A qualitative examination of the motivations behind vegan, vegetarian, and omnivore diets in an Australian population

A cross-sectional study of the cost and nutritional content of plant-based meat-imitation products in supermarkets and plant-based products in restaurants in the United Kingdom

BACKGROUND

There is a global trend of increasing consumption of plant-based foods, yet little is known about the nutritional composition and price of plant-based meat alternatives and restaurant items in the United Kingdom, and how they compare to non-plant-based options. Aim: This study compared the nutritional content and cost of plant-based and non-plant-based foods/products sold in UK supermarkets and restaurants. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, meat-based products (n = 1228) and plant-based-imitation products (n = 147) were identified from five supermarkets. Plant-based (n = 54) and equivalent non-plant-based (n = 54) items were identified from ten restaurants. Nutritional information (energy, fat, saturated fat, carbohydrate, sugar, fibre, protein, and salt) and price of the products was compared for plant-based and non-plant-based products using the Mann-Whitney U test and Wilcoxon Signed Rank test. Results: For supermarkets, the plant-based meat-imitation products had lower median saturated fat and protein, and higher median sugar and fibre per 100 g compared with non-plant-based products (all results p < 0.001). Plant-based supermarket products were more expensive (median £1.02/100 g vs £0.85/100 g; p < 0.001). For restaurant products, plant-based items were significantly lower in energy (p < 0.001), saturated fat (p = 0.017), sugar (p = 0.007) and protein (p < 0.001), and higher in fibre (p = 0.009), per serving, compared with non-plant-based products. There was no difference between the cost of plant-based and non-plant-based restaurant products per serving (p = 0.39). Conclusion: Plant-based meat-imitation products available in UK supermarkets were lower in saturated fat, but higher in sugar compared with meat options, and were significantly more expensive. Plant-based products sold in restaurants may provide a healthier alternative, at no additional cost per serving.

PregNut survey: knowledge, attitude, and practices of midwives regarding plant-based diets during pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Plant-based diets (PBD) are gaining global popularity, yet there is limited research on the experiences of pregnant women adhering to these diets. This study employed the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) framework to assess midwives' readiness in managing the growing plant-based trend in Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ).

METHODS

A cross-sectional, online-administered survey was developed in collaboration with midwifery academics, and was presented in three sections: knowledge, attitudes, and practices towards nutrition in general, towards PBD during pregnancy, and practice information. Questions included Likert-style, free text responses, and check boxes. Currently practising lead maternity carer midwives in NZ were invited to participate, primarily via an email newsletter disseminated by the New Zealand College of Midwives. Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and content analysis were used to interpret data.

RESULTS

The study received 133 valid responses from a total of 1246 registered midwives in NZ, reflecting a demographic profile similar to the current midwifery workforce. Although respondents demonstrated foundational knowledge of plant-based nutrition, midwives reported feeling significantly less prepared to advise clients following PBD, compared with omnivorous diets (96% vs. 72%, Χ2 (1, n = 133) = 29.03, p <.001)). While attitudes towards PBD appeared positive, midwives reported higher expectations of knowledge from plant-based clients, compared with omnivore-based clients. Midwives' practices towards their PBD clients varied considerably, with some inconsistencies attributable to reported barriers including lack of time or feeling unqualified. Respondents' personal dietary patterns were correlated with preparedness, knowledge of emerging concepts, and the belief that PBD are better for mothers and infant development.

CONCLUSION

This study, conducted within NZ innovative midwifery care system, reveals discrepancies between midwives reported levels of preparedness to manage clients following PBD compared with omnivorous diets, despite a strong foundation of general and plant-based nutrition knowledge. The reported desire to expand midwives understanding of PBD nutrition and improve practices reiterates the importance of access to current research, evidence-based practice protocols, and support avenues to enhance midwives' preparedness in advising the growing number of individuals following PBD.

Explanatory AI Predicts the Diet Adopted Based on Nutritional and Lifestyle Habits in the Spanish Population

This study used Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) with SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) to examine dietary and lifestyle habits in the Spanish population and identify key diet predictors. A cross-sectional design was used, employing the validated NutSo-HH scale to gather data on nutrition, lifestyle, and socio-demographic factors. The CatBoost method combined with SHAP was applied. The sample included 22,181 Spanish adults: 17,573 followed the Mediterranean diet, 1425 were vegetarians, 365 were vegans, and 1018 practiced intermittent fasting. Fish consumption was the strongest dietary indicator, with vegans abstaining and some vegetarians consuming it occasionally. Age influenced diet: younger individuals preferred vegan/vegetarian diets, while older adults adhered to the Mediterranean diet. Vegans and vegetarians consumed less junk food, and intermittent fasters were more physically active. The model effectively predicts the Mediterranean diet but struggles with others due to sample imbalance, highlighting the need for larger studies on plant-based and intermittent fasting diets.

Untangling the dairy paradox: How vegetarians experience and navigate the cognitive dissonance aroused by their dairy consumption

Most people eat meat, yet report valuing the environment, animal life, and their health, which contradicts this dietary behaviour. The psychological discomfort aroused by this value-behaviour inconsistency, and the strategies meat eaters use to resolve this unpleasant state, is termed the 'meat paradox'. Vegetarians eschew meat consumption, but the negative implications of dairy are comparable to meat. We investigated the 'dairy paradox' in a sample of vegetarians (N = 378) using an experimental design. Specifically, we tested whether vegetarians experienced cognitive dissonance after reading about the environmental, animal welfare, and health impacts of dairy consumption when compared to a control group not exposed to this information. Then, we examined to what extent perceiving dairy consumption as Natural, Necessary, Normal, Nice, or Neglectable, and denial of cows' mental states (Experience or Agency) predicted reduced cognitive dissonance. Vegetarians in the dissonance-induction condition reported experiencing significantly greater dissonance, though they more strongly rejected the justification strategies. Instead, they reported greater intentions to reduce their dairy consumption than vegetarians in the control condition. Rather than replicating findings from the meat paradox literature, these results suggest that vegetarians respond to uncomfortable feelings about their value-behaviour conflict with a greater intention to abandon the incongruent behaviour, rather than endorsing the cognitions that justify it. This research provides evidence that vegetarians experience a dairy paradox. Given the success of our study in shifting participants away from behavioural justification and toward behavioural change intentions, our findings can help guide the design of interventions seeking to reduce dairy consumption.

Socio-demographic determinants of dietary choices and their impact on health in Spanish adults

Background

Although Spain has traditionally followed the Mediterranean diet, in recent years, changes have become noticeable in the food preferences of the population. These changes include adopting new diets and dietary trends, such as plant-based diets, intermittent fasting and raw food diets. These choices are influenced by cultural, social and socio-demographic factors, and their impact on health should be studied in detail.

Aim

The objectives of this research are: (1) to study the prevalence of different dietary patterns among the Spanish population, (2) to explore the dependence of dietary choice on socio-demographic factors, (3) to investigate the relationship between the social habits and lifestyle choices of the population and how it affects health.

Methods

A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out on the Spanish population. Using a questionnaire constructed and validated by the research team, socio-demographic data were collected and different nutritional, social and lifestyle habits of the targeted population were explored.

Results

A valid sample of 22,181 people was collected among which 17,573 (79.2%) people claimed to follow a Mediterranean dietary pattern, 1,425 (6.4%) people followed a plant-based diet, 365 (1.6%) people are vegans, 1,018 people (4.6%) practiced intermittent fasting, 252 (1.1%) people followed a raw food diet and 1,548 people (7%) claimed to follow other types of diets. The data show that younger people (18-25 years old) tend to adopt more often a plant-based diet than older people and that women tend to follow this type of diet more often than men. On the other hand, men seem to practice intermittent fasting more frequently. A higher tendency to practice a raw food diet was found among people living in villages than those living in cities. Moreover, some trends were found in different regions of Spain, with greater adherence to a plant-based diet in Catalonia, while intermittent fasting is more common in the Region of Murcia. Finally, the results indicate that individuals who pay attention to their diet and experiment with various dietary patterns are generally more health-conscious. This is reflected in their adoption of healthier behaviors, such as exercising more and reducing their intake of alcohol and sugary drinks.

The role of vegetarianism, gender, and food choice motivations on vegetable intake among university students

Objective: This study investigated collegians' (N = 466) vegetable consumption as a function of their food choice motivations, gender, and dietary habits. Method: Vegetarians and vegans (veg*ns, n = 94, 60% women), occasional meat eaters (n = 90, 66% women), and omnivores (n = 282, 43% women) completed the Food Choice Questionnaire and reported frequency of vegetable consumption. Results: Veg*ns consumed vegetables more frequently than omnivores and occasional meat eaters. Veg*ns' and occasional meat eaters' food choices were more motivated by natural content, health, and ethics, and less motivated by familiarity compared to omnivores. Women were more motivated than men by weight control. Health concerns predicted vegetable consumption for all dietary groups. Additionally, familiarity predicted veg*ns vegetable consumption, whereas mood, natural content, and convenience predicted omnivores' vegetable consumption. Conclusions: Individual differences in dietary habits and food choice motivations should be considered when designing strategies to promote healthful diets for university students.

Differential responses to ethical vegetarian appeals: Exploring the role of traits, beliefs, and motives

OBJECTIVE

This research examines differential responses to ethical vegetarian appeals as a fuction of individuals' personalities.

BACKGROUND

Ethical vegetarian appeals are persuasive messages promoting the adoption of a plant-based diet on moral grounds. Individuals may vary in their receptivity to such appeals, depending on their morally relevant traits (e.g., agreeableness), beliefs (e.g., speciesism), and motives (e.g., concerns about animal welfare).

METHODS

We explored (Study 1, N = 907) and then attempted to confirm (Study 2, N = 980) differential responses to three vegetarian appeals-two highlighting moral concerns (animal welfare, the environment) and a third focusing on individual health (control condition).

RESULTS

Both studies revealed several differential effects of our vegetarian appeals on the perceived effectiveness of the appeal and resultant intentions to reduce meat consumption. These mostly consisted of differences in receptivity to appeals focused on animal welfare. However, only one such effect observed in Study 1 was clearly replicated in Study 2: People who more strongly believed that eating meat was "normal" rated the vegetarian appeals focused on animal welfare as less effective.

CONCLUSION

Ethical vegetarian appeals may elicit different responses from different people, particularly those focused on animal welfare, depending on how normative one believes meat-eating to be. Such insights can inform behavior change efforts in this area.

Differences in dietary acceptability, restraint, disinhibition, and hunger among African American participants randomized to either a vegan or omnivorous soul food diet

The Nutritious Eating with Soul study was a 24-month, randomized behavioral nutrition intervention among African American adults. This present study, which is a secondary analysis of the NEW Soul study, examined changes in dietary acceptability, restraint, disinhibition, and hunger. Participants (n = 159; 79% female, 74% with ≥ college degree, mean age 48.4 y) were randomized to either a soul food vegan (n = 77) or soul food omnivorous (n = 82) diet and participated in a two-year behavioral nutrition intervention. Questionnaires assessing dietary acceptability (Food Acceptability Questionnaire; FAQ) and dietary restraint, disinhibition, and hunger (Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire; TFEQ) were completed at baseline, 3, 6, 12, and 24 months. Mixed models were specified with main effects (group and time) and interaction effects (group by time) to estimate mean differences in FAQ and TFEQ scores using intent-to-treat analysis. After adjusting for employment, education, food security status, sex, and age, there were no differences in any of the FAQ items, total FAQ score, dietary restraint, disinhibition, and hunger at any timepoint except for one item of the FAQ at 12 months. Participants in the vegan group reported a greater increase in satisfaction after eating a meal than the omnivorous group (mean difference 0.80 ± 0.32, 95% CI 0.18, 1.42; P = 0.01). This is one of the first studies to examine differences in dietary acceptability, hunger, and other eating factors among African American adults randomized to either a vegan or omnivorous soul food diet. The findings highlight that plant-based eating styles are equally acceptable to omnivorous eating patterns and have similar changes in hunger, restraint, and disinhibition. These results suggest that plant-based eating styles can be an acceptable dietary pattern to recommend for cardiovascular disease prevention and may result in greater post-meal satisfaction.

Moral disengagement in the media discourses on meat and dairy production systems

Meat and dairy production and consumption are the subject of ongoing public debates that touch on various sustainability issues such as biodiversity loss, climate change, animal welfare, and social and health aspects. Despite extensive discussions specifically relating to the environmental impacts of livestock farming in conjunction with animal welfare aspects, there have been no substantial changes in production or consumption patterns. Moreover, the focus of extant research is usually on consumers' responses to public concerns around livestock production. In this study, we shed light on the discrepancy between the normative discourse and action of relevant value chain actors with the help of Bandura's theory of moral disengagement, which allows us to identify mechanisms that contribute to the perpetuation of unsustainable production and consumption patterns. In particular, we focus on the shifting of responsibility between actors in the normatively charged field of sustainable livestock production. We collected 109 media interviews on meat and dairy production and consumption from the years 2020-2022, including interviews with actors from agriculture, processing industries, and food retail. Using qualitative content analysis, we investigated the role of moral disengagement in the media discourse on meat and dairy production and explored differences between actors in terms of moral disengagement. We found that shifting of responsibility shows a quasi-circular dynamic of being shifted from all actors to all, in our case most frequently to consumers, politics, and (diffuse) economic forces. In addition, our analysis showed the use of social justifications, beneficial comparisons, and euphemistic labelling to be common mechanisms of moral disengagement, constituting a collective problem within agri-food systems.

Psychological differences and similarities between vegans, prospective vegans, and vegetarians. Motivation, knowledge, vegan literacy - and cheese

Introduction

Although vegan and vegetarian diets and lifestyles differ significantly from each other, among other things, notably in their respective consequences regarding animal welfare and their ecological impact, vegans and vegetarians are often grouped together and usually compared to omnivores in psychological research. Considering that vegans and vegetarians often share similar motives for their lifestyle choices, namely animal and environmental issues, the question arises why similar motives lead to different conclusions and correspondingly different behaviors, most notably, of course, that vegetarians consume animal-derived foods such as cheese or milk while vegans do not consume animal-derived products (e.g., food, cosmetic products). This is why this study explored the psychological differences between vegans, vegetarians, and prospective vegans - the latter group being located in an intermediate, transitionary position. Focusing on the motivational, affective and cognitive components of dietary transition and participants' adherence to eating patterns, reasons for said patterns, possible hinderances to becoming vegan, the role of participants' social environments, and the impact of various misconceptions regarding the feasibility of a vegan diet in everyday life were all explored.

Methods

An observational study was conducted via online questionnaire (1420 participants).

Results

Significant differences were found between vegans, prospective vegans, and vegetarians, especially concerning their knowledge of issues pertaining to their respective lifestyles.

Discussion

The critical role of knowledge is invoked as an explanation as to why vegans and vegetarians display different behaviors although they share a similar motivation. Thus, in this study the concept of vegan literacy is introduced. Additionally, the distinctive role of cheese is explored, discussing possible indications of its potentially addictive nature and, consequently, the importance of cheese as a hindering factor for pursuing a vegan diet.

Similarities and differences between vegetarians and vegans in motives for meat-free and plant-based diets

Plant-based diets are quickly gaining popularity for their benefits to animal welfare, the environment, and public health. Compared to meat-eaters, meat-abstainers such as vegetarians and vegans are especially motivated by animal rights and the environment. However, little is known about the motivational and psychological factors that distinguish vegetarians from vegans, and what prevents vegetarians to shift towards a fully plant-based diet. In a sample of vegans (n = 335) and vegetarians (n = 182), we investigated a) motives for reducing or quitting meat consumption and b) motives for reducing or quitting animal product (dairy and egg products) consumption, as well as moral psychological and social-contextual factors that may explain potential differences. Results demonstrate that vegetarians and vegans tend to be similar in their motives to abstain from meat consumption and are most strongly motivated by animal rights. However, vegetarians are less motivated by health, environmental, and especially animal rights for dairy/egg reduction compared to meat reduction and compared to vegans. Lower moral concern for animals, stronger beliefs in human supremacy over animals, and heightened veganism threat among vegetarians (vs. vegans) partly explained why vegetarians were less strongly motivated by animal rights for dairy/egg reduction. Human supremacy beliefs also explained differences between vegetarians and vegans in health and environmental motives for dairy/egg reduction. Furthermore, vegetarians reported significantly less social support for plant-based diets and perceived more practical barriers to plant-based diets than vegans. These findings reveal meaningful differences in the motivational and psychological profiles of vegetarians and vegans and highlight the value of distinguishing between motives for meat-free diets and motives for plant-based diets.

Prevalence and determinants of self-reported low-fat-, low-salt-, and vegetarian diets in patients with cardiovascular disease between 1996 and 2019

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Guidelines no longer recommend low-fat diets and currently recommend more plant-based diets to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk. Furthermore, these guidelines have consistently recommended salt-reduced diets. This article describes current self-reported use and time-trends in the self-reported use of low-fat, low-salt and vegetarian diets in ASCVD patients and examines patient characteristics associated with each diet.

METHODS AND RESULTS

9005 patients with ASCVD included between 1996 and 2019 in the UCC-SMART cohort were studied. The prevalence of self-reported diets was assessed and multi-variable logistic regression was used to identify the determinants of each diet. Between 1996-1997 and 2018-2019, low-fat diets declined from 22.4 % to 3.8 %, and low-salt diets from 14.7 % to 4.6 %. The prevalence of vegetarian diets increased from 1.1 % in 1996-1997 to 2.3 % in 2018-2019. Patients with cerebrovascular disease (CeVD) and peripheral artery disease or an abdominal aortic aneurysm (PAD/AAA) were less likely to report a low-salt diet than coronary artery disease (CAD) patients (OR 0.62 [95%CI 0.49-0.77] and 0.55 [95%CI 0.41-0.72]).

CONCLUSION

In the period 1996 to 2019 amongst patients with ASCVD, the prevalence of self-reported low-fat diets was low and decreased in line with changes in recommendations in major guidelines. The prevalence of self-reported vegetarian diets was low but increased in line with societal and guideline changes. The prevalence of self-reported low-salt diets was low, especially in CeVD and PAD/AAA patients compared to CAD patients, and decreased over time. Renewed action is needed to promote low-salt diets in ASCVD patients.

Biomechanical analysis of the human derived soft tissue graft Epiflex for use in oral soft tissue augmentation

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the biomechanical properties, cell migration, and revascularization of the acellular dermal matrix Epiflex. As a decellularized, freeze-dried human skin graft, Epiflex has broad applications in medical fields, particularly in implantology and dentistry. Understanding its biomechanical characteristics is crucial for its clinical adoption as a novel soft tissue graft option.

METHODS

Epiflex (n = 3) was evaluated in comparison to palatal tissue from body donors (n = 3). Key metrics, such as elongation and tear resistance, were quantified. Both graft types underwent histological analysis and scanning electron microscopy. Additionally, the healing properties of Epiflex were assessed using a Chorioallantoic Membrane (CAM) Assay.

RESULTS

Biomechanically, Epiflex (mean = 116.01 N) demonstrated the ability to withstand greater forces (p = 0.013) than human palatal tissue (mean = 12.58 N). When comparing the elongation, no significant difference was measured (ASG mean = 9.93 mm, EF mean = 9.7 mm). Histologically, Epiflex exhibited a loosely connected network of collagen fibers with a dense upper layer. The CAM Assay indicated efficient revascularization.

CONCLUSION

Epiflex appears to be a viable option for soft tissue augmentation, particularly appealing to patient groups who avoid all or specific animal-derived products due to ethical or religious reasons.

Experiences of Vegans with General Practitioners in the Austrian Health Care System: A Qualitative Study

This article explores the factors influencing the choice of general practitioners (GPs) and their role in the health care of vegans in Austria. The number of people identifying as vegan is on the rise, and GPs are increasingly confronted with vegan patients. A qualitative method was chosen for this study, and 14 semi-structured interviews with vegans were conducted between April 2022 and July 2022. Participants were recruited primarily through vegan social media groups. In their experiences with health care, vegans felt treated unequally or sometimes incorrectly. The experiences described highlight that participants felt that most GPs were biased against their veganism. Information exchange among vegans primarily takes place online and through publications of vegan associations, while GPs play a minor role in information provision. As the number of vegans grows, an appreciative way of communicating between GPs and vegan patients ought to be promoted. Voluntary interdisciplinary nutritional training, collaboration of the medical field with support organizations, provision of evidence-based information, and collaboration with dietitians and nutritionists could enrich the care of patients with a vegan diet.

A Comprehensive Examination of Vegan Lifestyle in Italy

The popularity of veganism and plant-based diets is rapidly increasing worldwide, including in Italy, where more individuals and families are adopting this lifestyle. However, medical and health professionals often lack the necessary knowledge and are skeptical about this diet despite the scientific evidence. It is important for them to provide support and expertise to those following this diet. The survey evaluated various aspects of the lifestyle of Italian vegans living in Italy and abroad, including food frequency, vitamin and mineral supplementation, relationship with medical and health professionals, and perceived difficulties in daily life. The emphasis was on potentially critical aspects for those following this dietary choice. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Italy between March and April 2022. A questionnaire was distributed through social media platforms such as Instagram, Facebook, and Telegram, and 2180 Italian adults who follow a vegan diet completed it. The survey found that most of the vegan population surveyed were female, showed a greater sensitivity to ethical issues, were aware of the need for vitamin B12 supplementation, and followed healthy-eating guidelines. It is evident that despite the increasing popularity of plant-based diets, many medical and health professionals remain cautious and hesitant to recommend them.

Meta-analysis of personality trait differences between omnivores, vegetarians, and vegans

Vegetarian and vegan diets have been increasing in the Western world. Recent research has focused on personality trait differences between dietary groups, in part because personality traits are broad characteristics that can integrate findings about different factors that motivate vegetarian or vegan diets. Previous research on personality predictors of vegetarian and vegan (veg*n) diet, however, has yielded inconsistent results. The goal of this study was to integrate the existing results of Big Five personality differences between veg*ns and omnivores as well as between vegetarians and vegans. To this end, we meta-analyzed data from 15 studies and N = 69,576 individuals from several countries. Results indicated that veg*ns were significantly higher in Openness (d = 0.40) and Agreeableness (d = 0.17) than omnivores, while vegans were significantly higher in Openness (d = 0.14) than vegetarians. This work isolates Openness and Agreeableness as important trait predictors of plant-based diets and sets the stage for future work on the factors that motivate vegetarian or vegan diet. Personality traits can provide an integrative framework for conceptualizing dietary preferences, be used to make predictions about the sources, course and correlates of dietary choices, and potentially be useful for advocates and policymakers seeking to tailor meat-reduction interventions.

Adoption of a Short-Term (4-Week) Vegan Diet as Part of 'Veganuary' Significantly Reduces Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA), Cholesterol, B12, and Iodine Intake in Omnivorous Individuals-An Observational Study

Global veganism campaigns like 'Veganuary' have gained popularity. We conducted an observational study to assess the impact of a 4-week vegan diet during 'Veganuary' on nutrient intake, status, knowledge, and motivations for veganism. Data were collected before and after 'Veganuary', using Food Frequency Questionnaires (FFQs) to estimate dietary intake. Micronutrient knowledge and motivation were assessed through questionnaires. A total of 154 UK adults aged 18-60 years (2019: n81; 2020: n73) participated. Groups were vegetarians and omnivores committed to a 4-week vegan diet during 'Veganuary'. Control groups were vegans and omnivores who did not transition. Short-term vegan diets significantly decreased intake of iodine, B12, cholesterol, and saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in omnivores. Micronutrient knowledge was low, and motivation for veganism varied. Short-term vegan diets reduce macro- and micronutrient intake in omnivores. Veganuary participants could benefit from nutritional guidance or supplementation. Attention is required for UK micronutrient intake and knowledge. Motivations for vegan pledges may influence diets, warranting further research.

Comparison of the Health Status of Vegetarians and Omnivores Based on Biochemical Blood Tests, Body Composition Analysis and Quality of Nutrition

Many vegetarians are motivated by the health aspect of starting a plant-based diet. This diet can offer many health benefits. The study aimed to check whether people on a vegetarian diet are in good health, have a good nutritional intake, and follow the principles of healthy eating compared with omnivores. Twenty-two vegetarians on a vegetarian diet for more than five years and 22 omnivores aged 18-45 were interviewed. Each of them was given a food questionnaire, body composition analysis (BIA), and biochemical blood analysis, and their 7-day diet was analyzed. Polish vegetarians exhibit similar health statuses and tend towards better health than omnivores. They have an adequate body composition. Biochemical blood analysis showed no significant differences in blood parameters between vegetarians and omnivores, despite specific deficiencies such as vitamin B₁₂, vitamin D and elevated homocysteine levels in vegetarians. They have a better nutritional status and follow good dietary principles. However, they were more likely to consume alcohol, add salt to their meals and sweeten hot drinks. In addition, the lifestyle of vegetarians can be described as healthier, as they are more likely to engage in leisure-time physical activity and get enough sleep.

The motivations and practices of vegetarian and vegan Saudis

In the Middle East, particularly in Saudi Arabia, the offering of a meat dish to guests is a deeply embedded cultural tradition, and a meat-based diet is the standard in Saudi Arabia. Thus, the rise of veganism and vegetarianism within Saudi Arabia is surprising and worthy of attention, as is understanding the perceptions and motivations behind this phenomenon, particularly as they relate to food and sustainability. This research was designed to investigate this emerging phenomenon and to identify key differences in dietarian identity between Saudi vegetarians and vegans using Rosenfeld and Burrow's Dietarian Identity Questionnaire. Among other results, the vegan group scored significantly higher on the prosocial motivation construct, suggesting the desire to help society as a whole is a stronger motivating factor for vegans. As well, the vegan cohort scored higher in the personal motivation category. From an environmental and public health perspective, understanding the key factors motivating individuals to adopt a vegetarian or vegan diet in a meat-based culture like Saudi Arabia can be used to encourage others to pursue more healthy and sustainable food behaviors.

To Eat or Not to Eat-A Qualitative Exploration and Typology of Restrictive Dietary Practices among Middle-Aged and Older Adults

Favorable diets often include restrictive practices that have proven health benefits, even if initiated later in life. The aim of this qualitative study is to gain a comprehensive understanding of Restrictive Dietary Practices (RDPs) among a sample of middle-aged and older German adults (aged 59-78 years). We conducted 24 narrative in-depth interviews and analyzed the data using qualitative content analysis (Kuckartz). Following an inductive thematic approach, a typology was reconstructed comprising four typical RDP characteristics: I. The Holistically Restraining Type, II. The Dissonant-savoring Restraining Type, III. The Reactively Restraining Type, and IV. The Unintentionally Restraining Type. These types differed regarding the practical implementation of, e.g., restrictive food choice into everyday routines, barriers to do so, as well as with respect to attitudes and motives underlying RDPs. The major motives for adopting a RDP involved health, well-being, ethical, and ecological concerns. The most prominent barriers to a 'successful' adoption of RDPs were the enjoyment of food and the desire for spontaneity and freedom of (food) choice. Our study offers an in-depth understanding of the aspects that shape the widespread practice of dietary restriction among middle-aged and older adults. Lifeworld-related changes in RDPs and possible 'type shiftings' are discussed as well as the meaning and chances of RDPs for public health promotion.

Moral emotions and justifying beliefs about meat, fish, dairy and egg consumption: A comparative study of dietary groups

Meat eaters and meat abstainers differ in their beliefs and moral emotions related to meat consumption alongside gender differences. Few studies have investigated beliefs and moral emotions in pescatarians and vegans. Little is known about differences in moral emotions and beliefs regarding dairy, eggs, and fish or about speciesist beliefs within and between specific dietary groups. To address this gap, we investigated moral emotions (consumption-related disgust and guilt), attitudes towards animals (Animal Attitudes Scale) and justifying beliefs related to meat (Carnism Inventory), dairy, egg, and fish consumption in omnivores (n = 167), pescatarians (n = 110), vegetarians (n = 116), and vegans (n = 149). Results showed that people who consumed animal-derived products reported lower disgust and guilt and held stronger justifying beliefs about consumption of these products than those who did not consume animal products. All dietary groups significantly differed from each other in their attitudes about using animals for human benefit, with omnivores showing the least positive attitudes towards animals, followed by pescatarians and vegetarians, and with vegans showing the most positive attitudes towards animals. Women experienced greater moral emotions and held fewer justifying beliefs than men within groups where animal products were consumed and related to the animal-based products they consume (i.e., fish for pescatarians and eggs/dairy for vegetarians). These findings emphasise the importance of considering a wider range of animal products, such as eggs, dairy and fish, and dietary groups in order to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the psychological underpinnings of animal product consumption. The results highlight differences between dietary groups in attitudes and moral concern towards animals, which may be important to consider when designing interventions to reduce animal product consumption.

Consumers' attitudes towards alternatives to conventional meat products: Expectations about taste and satisfaction, and the role of disgust

The livestock sector has environmental, health, and animal welfare impacts. This UK-based, quantitative study aimed to elucidate consumers' valuation of alternatives to conventional meat products. In an online study, 151 meat eaters and 44 non-meat eaters were shown pictures of meat, dairy, and bakery products, including beef burger, cheese sandwich and blueberry muffin. Each product was evaluated with three different labels (e.g., 'conventional', 'plant-based' and 'cultured' for beef burger). Participants rated expected taste pleasantness, fullness, satisfaction, healthiness, disgust and willingness-to-pay for each product/label combination. The results obtained demonstrate that alternatives to conventional meat products overall are acceptable to both meat and non-meat eaters. Although meat eaters' expected plant-based meat alternatives to be less satisfying, due to lower expected taste pleasantness and fillingness (Cohen's d = 0.14 to 0.63), they perceived the plant-based alternatives to be more healthy (d ≥ 1.18). Cultured meat products were perceived by meat eaters to be equally or more healthy, but more disgusting (d ≥ 0.41), than conventional meat products. These results suggest there is an opportunity to promote (motivate) acceptance of alternatives to conventional meat products based on their perceived healthiness, to at least partly balance reduced expected taste pleasantness and other negative attributes (i.e., barriers).

Experiences of initiating and maintaining a vegan diet among young adults: A qualitative study

A vegan diet, which excludes all animal-derived products, has been associated with some improvements in health, while also conferring environmental benefits. Understanding the psychological determinants of successfully switching to a vegan diet will help to inform the design of interventions supporting long-term dietary change. Studies to date have tended to focus on reasoned motives underlying the decision to initiate such a dietary shift. Yet, focusing on reasons for switching may overlook the importance of a broader range of psychological factors that may help or hinder attempts to maintain a vegan diet. This qualitative interview study, the timing of which coincided with UK Covid-19 lockdowns, documented experiences of 20 young adults (17 female; mean age 22y) who attempted to adopt a vegan diet in the past nine months and had or had not successfully maintained this change. Reflexive Thematic Analysis identified five themes surrounding initiation and maintenance. A theme of 'motives, expectations and cues to switching' showed that switching was motivated by ethical or health concerns, and cued by Veganuary, lockdown or health issues. 'The effortfulness of switching' captured experiences of the perceived burden imposed by adhering to the diet due to, for example, a perceived lack of accessible vegan options. The 'flexibility of dietary rules' theme showed that many found the 'no animal products' rule clear but restrictive, so allowed themselves occasional non-meat animal products. 'Social acceptability concerns' captured the importance of acceptance from vegan and non-vegan family and friends, and 'satisfaction with the switch' described the perceived benefits that sustained maintenance for many. Our findings suggest that interventions should seek to support people to overcome potentially unforeseen practical and social challenges to adhering to a vegan diet.

Autonomous motivation, goal-facilitating behaviours, and dietary goal progress in individuals transitioning to a veg*n diet: A longitudinal study

Previous studies have consistently shown that autonomous motivation - pursuing goals because one wants to, rather than has to - is associated with greater behaviour maintenance in the context of healthy eating, exercise, and diet maintenance. The present study used a 7-wave longitudinal design to examine how autonomous motivation is related to dietary goal progress in individuals (N = 222) transitioning to a veg*n (i.e., vegetarian or vegan) diet. We hypothesized that when people reported more autonomous motivation (compared to their own average) they would be more successful in reaching their dietary goals. We also explored the role of goal-facilitating behaviours in this process. We found no directional effects of relative autonomous motivation on goal progress or goal-facilitating behaviours, although the concurrent relations were significant. There were also no within-person effects of behaviours on progress. These findings shed light onto the relationship between autonomous motivation, behaviours, and goal progress both at the same time and over time, and highlight the importance of examining within-person fluctuations over time.

Do urban tourists prefer vegetarianism? An urban-rural comparison of vegetarian consumption in China

The adoption of a vegetarian diet might have public health and environmental benefits. However, little is known about urban and rural Generation Z tourists' attitudes toward vegetarianism or vegetarian consumption within the Chinese urban and rural settings. Hence, to address this gap, the present study adopted a sequential and mixed research approach based on a survey (n = 212) and laddering interviews (n = 20) to validate post-millennial tourists' motives for adopting a vegetarian diet. The results identified the top four motives as environmental protection and resource conservation, ethical consideration, personal taste and choice, and personal healthcare issues. The top four barriers to vegetarianism were unavailability and limited choice, peer pressure, traditional prejudice/habit, and the inability to change. The results also demonstrated that both rural and urban tourists adopt vegetarianism mainly for environmental protection and ethical consideration, a subtle difference between them is that urban vegetarians emphasized ethical considerations more but rural ones emphasized food and variety. Urban consumers considered unavailability and limited choice as the topmost barriers to being vegetarian, while rural vegetarians found traditional prejudice to be restricting. Due to traditional dietary habits and peer influence, rural tourists face many more challenges when adopting a vegetarian diet. Understanding the perceived benefits and barriers to being vegetarian in different regions will not only enrich the theory of food nutrition but also expand Generation Z tourists' consumption behavior and practices.

Comparing meat abstainers with avid meat eaters and committed meat reducers

Shifting our eating patterns toward less animal-based and more plant-based diets is urgently needed to counter climate change, address public health issues, and protect animal welfare. Although most consumers agree that these are important topics, many consumers are not particularly willing to decrease the meat intensity of their diets. In supporting consumers to shift their diets, it is important to understand consumers' attitudes, motivations, and preferences related to meat consumption and to take differences across consumers on these aspects into account. This study aims to in-depth research meat abstainers (vegetarians and vegans), and to explore how and to what extent they differ from avid meat eaters and committed meat reducers in terms of their (1) socio-demographic characteristics, (2) attitudes and norms, (3) food choice motives, and (4) food preferences and behavior. A survey has been conducted among a representative sample of Dutch adults. Comparisons show that meat abstainers (N = 198) differ from committed meat reducers (N = 171) and avid meat eaters (N = 344) on the four included categories of variables. In terms of demographics, we largely confirm the stereotype of vegans and vegetarians being highly educated females. In attitudes and norms, large differences exist with meat abstainers being least pro-meat and avid meat eaters being most pro-meat. Food choice motives confirm this, with meat abstainers valuing animal welfare and a good feeling higher than committed meat reducers and avid meat eaters. Finally, differences across the groups are most pronounced in terms of their food preferences and consumption, with a much higher appreciation of plant-based protein sources among meat abstainers, a high appreciation of non-meat animal-based proteins across committed meat reducers and a high appreciation of meat products among avid meat eaters. This shows that although differences across the groups are gradual and expected, in terms of reduction motivations and preferences of protein sources the three groups (frequent meat consumption-meat reduction-meat avoidance) are very distinct, which makes it unlikely to expect big shifts from one group to another in the short term.

Vegans, vegetarians and omnivores differ in nutrient hedonics, salt and sweet preference and flavouring

BACKGROUND

Dietary content can influence taste responses. Therefore, we compared nutrient hedonics (liking foods by nutrient content), and seasoning, including taste responses to the prime flavours salt and sweet in 30 vegan, 37 vegetarian and 56 omnivore men and women.

METHODOLOGY

Questionnaires and taste tests examined macronutrient and electrolyte intake and hedonics, seasoning, salt and sweet preferences and psychophysical taste responses.

RESULTS

Compared to omnivores, vegans had lower protein, Ca⁺⁺, Na⁺ intake, and increased carbohydrate (CHO) intake. Independently of intake, hedonics for protein Ca⁺⁺ and Na⁺ were reduced and increased for CHO. Psychophysical responses to NaCl and sucrose also differed slightly, vegans and vegetarians scoring high concentrations of sucrose as more intense, Vegans reported more sweetening and less salting of food, added more sucrose to a test tea, less salt to a test soup, but did not differ in seasoning with oil or hot spice.

PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS

Habitual vegan, vegetarian and omnivore diets may alter taste responses to nutrient content and salt and sweet, the latter more pronounced in vegan and vegetarian women. Recognising diet-dependent changes in taste hedonics can inform diets and products.

It's not just about the food: Motivators of food patterns and their link with sustainable food neophobia

Food sustainability has been a growing focus in an attempt to limit climate change; as a result, the sustainable food market and an onset of social behaviors, such as shopping local and eating plant-based, is increasing. Limited however, is the understanding of how these sustainable food options are perceived among individuals who have different motivations for eating the way that they do. The situated identity enactment model and food neophobia literature are used to conceptualize the development of a model outlining how physical health, culture, and sustainability driven motivations of food patterns influence one's fear of sustainable food-moving beyond attitude as a suitable measurement in this context due to the complexity in the way select situational ques are cognitively processed. Data were collected among a representative U.S sample (n = 414) and analyzed through structural equation modeling using plant-based meat as the product of focus. Individuals whose food choices are culturally driven showed greater sustainable food neophobia and as motivations were more sustainability driven, the less fear they had of such foods. Contrary to what existing literature suggests, those driven by physical health showed no significance in the effects of their food patterns on neophobia even when considering a food option often positioned as healthier. Results also provided evidence of high local identity being a positive predictor of neophobia among those whose choices were culturally and sustainably driven. This study highlights the sensitivity of sustainable food and the importance of considering context, norms, and identity on food behaviors, regardless of one's underlying motives for food choices. Findings are influential in advancing social psychology literature on food behaviors and encourages the use of the model on other sustainable food products.

Differences between Vegetarians and Omnivores in Food Choice Motivation and Dietarian Identity

Vegetarianism is on the rise worldwide and its importance is being emphasized in various ways, such as in its sustainability, environmental, food system, and ethical aspects. The purpose of the study is to identify motivations behind food choices and dietarian identity, to investigate the perceptions about plant-based foods, and to identify differences between vegetarians and omnivores. We conducted an online survey of 245 vegetarians and 246 omnivores. There was a significant difference between vegetarians and omnivores. In food choice motivations, vegetarians scored higher in the factors of ‘ethical concern’, ‘health’, and ‘convenience and price’, while omnivores responded higher in ‘sensory appeal’ and ‘weight control’ factors. In the dietarian identity, vegetarians scored higher in the ‘complex motivation’ and ‘strictness’ factors, while on the other hand omnivores scored higher in ‘out-group regard’ and ‘public regard’ factors. Although the reasons can be different, we confirmed that both vegetarians and omnivores are positive toward plant-based foods. Our results suggest that different strategies will be needed to promote plant-based food consumption to vegetarians and to omnivores.