistdiagnosis and develop the therapeutic treatment.