Consumption orientations may support (or hinder) transitions to more plant-based diets

Consumer Knowledge and Willingness Pertaining to the Adoption of a Sustainable Diet: A Scoping Review

The current food system is harming both planetary and human health. The shift to a sustainable diet can help alleviate both adverse effects. The aim of this review was to conduct a scoping review of the literature pertaining to consumer knowledge and willingness concerning the adoption of a sustainable diet. A total of 45 papers met the eligibility criteria. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines were employed to conduct the scoping review. Studies reported that many participants have misconceptions regarding the meaning of a sustainable diet, and their willingness to adopt a sustainable diet was oftentimes low. Evidence also suggests that the lack of knowledge regarding sustainable diets and the reluctance to reduce meat consumption are chief factors hindering the transition to a sustainable diet. Gender imbalance was also evident with females forming the majority of total participants. During the time of the literature search, no studies were conducted in Ireland. Research needs to be conducted in this country, specifically on young consumers, to explore their knowledge and willingness to adopt a sustainable diet. This would provide further insights into the research area of sustainable diets.

Meat and the future of sustainable diets-Challenges and opportunities

The British Nutrition Foundation convened a roundtable event in January 2024 entitled 'Meat and the Future of Sustainable Diets: Turning Challenges into Opportunities', bringing together multi-sector stakeholders to discuss the social, nutritional, public health and environmental aspects of meat consumption within a sustainable food system. Participants explored the challenge of the complexity of balancing nutrition and planetary goals, emphasising the need to navigate trade-offs between various dimensions of sustainability. Whilst recognising the global nature of the issue, the roundtable primarily focussed on a UK perspective. The discussion highlighted the urgency of transforming the food system to achieve net zero, whilst ensuring broader environmental benefits, nutritional adequacy and dietary and health equity across all life stages. Concerns about poor dietary patterns, particularly among vulnerable groups were raised, with participants stressing the need for policies that promote healthy, sustainable and equitable diets without worsening inequalities. These policies should also enhance livelihoods and community wellbeing, foster resilience and support local economies. On the supply side, participants called for better data within the agri-food system, particularly at the farm level. They advocated for a multidimensional, holistic approach that goes beyond greenhouse gas emissions to encompass wider environmental impacts and whole-farm benefits, such as enhancing soil health, promoting biodiversity, improving water management, supporting nutrient cycling and boosting farm-level resilience through diversified cropping systems. Roundtable participants acknowledged existing recommendations to reduce meat consumption for both environmental reasons, such as land use and greenhouse gas emissions, and health concerns, as evidence links red, particularly processed, meat consumption with increased colorectal cancer risk. Given the variation in meat consumption globally and even locally between individuals, the discussion explored the potential of targeted campaigns to reduce high meat intake, along with the role of public food procurement and the food industry in decreasing processed meat consumption. The consensus was that dietary changes must be framed within the context of a balanced diet and broader sustainability concerns. Despite some differing viewpoints on implementation, participants agreed that transitioning to healthier, more sustainable diets is a priority. Collaboration across the entire food chain, from farm to fork, with investment in innovation, robust data collection and research, alongside policy support, was emphasised as essential to achieving this goal.

The Importance of Self-Identities and Habitual Behavior for Eating More Plant Foods

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to identify the predictors of eating more plant-based foods and legumes in terms of previous changes in consumption, habitual frequency of consumption, intention to reduce the amount of meat consumed, and health and environmental identities.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted between June and September 2023 in 881 Polish adults. Based on two self-descriptors, four groups of respondents were identified: no health identity and no environmental identity (nHI-nEI), health identity but no environmental identity (HI-nEI), no health identity but environmental identity (nHI-EI), and both health identity and environmental identity (HI-EI). A logistic regression analysis was used to verify associations between habitual eating of red meat, white meat, and legumes, changes in their intake over the past two years, familiarity with plant-based substitutes for animal products, health, and environmental identity, declared intentions to eat less meat, and the intentions to eat more plant-based food and eat more legumes next year.

RESULTS

Individuals were more likely to increase their consumption of plant foods (OR: 1.99, p = 0.001), including legumes (OR: 1.79, p = 0.045), when they represented the HI-EI group, had increased their consumption of legumes in the past two years (OR: 2.91, p = 0.009, and OR: 2.15, p = 0.017, respectively), declared an intention to reduce meat (OR: 8.02, p < 0.001, and OR: 12.08, p < 0.001, respectively), but also occasionally consumed plant-based meat substitutes (OR: 1.76, p = 0.002, and OR: 2.61, p < 0.001, respectively). However, individuals were more likely to increase their consumption of plant foods, but not legumes, if they currently consumed legumes frequently (OR: 1.36, p = 0.009, and OR: 1.22, p = 0.111, respectively) and had previously limited their consumption of red meat (OR: 2.40, p < 0.001, and OR: 1.09, p = 0.717, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The habitual frequency of eating red and white meat did not predict the increased consumption of plant foods in the future. It is equally important to increase people's awareness of the impact of the food they consume on health and the environment to support their health and pro-environmental motivation for food choices. Public health and sustainability campaigns should develop new methods to reach populations less willing to change.

Changing Our Food Habits One Bite at a Time: Exploring Young Flexitarians in a Country with a High Meat Intake

Flexitarian diets have gained attention for their potential positive impact on human health and greenhouse gas emissions reduction. However, a critical question remains: Can the segment of flexitarians significantly contribute to necessary changes in our current unsustainable food systems? Our study addresses this gap by examining meat consumption habits among young adults (n = 1023) in a country with traditionally high meat intake. Furthermore, we focus on a subset of flexitarians (n = 286). Our findings reveal two distinct groups of flexitarians: ethical (n1 = 140) and utilitarian (n2 = 148). Utilitarian flexitarians exhibit a stronger preference for meat (t(284)= -15.180, p < 0.001), greater food neophobia (t(284) = -4.785, p < 0.001), and lower environmental awareness (t(284) = 7.486, p < 0.001) compared to Ethical flexitarians. The Ethical group, predominantly female (χ2(1) = 13.366, p < 0.001), demonstrates higher life satisfaction (t(284) = 5.485, p < 0.001), better health perceptions (t(284) = 5.127, p < 0.001), and stronger beliefs in reducing meat consumption (t(284) = -8.968, p < 0.001). Additionally, Ethical flexitarians hold more positive views on plant-based meat, perceiving it as healthier (t(284) = 4.326, p < 0.001) and more ethical (t(284) = 4.942, p < 0.001), and show a greater willingness to adopt it (t(284) = 7.623, p < 0.001). While both groups possess similar knowledge and willingness regarding cultured meat and insects, Ethical flexitarians view cultured meat more favourably (t(250.976) = 2.964, p = 0.003). Our study provides insights into the evolving trends of flexitarianism within Central and Eastern European countries, where research on meat consumption and flexitarianism is scarce. These insights hold value for promoting behaviour change toward reduced meat consumption for both health and environmental reasons. Additionally, they offer guidance to the food industry, including producers, sellers, and providers of meals in educational and employment facilities.

Food sustainability and university students: An analysis of dietary changes after leaving home

The relationship between food consumption and sustainability has become increasingly relevant due to the significant environmental impacts associated with global food production and consumption systems. However, more conscious food consumption could generate economic benefits, reduce the release of toxic substances and provide direct health benefits to consumers. In recent years, there has been a change in consumption patterns and a more conscious approach to food choices and environmental impact from citizens, particularly young people. This study focuses on how moving away from home affects the eating habits of university students. Using an online questionnaire and adopting a snowball sampling technique, we collected qualitative responses regarding changes in their eating habits after moving, with the aim of exploring the factors and patterns driving these changes. The findings indicate that the nexus between food and sustainability is a pivotal lens through which to examine the social and cultural transformations currently underway.

Vegetarian, vegan, or plant-based? Comparing how different labels influence consumer evaluations of plant-based foods

Market actors have a role to play in enabling sustainable food transitions. One challenge for these actors is how to promote plant-based foods in ways that appeal to a growing number of consumers. Here we test how different plant-based related labels affect consumer appraisals of a range of foods (cookies, sausages, cheese, chocolate, pasta). In two studies (pre-registered; NUSA = 1148, NGermany = 491), we examined the effects of a 'vegetarian', 'vegan', or 'plant-based' label (compared to no label) on five attributes (healthy, tasty, ethical, pure, environmentally friendly) related to the products. We also measured self-reported likelihood to purchase the products. Overall, the results indicated that the 'plant-based' label was slightly more appealing to participants than the 'vegetarian' and 'vegan' labels. However, contrary to our expectations, neither consumers' information-seeking tendencies nor their pre-existing attitudes toward plant-based foods influenced (i.e., moderated) the effects of the labels. Anticipated taste was a strong and consistent predictor of purchase likelihood for all labeled products, but the ethical and pure attributes also accounted for unique variance in this outcome variable. Taken together, our findings and discussion provide insights into the role of labels and label terminology on consumer appraisals of plant-based foods.

Understanding online purchase intention of plant-based foods: Exploring causal factors and moderating role of self-efficacy within the SOR theory

This research explored Thai consumers' online purchase intention for plant-based foods (PBFs), investigating factors shaping this intention and the impact of self-efficacy. Conducting surveys on 402 individuals from Bangkok, Thailand, the study employed structural equation modelling (SEM) to analyse relationships among consumer identity, online brand trust, social influence, perceived value, and self-efficacy concerning online purchase intention. Findings revealed significant influences of consumer identity, online brand trust, social influence, and perceived value on online purchase intention, with online brand trust having the most significant direct effect. Additionally, self-efficacy moderated the impact of these factors on online purchase intention. The study's contribution lies in highlighting the role of online brand trust and self-efficacy levels in shaping consumer behaviour, which is crucial for promoting sustainable dietary choices and improving well-being through digital marketing strategies.

Predictors of Eating Less Meat and More Plant-Based Food in the Polish Sample

The study aimed to identify predictors of the intention to eat less meat and more plant-based foods, including attitudes towards eating meat, habitual meat eating, subjective norms, and self-identity. A cross-sectional study using CAWI (Computer-Assisted Web Interview) was conducted in a group of 1003 Polish adults in 2023. To measure the predictor variables, the following tools were used: Beliefs and Eating Habits Questionnaire (KomPAN), Meat Attachment Questionnaire (MAQ), and scales to measure subjective norms and self-identity. Logistic regression analysis was used to verify associations between independent variables, and the intentions to eat more plant-based food and less meat next year were treated as dependent variables. More respondents were willing to increase their consumption of plant-based foods rather than reduce their meat consumption. The intention to consume less meat and more plant foods was more prevalent among women, older people (only intention to reduce meat consumption), and better-educated people (only intention to increase plant food consumption). Habitual frequency of eating plant foods, negative feelings about meat, and environmentally oriented identities had a stimulating effect on the intention to eat more plant foods and less meat, while experiencing pleasure in eating meat had a limiting effect on the intention to eat more plant foods and less meat. In addition, the habitual frequency of meat consumption and subjective norms reduced the likelihood of eating less meat, while no predictive effect was observed for the intention to eat more plant foods. In conclusion, educational and promotional activities to raise awareness of the link between food consumption and the environment can have a strong impact on eating less meat and more plant-based food, even among those strongly accustomed to meat consumption.

Exploring Consumer Preferences and Challenges in Hybrid Meat Products: A Conjoint Analysis of Hotdogs

Plant-based meat has been the primary strategy to reducing meat consumption. While this category has demonstrated success, with the market value estimated to reach USD 20 billion by 2023, the subsequent reduction in meat consumption has not been proportionate. An alternative approach is hybrid products, which are thought to produce products that more closely resemble meat products. However, whether consumers will be willing to purchase hybrid products remains uncertain. Therefore, the present study uses a conjoint analysis approach to assess the product features driving the selection of a hybrid hotdog. This approach uncovers factors driving consumers' purchase intentions for hybrid meat products when offered as a choice against 100% plant-based and 100% beef products. In an online survey, participants (n = 454; 45.6% female) were asked to select the product they would be most willing to purchase, varying in four characteristics: protein source, price, fat content, and price. Following this task, participants answered questions related to meat attachment, food neophobia, health, ecological, social, and moral motives regarding food consumption. The results revealed that protein source was the most important factor driving product selection, followed by price, fat, and packaging claims (35%, 24%, 21%, and 20% relative importance, respectively). In this study, hybrid hotdogs were the least preferred to beef and plant-based (-16, -2.5, and 18 part-worth utility, respectively). These product-specific attributes (protein, fat, and price) had distinct relationships with the choices of hybrid, plant-based, and hybrid hotdogs, with these factors together explaining slightly more variability in the selection of hybrid (9%) compared to plant-based (7%) and beef hotdogs (4%). For hybrid hotdogs, protein had the greatest influence (B = -1.2) followed by fat (B = -0.8) and price (B = -0.5). Interestingly, person-related parameters (health, meat attachment, ethics, and food neophobia) had no relationship with the selection of hybrid hotdogs, contrary to plant-based (7%) and beef hotdogs (5%). This influence of the different parameters on the selection of hybrid meat is thought to be due to the lack of consumer knowledge and familiarity with hybrid products. The current understanding of plant-based products may not correspond to hybrid products. Engaging with consumers during the development of these products is critical to ensure consumer acceptance and thus support the transition to a more sustainable diet.

Legumes: A Vehicle for Transition to Sustainability

Legumes are an excellent source of protein and have been used in the human diet for centuries. Consumption of legumes has been linked to several health benefits, including a lower risk of cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and certain types of cancer, while legumes' high fiber content promotes digestive health. Aside from the positive health benefits, one of the most significant advantages of legumes is the low environmental footprint of their cultivation. They can be grown in a variety of climates and soil types, and they require less water and fertilizer than other crops, making them a sustainable option for farmers. Thanks to their nutritional and physicochemical properties, they are widely used by the food industry since the growing popularity of plant-based diets and the increasing demand for alternatives to meat offers the opportunity to develop legume-based meat substitutes. As the use of legumes as a source of protein becomes widespread, new market opportunities could be created for farmers and food industries, while the reduction in healthcare costs could have a potential economic impact. Achieving widespread adoption of legumes as a sustainable source of protein requires coordinated efforts by individuals, governments, and the private sector. The objective of this narrative review is to present the benefits coming from legume consumption in terms of health and environmental sustainability, and underline the importance of promoting their inclusion in the daily dietary pattern as well as their use as functional ingredients and plant-based alternatives to animal products.

Consumer attitudes and behaviors toward more sustainable diets: a scoping review

There is an urgent need to move toward more sustainable diets. Although this will require radical and systemic changes across food systems, altering consumer ideologies and practices is essential to garner support for such actions. In this scoping review, the evidence on consumers' attitudes and behaviors toward more sustainable diets is synthesized and a range of factors, considerations, and proposed strategies are presented that can contribute to building the societal-level support for urgent and systems-level changes. The findings suggest that consumers, insofar as they are interested in sustainability and have the capacity to engage with the concept, primarily approach the concept of sustainable diet from a human health perspective. However, the interconnectedness of human health and well-being with environmental health is poorly understood and under-researched in the context of consumer behaviors and attitudes toward sustainable diets. This highlights the need for (1) sustained efforts from public health professionals to encourage a realignment of the term sustainable diet with its multidimensional meaning by championing an ecological public health approach in all efforts aimed at promoting more sustainable consumption, from awareness raising to policy development; (2) a broader research lens focused on the multidimensional concept of sustainability in the literature exploring consumer attitudes and behaviors; and (3) the development of multidisciplinary, clear, and evidence-based sustainable-eating messages, including holistic sustainable dietary guidance, to address knowledge gaps, minimize conflicting narratives, and build consumer agency. The findings contribute to understanding how support can be generated for the necessary structural and system-level changes required to support behavior change.

Barriers associated with pulse and plant-based meat alternative consumption across sociodemographic groups: a Capability, Opportunity, Motivation, Behaviour model approach

Introduction

To enhance environmental sustainability and food security, there should be a change in dietary protein consumption. It is suggested that meat consumption should be reduced and that the currently low consumption of pulses and other plant-based proteins should increase. We aimed to examine (1) how sociodemographic factors and perceived barriers are associated with self-reported current and perceived future pulse and other plant-based meat alternative (PBMA) consumption and (2) how sociodemographic factors relate to perceived barriers.

Methods

Participants were 18-75 year-old Finnish adults (n = 1,000). Multivariable logistic regression was used as the main analysis technique. The results were interpreted by employing the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation, Behaviour (COM-B) model.

Results

Pulses were consumed more often than PBMAs and lower education level and financial strain were associated with more infrequent pulse and PBMA use. The most common perceived barriers for pulse consumption were unfamiliarity, expensive price, and unpleasant taste, which can be interpreted to represent the capability, opportunity and motivation components of the COM-B model, respectively. Women, the young, and financially strained perceived more barriers limiting their pulse consumption than others.

Discussion

To increase plant-based food consumption, it is important that tasty, easy to use and affordable plant-based foods are available for all. Additionally, we suggest that food services should be encouraged to increase the use of pulses in their dishes and that capabilities, opportunities and motivations are taken into account in intervention measures advancing plant protein consumption.

What motivates German consumers to reduce their meat consumption? Identifying relevant beliefs

High levels of meat consumption cause problems related to public health, the environment, and animal welfare. Therefore, it is crucial to improve our understanding of the drivers and barriers involved in reducing meat consumption. Using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), we examined to what extent attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) affect intention and willingness to reduce meat consumption. In line with the TPB and going beyond existing literature, we also explored which specific beliefs determine these three constructs. In 2021, we conducted an online survey with a sample representative of the German population (N = 1093). Hierarchical regression models revealed that after controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, the TPB constructs explained 55% of the variance in intention and 61% of the variance in willingness. Importantly, each of the three TPB constructs affected intention and willingness to reduce meat consumption, with attitude having the largest impact. Habit strength and past behavior in addition to the TPB constructs did not improve prediction. Multiple linear regression models showed that attitude was determined by the beliefs that reducing meat consumption leads to a healthier diet, a reduced risk of developing certain diseases, a more natural diet, and the feeling of missing meat. In contrast, environmental and animal welfare concerns showed no significant effect on attitude. Both family and friends contributed to the perceived social pressure. The beliefs of being able to prepare meat-free meals, having enough time to spend on one's diet, and being able to easily purchase meat substitutes led to higher PBC. Based on these findings, we provide recommendations for intervention strategies and derive implications for future research.

Forty-five years of research on vegetarianism and veganism: A systematic and comprehensive literature review of quantitative studies

Meat production and consumption are sources of animal cruelty, responsible for several environmental problems and human health diseases, and contribute to social inequality. Vegetarianism and veganism (VEG) are two alternatives that align with calls for a transition to more ethical, sustainable, and healthier lifestyles. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic literature review of 307 quantitative studies on VEG (from 1978 to 2023), collected from the Web of Science in the categories of psychology, behavioral science, social science, and consumer behavior. For a holistic view of the literature and to capture its multiple angles, we articulated our objectives by responding to the variables of "WHEN," "WHERE," "WHO," "WHAT," "WHY," "WHICH," and "HOW" (6W1H) regarding the VEG research. Our review highlighted that quantitative research on VEG has experienced exponential growth with an unbalanced geographical focus, accompanied by an increasing richness but also great complexity in the understating of the VEG phenomenon. The systematic literature review found different approaches from which the authors studied VEG while identifying methodological limitations. Additionally, our research provided a systematic view of factors studied on VEG and the variables associated with VEG-related behavior change. Accordingly, this study contributes to the literature in the field of VEG by mapping the most recent trends and gaps in research, clarifying existing findings, and suggesting directions for future research.

Exploring everyday life dynamics in meat reduction - A cluster analysis of flexitarians in Denmark

Exploring everyday life dynamics in meat reduction - a cluster analysis of flexitarians in Denmark. Flexitarians are attracting increasing attention in the research on meat reduction. But there has been limited focus on comprehensive understandings of a broader range of dynamics that can work as barriers and facilitators for meat reduction. In this article, we use social practice theory (SPT) as a comprehensive approach to barriers and facilitators in meat reduction in everyday life. We present an analysis of data from a representative Danish cross-sectional survey. We show, first, that Danish flexitarians can be divided into four distinct clusters (what we will refer to as classes) in accordance with combinations of everyday facilitators and barriers. Second, we show that the prevalence of these classes varies considerably depending on how long people have been flexitarians. We argue that the patterns in this variation indicate that over time people transition to other classes where barriers to plant-rich eating become less significant, and routinization emerges in different ways. Finally, third, we show that flexitarians do report eating less meat than consumers who label themselves as eating meat with no restrictions. But we also highlight that the difference is relatively modest. Indeed, meat intake is still quite common even in classes where routinization is highest. Throughout the paper, we discuss similarities and differences between the SPT framework and another recent framework, the COM-B model, that also provides a comprehensive approach to the understanding of behavioural change.

The effect of social norms on vegetarian choices is moderated by intentions to follow a vegetarian diet in the future: Evidence from a laboratory and field study

Social norms could be a tool in dietary transition toward more sustainable diets, but the results of social norms interventions aimed at encouraging the selection of plant-based foods to date have been inconsistent. One reason for this might be because there are important moderating factors that have yet to be investigated. Here we examine social modeling of vegetarian food choices and test whether modeling is dependent upon individual intentions to follow a vegetarian diet in the future in two different settings. In a laboratory study of 37 women, participants with low intentions to become a vegetarian consumed fewer plant-based foods in the presence of a vegetarian confederate, compared to eating alone. In an observational study of 1,037 patrons of a workplace restaurant, participants with a higher score of on vegetarian intentions had a greater likelihood of taking a vegetarian main course or starter, and a vegetarian social norm was associated with a greater likelihood of a vegetarian choice for the main course but not for the starter. These data suggest that participants with low intentions to follow a vegetarian diet may exhibit reactance against an explicit vegetarian norm in an unfamiliar context (as in Study 1) but that general norm following regardless of dietary intentions be more likely when it is conveyed implicitly in a familiar context (as in Study 2).

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and adherence to Mediterranean diet in an adult population: the Mediterranean diet index as a pollution level index

BACKGROUND

Research related to sustainable diets is is highly relevant to provide better understanding of the impact of dietary intake on the health and the environment.

AIM

To assess the association between the adherence to an energy-restricted Mediterranean diet and the amount of CO2 emitted in an older adult population.

DESIGN AND POPULATION

Using a cross-sectional design, the association between the adherence to an energy-reduced Mediterranean Diet (erMedDiet) score and dietary CO2 emissions in 6646 participants was assessed.

METHODS

Food intake and adherence to the erMedDiet was assessed using validated food frequency questionnaire and 17-item Mediterranean questionnaire. Sociodemographic characteristics were documented. Environmental impact was calculated through greenhouse gas emissions estimations, specifically CO2 emissions of each participant diet per day, using a European database. Participants were distributed in quartiles according to their estimated CO2 emissions expressed in kg/day: Q1 (≤2.01 kg CO2), Q2 (2.02-2.34 kg CO2), Q3 (2.35-2.79 kg CO2) and Q4 (≥2.80 kg CO2).

RESULTS

More men than women induced higher dietary levels of CO2 emissions. Participants reporting higher consumption of vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, whole cereals, preferring white meat, and having less consumption of red meat were mostly emitting less kg of CO2 through diet. Participants with higher adherence to the Mediterranean Diet showed lower odds for dietary CO2 emissions: Q2 (OR 0.87; 95%CI: 0.76-1.00), Q3 (OR 0.69; 95%CI: 0.69-0.79) and Q4 (OR 0.48; 95%CI: 0.42-0.55) vs Q1 (reference).

CONCLUSIONS

The Mediterranean diet can be environmentally protective since the higher the adherence to the Mediterranean diet, the lower total dietary CO2 emissions. Mediterranean Diet index may be used as a pollution level index.

Food neophobia, food choice and the details of cultured meat acceptance

This study focuses on the details of consumer response to lab grown 'cultured meat (CM)', compared to meat derived from insects, plants and animals. A sample of 254 New Zealanders were interviewed. A word association exercise revealed that consumer reaction to CM was dominated by affective, rather than cognitive factors. The linkages between a general food neophobia scale, a specific CM evaluation scale and purchase intent were studied. The general neophobia scale performed poorly as a predictor, while the 19-point CM evaluation scale performed well. Reducing this scale to its seven affective components, and then to just the two key affective components did not significantly reduce the scale's predictive performance. Overall, the results of this research reveal very significant differences in preference for meat products based upon their origins. Insect protein was strongly disfavoured over all alternatives, while cultured meat was significantly disfavoured compared to more established alternatives. The implications of this for the commercialisation of CM are discussed.

Comparing meat abstainers with avid meat eaters and committed meat reducers

Shifting our eating patterns toward less animal-based and more plant-based diets is urgently needed to counter climate change, address public health issues, and protect animal welfare. Although most consumers agree that these are important topics, many consumers are not particularly willing to decrease the meat intensity of their diets. In supporting consumers to shift their diets, it is important to understand consumers' attitudes, motivations, and preferences related to meat consumption and to take differences across consumers on these aspects into account. This study aims to in-depth research meat abstainers (vegetarians and vegans), and to explore how and to what extent they differ from avid meat eaters and committed meat reducers in terms of their (1) socio-demographic characteristics, (2) attitudes and norms, (3) food choice motives, and (4) food preferences and behavior. A survey has been conducted among a representative sample of Dutch adults. Comparisons show that meat abstainers (N = 198) differ from committed meat reducers (N = 171) and avid meat eaters (N = 344) on the four included categories of variables. In terms of demographics, we largely confirm the stereotype of vegans and vegetarians being highly educated females. In attitudes and norms, large differences exist with meat abstainers being least pro-meat and avid meat eaters being most pro-meat. Food choice motives confirm this, with meat abstainers valuing animal welfare and a good feeling higher than committed meat reducers and avid meat eaters. Finally, differences across the groups are most pronounced in terms of their food preferences and consumption, with a much higher appreciation of plant-based protein sources among meat abstainers, a high appreciation of non-meat animal-based proteins across committed meat reducers and a high appreciation of meat products among avid meat eaters. This shows that although differences across the groups are gradual and expected, in terms of reduction motivations and preferences of protein sources the three groups (frequent meat consumption-meat reduction-meat avoidance) are very distinct, which makes it unlikely to expect big shifts from one group to another in the short term.

The importance of protein variety in a higher quality and lower environmental impact dietary pattern

OBJECTIVE

Eating a variety of nutritious foods is fundamental to good nutrition. However, this principle is challenged when recommendations seeking to improve the environmental sustainability of diets call for avoidance of foods considered to have a higher environmental footprint, such as animal-sourced foods. Our objective was to assess the implications for nutritional adequacy of protein choice across Australian adult diets preselected as having higher quality and lower environmental impact scores.

DESIGN

Each individual diet was assessed for variety of food choice within the 'Fresh meat and alternatives' food group defined in the Australian Dietary Guidelines, which includes protein-rich foods such as eggs, nuts, tofu and legumes in addition to animal meats. Diets were grouped according to variety score and whether they included only animal meats, only alternatives or a variety of meat and alternatives. Nutrient content was assessed relative to estimated average requirements (EAR).

SETTING

Australia.

PARTICIPANTS

1700 adults participating in the Australian Health Survey.

RESULTS

For diets with higher diet quality and lower environmental impact, the likelihood of achieving nutrient EAR significantly increased as variety of food choice in the 'Fresh meat and alternatives' food group increased (P < 0·001). Variety score and number of serves were also correlated (r = 0·52, P < 0·001) which is relevant since most diets did not meet the recommended minimum number of serves for this food group.

CONCLUSIONS

Greater variety within the 'Fresh meat and alternatives' food group is beneficial to meeting EAR and lower environmental impact diets can include three or more selections including foods of animal origin.

Pleasure vs. identity: More eating simulation language in meat posts than plant-based posts on social media #foodtalk

Current levels of meat consumption in Western societies are unsustainable and contribute to the climate emergency. However, most people are not reducing their intake. Here, we examine the language used on social media to describe meat and plant-based foods, since the ways people think and communicate about food could hinder the transition towards sustainable eating. In two pre-registered studies, we analysed the degree to which the language in food posts on Instagram reflects eating simulations, which have been found to be associated with desire for appetitive stimuli. Specifically, thinking about or presenting foods or drinks in terms of rewarding simulations (i.e., re-experiences of enjoying their consumption) has been found to increase their appeal. Here, we analysed the words used in Instagram hashtags (NStudy1 = 852; NStudy2 = 3104) and caption text (NStudy1 = 682) to examine how much they refer to eating simulations (e.g., taste, texture, enjoyment, eating context) or to other food-related features (e.g., ingredients, preparation, health, category information). As hypothesized, meat posts contained more eating simulation hashtags than plant-based and vegetarian posts, which instead contained more eating-independent hashtags, for example referring to health or to vegan identity. Findings for the text words were generally in the same direction but much weaker. Thus, meat food posts contained hashtag language that is likely more appealing to mainstream consumers, because it refers to the enjoyable experience of eating the food, rather than the food being healthy or identity affirming. This pattern reflects polarisation surrounding sustainable foods, which may hinder the shift towards plant-based diets needed to curb climate change.

Consumer adoption of plant-based meat substitutes: A network of social practices

This research aimed to understand the consumption practices of plant-based meat substitutes (PBMS). Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with consumers and Social Practice Theory (SPT) was adopted as the theoretical framework to explore emerging themes relating to consumer practices. Findings indicate that consumers engage in a number of related practices that include the acquisition, preparation, and consumption of PBMS which were embedded within a larger network of practices that included storage, substitution, and food safety, as well as broader meat-based, meat-free, plant-based, and social and cultural practices. This paper highlights the importance of social and cultural structures in facilitating product awareness, and meaning and skill development in the context of dietary and behavioural change. Implications for research, marketing, and policymaking practices are discussed with regard to the marketing of plant-based meat substitutes as well as shifting consumer behaviour.

You Are What You Eat and So Is Our Planet: Identifying Dietary Groups Based on Personality and Environmentalism

Behavioral change interventions promoting the reduction of animal product consumption are valuable tools to improve ecological sustainability as well as public health and help the mitigation of climate change. Recent findings revealed improved efficacy of interventions targeted at barriers (e.g., self-efficacy) of three different types of meat consumers over non-targeted interventions (e.g., completion of unrelated surveys). However, such interventions have yet to factor in the role of individual differences in personality. Therefore, in a first step, we performed segmentation analysis on barriers and benefits of reducing animal product consumption (e.g., meat attachment, environmentalism) with the inclusion of personality. In an online sample of N=1135 participants, latent profile analysis revealed five distinct dietary groups: “plant-based eaters”, “meat-reducers”, “medium-hindrance meat eaters”, “medium strong-hindrance meat eaters, and “strong-hindrance meat eaters”, based on inhibitors and facilitators of meat reduction. Groups differed in terms of consumption of different animal products (η2=0.08 to η2=0.80) as well as the Big Five (η2=0.08 to η2=0.80) and Dark Triad (η2=0.08 to η2=0.80). Strong-hindrance meat eaters were characterized by low Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and Openness as well as high dark trait expression, implying new targets for future intervention design.

The cost of healthier and more sustainable food choices: Do plant-based consumers spend more on food?

Plant-based diets are often promoted as healthier and more sustainable and thus as a mechanism to achieve the targets proposed to mitigate climate change and noncommunicable diseases. However, plant-based diets can be perceived as more expensive than the common omnivorous diets, when considering the expensive novel meat substitutes and also the higher costs of fruits and vegetables, whose consumption is perceived to increase. Therefore, the present study assesses the question: Do plant-based consumers spend more on food compared to omnivorous consumers? Based on primary data (n = 1040) collected through an online survey, representative of the Portuguese population, through logistic regressions, it was possible to conclude that plant-based consumers, particularly vegan, are associated with lower food expenditures compared to omnivorous consumers. In fact, plant-based consumers are shown to spend less than all other consumers assessed. Food policies aligning healthiness and sustainability with affordability can deliver a major boost for the promotion of plant-based diets and help achieve the mitigation targets proposed.

Meating Conflict: Toward a Model of Ambivalence-Motivated Reduction of Meat Consumption

An increasing number of people are concerned about eating meat, despite enjoying doing so. In the present research, we examined whether the desire to resolve this ambivalence about eating meat leads to a reduction in meat consumption. Our model of ambivalence-motivated meat reduction proposes that the pervasive nature of evaluative conflict motivates meat avoidance, and we highlight two potential mechanisms involved: the anticipation of ambivalence reduction through behavioral change, and information seeking for contents that facilitate meat reduction. Study 1 drew on a cross-sectional 6-day food diary with 7485 observations in a quota sample to investigate why meat-related ambivalence arises and to demonstrate the correlation of ambivalence with meat reduction. Two experiments investigated the causal direction of this association by showing that ambivalence-induced discomfort motivated participants to eat less meat when they introspected on their preexisting incongruent evaluations (Study 2 and 3), which was mediated by the aforementioned mechanisms involved (Study 3; preregistered). The studies utilized diverse samples from Germany, England, and the US (total N = 1192) and support the proposed model by indicating that behavioral change is an important coping strategy to resolve ambivalent discomfort in the context of meat consumption. Our model of ambivalence-motivated meat reduction contributes to theorizing on the consequences of ambivalence and the psychology of (not) eating meat.

Why They Eat What They Eat: Comparing 18 Eating Motives Among Omnivores and Veg*ns

While the diets of most people include meat, millions of individuals follow a meat-free diet. But why do people eat what they eat? Here we explored differences and commonalities in the eating motives of omnivores and veg^*ns (i.e., both vegetarians and vegans). Specifically, we compared mean levels and rank order of 18 eating motives in two samples (Study 1: 294 omnivores, 321 veg^*ns; Study 2: 112 omnivores, 622 veg^*ns). We found that omnivores were more motivated than veg^*ns by the eating motives of Traditional Eating and Habits, while veg^*ns were more motivated by Animal Protection and Environmental Protection. Differences among groups in Health were inconsistent across studies. Despite these differences in mean levels, the rank order of the eating motives was very similar: Two of the top four eating motives of both diet groups in both studies were Liking and Health, while Social Norms, Social Image, and Religion were among the four least important motives of both groups. Overall, while we did find differences in the absolute importance of certain motives, we also found striking similarities in the relative importance of eating motives, suggesting that including a wide range of eating motives could be beneficial when examining dietary behaviors.

Plant-based diets: a review of the definitions and nutritional role in the adult diet

Plant-based (PB) diets are associated with good health and are also recommended for environmental sustainability. The present review aimed to summarise the definitions of PB diets globally and to investigate the nutritional role of PB diets in adults. This review found that there is a wide range of PB definitions ranging from the traditional vegetarian diets (including vegan) to semi-vegetarian/flexitarian diets. Furthermore, other diets which were originally developed due to their associations with positive health outcomes, such as the portfolio, Mediterranean-style, DASH, healthy US-style, planetary health and Nordic-style diets, have been encompassed in PB definitions due to their emphasis on certain PB components. This review has highlighted that those consuming a PB diet are more likely to meet recommended intakes for carbohydrate, dietary fibre and vitamin E and are less likely to meet recommendations for protein, vitamin B12 and iodine compared to omnivores. Regardless of consumer type, neither PB consumers nor omnivores met recommendations for intakes of vitamin D, calcium and sodium. While intakes of protein, n-3, iron and zinc were generally sufficient from the PB diet, it is important to acknowledge the lower bioavailability of these nutrients from PB foods compared to animal-derived products. As dietary patterns shift towards a more PB diet, there is a need for further studies to investigate the role of PB diets for nutritional adequacy and status in populations currently accustomed to consuming a primarily omnivorous diet.

Health- or Environment-Focused Text Messages as a Potential Strategy to Increase Plant-Based Eating among Young Adults: An Exploratory Study

Previous plant-based diet (PBD) adoption strategies have primarily focused on health rather than environmental rationale and meat reduction rather than plant-based protein promotion. In this study, we explored the effect of a theory-informed text-message intervention on dietary intentions and behaviors in young adult omnivores and the potential explanatory role of PBD beliefs, subjective norm, self-efficacy, moral norm, and health and environmental values. Participants completed baseline questionnaires and reported dietary intake before being randomly assigned to receive 2–3 health- or environment-focused text messages per week for eight weeks and then repeated baseline assessments. Although we did not see significant changes in meat or plant protein intake, we did observe a marked decrease in intentions to consume animal protein and a marginal increase in fruit and vegetable consumption intention. We identified subjective norms, self-efficacy, and moral satisfaction as the strongest predictors of changes in intention to consume animal or plant protein. Although few group differences were observed, those receiving environment-focused text messages experienced a greater change in values and were more likely to increase vegetable intake. Messages that improve sustainability awareness and provide practical adoption strategies may be part of an effective strategy to influence PBD intake among young adults.

Capabilities and Opportunities of Flexitarians to Become Food Innovators for a Healthy Planet: Two Explorative Studies

To support the transition to a more plant-based diet, it is necessary to better understand flexitarians, i.e., individuals who curtail their meat intake by abstaining from eating meat occasionally without fully abandoning meat. Much of the research about eating (less) meat thus far has focused on motivations. However, a dietary shift toward less meat consumption also demands that capabilities and opportunities be taken into account. The present study explores the capability and opportunity variables in terms of enablers and barriers to reduced meat consumption. Focus group discussions (Study 1) and a survey study (Study 2) were conducted. Study 1 provides an overview of what food consumers perceive as capabilities and opportunities in the context of limiting meat consumption. Study 2 quantifies the aspects of capabilities and opportunities with a special focus on enabling and constraining aspects regarding plant-based meat substitutes. Both studies examine what Dutch flexitarians designate as capabilities and opportunities in transitioning to eating less meat in everyday life. More insight into this helps to find and facilitate food choices that make the flexitarian choice an easier and more obvious one and consequently contribute to flexitarians as food innovators for a healthy planet.

A comparative assessment of the nutritional composition of dairy and plant-based dairy alternatives available for sale in the UK and the implications for consumers' dietary intakes

The popularity of plant-based dairy alternatives (PBDAs) products has grown exponentially in recent years creating a new market of PBDA. The aim of this study was to compare the nutritional content of plant-based alternatives of milk, yogurt and cheese with dairy equivalents and the impact on nutritional intake across the lifespan when they are substituted into UK diets. Nutritional information from cow's milk, yogurt, cheese and PBDAs available on the UK market was collected via manufacturers information. The products were categorised according to primary plant-based ingredient/s and compared with the equivalent dairy product. The National Diet and Nutrition Survey data was used to calculate the intake of milk, yogurt and cheese across all age groups and the energy and nutrient intake was calculated. Plant-based milk, cheese and yogurt alternative categories were then substituted for dairy intakes, and energy and nutrient intakes were calculated and compared to UK Dietary Reference Values. A total of 299 PBDA products were identified consisting of 136 milk alternatives, 55 yogurt alternatives and 109 cheese alternatives. All PBDAs were more expensive than dairy products. Milk contained more energy, saturated fat, carbohydrates, protein, vitamin B₂, vitamin B₁₂ and iodine, and less fibre and free sugars, than plant-based milk alternatives (P < 0.05). There were significant differences between yogurt and cheese and their corresponding PBDAs for energy, fat, saturated fat, carbohydrate, sugars, fibre protein, salt, and calcium (P < 0.05). These differences were reflected in the nutrient intakes of different age groups and the results demonstrated that PBDA may be useful as practical replacements of dairy products but cannot be considered nutritional replacements.

Perceptions of Vegan Food among Organic Food Consumers Following Different Diets

This article identifies consumer segments for vegan food by analysing perceptions of vegan food among food organic consumers following different diets: vegans, vegetarians, former vegetarians, flexitarians, and omnivores. The analysis is based on responses to a quantitative consumer survey for which 503 participants were recruited from customers at German grocery stores by quota sampling according to diet and region. From the responses to an open-ended question eliciting the participants’ associations with vegan food, the analysis finds that vegans and vegetarians perceive vegan foods primarily as being beneficial for animal welfare, healthy, and environmentally friendly, while those who ate meat perceive vegan food primarily as containing no animal ingredients and as being healthy. The respondents’ varying assessments of the taste, diversity, and environmental benefits of vegan food were found to differ in relation to the various diets they followed, as did their assessments of how long the vegan trend is likely to last. A cluster analysis based on the consumers’ perceptions and attitudes revealed three consumer groups: “vegan fans”, “enjoyment sceptics”, and “originality-sceptics”. Scepticism about the originality of vegan food was found in all diet groups. These findings can help inform more effective targeting of consumer needs for vegan organic food.

Exploring how product descriptors and packaging colors impact consumers' perceptions of plant-based meat alternative products

While consumers have been increasingly trying to reduce their meat consumption due to rising concerns about its impact on their health and the environment, many still find animal-based foods more attractive than plant-based foods, thus hindering their adoption. Could marketing cues such as product descriptors and packaging colors help make these products more attractive to consumers? Across two studies, we tested the effects of product descriptors and packaging colors on meat eating consumers' perceptions of, and behavioral intentions toward, plant-based meat alternative products. Study 1 revealed that a "plant-based" (vs. "meat alternative") descriptor positively impacted perceptions of healthiness and eco-friendliness, as well as trial likelihood, and negatively impacted predicted quantity consumed. Study 2 provided some evidence for the moderating role of packaging color, and more specifically for the (mis)matching effects of product descriptor and packaging color on product perceptions and behavioral intentions. Results revealed that, when using a "meat alternative" descriptor, mismatching (vs. matching) it with a green (vs. red) packaging color negatively impacted perceptions of eco-friendliness and trial likelihood. Conversely, when using a "plant-based" descriptor, matching (vs. mismatching) it with a green (vs. red) packaging color negatively impacted predicted satiety. Overall, our research suggests that marketing cues can, to some extent, impact consumers' perceptions of plant-based meat alternative products and related behavioral intentions, and offers many avenues for future research.

Identifying Belgian protein consumption typologies by means of clustering and classification to move towards personalized advices for sustainable and nutritious food choices

Protein sources are determinant for the environmental impact and nutritiousness of our food consumption patterns. Dietary advices, in terms of nutritional values and, more recently, the associated environmental impacts, are mostly formulated at nationwide level. However, actual food consumption patterns are variable between individuals within nations, leading to a need for more personalized dietary advices to ensure the feasibility of potential dietary changes. This research addresses the variability within Belgian food consumption patterns by identifying different "protein consumption typologies": consumer groups with different consumption frequencies of different protein sources. Hereto, both statistical clustering and classification were applied to food consumption data, the latter using predefined criteria related to meat consumption. The obtained typologies were further analyzed based on personal characteristics and compliance to nutritional guidelines. Five clusters and five classes were identified, with each survey participant belonging to one cluster and to one class. The clusters differed mainly in milk- and grain product intake, while the classes differed in the intake of meat products from the onset. Both clustering and classification showed that only a small part of the Belgian population frequently adopts plant-based protein sources, that meat products are predominant and that compliances to dietary guidelines are generally low. The typologies are the starting point for more personalized dietary advices to lower environmental impacts while ensuring adequate nutritional value, moving away from nationwide advices.

Availability and Nutrient Composition of Vegetarian Items at US Fast-Food Restaurants

BACKGROUND

Consumer demand for vegetarian options is growing. Fast-food restaurants have responded by adding high-profile vegetarian offerings, but little is known about the overall availability or nutrient profile of vegetarian options at these establishments, or how these items compare with nonvegetarian items.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to quantify trends in the availability and nutrient profile of vegetarian items in US fast-food restaurants from 2012 to 2018.

DESIGN

This study was a longitudinal analysis of secondary data. We used nutrient data from the MenuStat database for menu offerings at 36 large US fast-food chain restaurants (2012 to 2018). Vegetarian items were identified through automated key word searches and item description hand-coding.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Annual counts and proportions of vegetarian and nonvegetarian items by category, and annual trends and differences in predicted mean calories; saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats; sugar; nonsugar carbohydrates; protein; sodium between and within vegetarian and nonvegetarian items.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS PERFORMED

We report counts and proportions of vegetarian items by menu category, then use Tobit regression models to examine annual trends and differences in predicted mean nutrients between and within vegetarian and nonvegetarian items. Sensitivity analyses were calorie-adjusted.

RESULTS

The annual proportion of vegetarian items remained consistent (approximately 20%), and counts increased (2012, n = 601; 2018, n = 713). Vegetarian items had significantly fewer calories (2018: -95 kcal) and, even after adjustment for calories, lower saturated fat (-1.6 g), unsaturated fat (-1.8 g), protein (-3.8 g), and sodium (-62 mg) annually (P < .05) compared with nonvegetarian items. Vegetarian items were significantly higher in sugar (2018: +2.0 g; P < .01) and nonsugar carbohydrates (2018: +9.7 g; P < .01), after calorie adjustment, compared with nonvegetarian items.

CONCLUSIONS

Vegetarian items were generally lower in several overconsumed nutrients of public health concern (eg, sodium and saturated fat) than nonvegetarian items, but nutrient changes suggest surveillance remains important as vegetarian options increase in popularity.

The usual suspect: How to co-create healthier meat products

Healthier meat products have a major economic potential and are attracting considerable research and media attention to meet the growing and complex consumer demand. Whether this potential will be realized and at what speed is contingent on consumers' acceptance of these novel foods. This study uses a cross-cultural context to co-create new healthier meat products, while mapping the conditions leading to consumers' product acceptance (vs. rejection). Results from online focus groups conducted in Denmark, Spain and the United Kingdom show that consumers generally have a negative attitude toward healthier meat products due to unfamiliarity and perception of over-processing. Nevertheless, partial meat-substitution with plant-based ingredients together with fat and salt reduction show specific conditions under which consumers' acceptance would be possible. This is further related to product-specific factors: ingredients and base meat, and marketing-related factors: labelling and packaging. Finally, implications and recommendations for the manufacturing and marketing of new healthier meat products are provided.

Plant-Based Foods and Their Bioactive Compounds on Fatty Liver Disease: Effects, Mechanisms, and Clinical Application

Fatty liver disease (FLD), including nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD), is a serious chronic metabolic disease that affects a wide range of people. Lipid accumulation accompanied by oxidative stress and inflammation in the liver is the most important pathogenesis of FLD. The plant-based, high-fiber, and low-fat diet has been recommended to manage FLD for a long time. This review discusses the current state of the art into the effects, mechanisms, and clinical application of plant-based foods in NAFLD and AFLD, with highlighting related molecular mechanisms. Epidemiological evidence revealed that the consumption of several plant-based foods was beneficial to alleviating FLD. Further experimental studies found out that fruits, spices, teas, coffee, and other plants, as well as their bioactive compounds, such as resveratrol, anthocyanin, curcumin, and tea polyphenols, could alleviate FLD by ameliorating hepatic steatosis, oxidative stress, inflammation, gut dysbiosis, and apoptosis, as well as regulating autophagy and ethanol metabolism. More importantly, clinical trials confirmed the beneficial effects of plant-based foods on patients with fatty liver. However, several issues need to be further studied especially the safety and effective doses of plant-based foods and their bioactive compounds. Overall, certain plant-based foods are promising natural sources of bioactive compounds to prevent and alleviate fatty liver disease.

Food choice motives among two disparate socioeconomic groups in Brazil

Understanding the motives influencing food intake is indispensable for effective dietary recommendations aimed at promoting healthy eating in an integrative way. The objective of this study was to evaluate food choice motives across two socioeconomically different cities in Brazil. A cross-sectional study with a convenience sample (n = 473) of adults living in both places was evaluated. Food choice motives were assessed by The Eating Motivation Survey (TEMS) with 15 dimensions, and economic classifications were made according to the Brazilian Economic Classification Criteria (CCEB). Data analysis used both a general linear model (GLM) and a Structural Equation Model (SEM) adjusted for age, ethnicity, income and educational degree. Participants were mainly women (74.6%) with a mean age of 36.6 years. Cities were not invariant (Δχ2 = 314.165, p < 0.001) and two distinct prediction models for food choice motives emerged. Fit indices indicate acceptable model fit for both low (CFI = 0.911; TLI = 0.898; RMSEA = 0.041) and high socioeconomic status groups (CFI = 0.808; TLI = 0.717; RMSEA = 0.081). Although cities differ in the prediction models for food choice motives, we demonstrated that there are two main networks of predictors: one related to social context predictors of food choice motives and another related to hedonic-oriented ones. Particularly, hedonic-oriented motives (i.e., pleasure) were the most relevant predictors to the group of high socioeconomic status followed by social context predictors (traditional eating and sociability). On the other hand, the group of low socioeconomic status had most of its predictors related to social context (i.e., visual appeal, traditional eating, sociability, social norms and social image) and also price, but this last one was the least important among the most important predictors.

The Benefits of Including Hummus and Hummus Ingredients into the American Diet to Promote Diet Quality and Health: A Comprehensive Review

Over the last decade, hummus has become an increasingly popular food. Given the ingredients (i.e., primarily chickpeas and tahini), nutrient composition, versatility, and acceptability, hummus can play a unique role when included in the American diet, to promote diet quality and improve health. The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the scientific evidence examining the effects of acute and long-term consumption of hummus and hummus ingredients on diet quality and risk factors related to type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. In addition, food pattern/menu modeling is included to illustrate the potential nutritional impact of consuming hummus to meet dietary guidelines. In general, the consumption of hummus and/or its respective ingredients has been shown to improve postprandial glycemic control, fasting lipids, appetite control, and daily food intake compared to other commonly consumed foods. The incorporation of hummus into the American diet can also improve diet quality by replacing foods higher in saturated fats, sodium, or added sugars. Collectively, these findings support the addition of hummus and/or hummus ingredients as an important component of a healthy dietary pattern.

Consumer perceptions of conventional and alternative protein sources: A mixed-methods approach with meal and product framing

Understanding consumer perceptions of meat alternatives is key to facilitating a shift toward more sustainable food consumption. Importantly, these perceptions may vary according to the characteristics of the consumer (e.g., preferences, motivations), the product (e.g., sensory attributes) and the encounter (e.g., how the meat alternative is presented/framed). Qualitative and quantitative methods were applied to examine consumer perceptions of five proposed alternatives to meat: legumes, tofu, seitan, lab-grown meat, and insects. In Study 1, 138 participants provided free associations with regards to conventional animal proteins (e.g., red/white meat, fish) and the five alternatives. Three profiles of consumers were identified: (1) hedonically motivated meat eaters uninterested in meat substitutes; (2) health-oriented meat eaters open to some meat substitutes; and (3) ethically conscious meat avoiders positively oriented to most meat alternatives. In Study 2, the presentation of the product was experimentally manipulated: 285 participants evaluated the same five meat alternatives along several dimensions (e.g., edibility, healthiness), either when framed as an individual product or as part of a larger meal. Overall, most meat alternatives benefited from a meal framing, with the notable exception of legumes, which benefited from an individual framing, and insects which were evaluated quite negatively regardless of framing. The present findings suggest that there is not a single way to frame all meat alternatives that will improve their appeal to all consumers.

Fish as an alternative protein - A consumer-oriented perspective on its role in a transition towards more healthy and sustainable diets

Fish has several benefits that make it a desirable part of a healthy diet. It is also a high-protein product that can be used as a relatively efficient meat replacer. Both from a health and sustainability perspective, however, it is important to consider the optimum number of fish servings per week and to examine whether fish and plant protein can be brought under the same heading of alternative protein sources. To explore the consumer perspective on these issues, this paper draws on a brief literature study and a re-analysis of survey data from the Netherlands collected earlier. The hypothesis was that affinities with fish consumption and plant-based protein sources are to a certain extent related to each other, based on common relationships with food involvement, which set them apart from meat. The results showed that the hypothesis needed to be nuanced: fish consumption was associated exclusively with affinity with spicy meals based on authentic plant protein sources (e.g. nuts) and this relationship was partially based on food involvement. The results are in line with current Dutch recommendations that encourage consumers to eat one serving of fish per week and that stimulate those who already eat more than one serving of fish to replace the rest by plant-based protein sources.