Associations of behaviour with secretory immunoglobulin A and cortisol in domestic cats during their first week in an animal shelter

Cat behaviour in the secure base test: Comparison between owned and shelter animals

The aim of the present study was to compare affiliative behaviours of owned and shelter cats directed to human in a novel environment after a brief temporary absence of the person. A sample of 20 owned and 20 shelter animals were individually tested in a Secure Base Test, with three 2-min episodes: 1) cat accompanied by a person who sits on the floor inside a circle, 2) the person leaves and the animal is left alone, 3) the person returns, and sits inside the circle again. Three categories were used for coding videotapes of experimental sessions: (1) inside circle, (2) allo-rubbing and (3) tail up. Shelter animals showed more proximity maintenance and affiliative signs with a person than owned animals. Our findings suggested similarities between the secure base effect in cats and in human children: cats seek proximity and maintain contact with a person, displaying affiliative signs to the person, especially after being left alone frightened by an unfamiliar environment.

Effects of species-relevant auditory stimuli on stress in cats exposed to novel environment

Environmental changes like vet visit could cause stress in cats. Studies have attempted to develop stress management strategies targeting sensory systems. Even though species-appropriate music which includes cat affiliative sound (e.g., cats' purring and suckling sound) has been shown to relieve stress in cats. Little is known whether the cat sound alone works in stress management. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of species-relevant auditory stimuli on stress in cats exposed to a novel environment. During the 28-day experiment periods, 20 cats received four types of sound treatments which included silence (T1), purr of cats (T2), eating sound in cats (T3), and the mixed sound of T2 and T3 (T4) in a novel environment in random orders with intervals of 1 week between treatments. Cats' behaviors were recorded during each 10-min test. Results showed that T4 reduced visual scanning (P = 0.017) without significantly affecting other behaviors, compared with other treatments. Together, the two types of cat-specific sounds did not exert pronounced effects of relieving stress on cats exposed to a novel environment.

Emotional responses of piglets under long-term exposure to negative and positive auditory stimuli

The stress caused by sound is inevitable. The stress caused by noise and the positive effects of music can affect the endocrine of animals and their welfare. In this study, a total of 72 hybrid piglets (Large White × Duroc × Min pig) were randomly divided into 3 groups, including music (Mozart K.448, 60-70 dB), noise (recorded mechanical noise, 80-85 dB), and control (natural background sound, <40 dB) groups. S-IgA (secretory immunoglobulin A), IL-6 (interleukin-6), IL-8 (interleukin-8), and positive emotion-related behaviors were used as indicators to discuss whether noise induced stress and inflammation in piglets or whether music could have positive effects. Six hours of auditory exposure were given daily (10:00-16:00), which lasted for 56 days. Behavioral responses of the piglets were observed, and the concentrations of salivary S-IgA and serum IL-6 and IL-8 were measured. The results showed that the concentration of S-IgA increased in the noise and control groups on the 57th day (P < 0.05); S-IgA concentration in the music group was unchanged after long-term music exposure. The concentrations of IL-6 and IL-8 showed that long-term noise exposure might lead to stress and inflammation in piglets. Tail-wagging and play behaviors of the piglets in the music group were significantly greater than those in the noise and control groups, which implied that long-term music exposure improved the emotional state of the piglets in a restricted and barren environment.

Sociality of Cats toward Humans Can Be Influenced by Hormonal and Socio-Environmental Factors: Pilot Study

Individual differences in the sociality of cats are influenced by inherited and environmental factors. We recently revealed that hormones can make a difference in intraspecies social behavior. It remains unclear whether cat behavior toward humans is modulated by hormones. Therefore, we analyzed the relationship between cat behavior and their basal hormone concentrations after spending time together with human experimenters. In addition, we analyzed the relationship between cat behavior and the timing of when the individual cats began living with a human because the sociality of cats could be dependent on their developmental experiences. The results showed that male cats that began living with humans earlier had more contact with an experimenter. In addition, individual male cats with low testosterone levels were more likely to interact with an experimenter. These findings of this pilot study suggest that the sociality of male cats toward humans is affected by testosterone and the age at which they begin to live with humans.

The Effect of Transportation on Puppy Welfare from Commercial Breeding Kennels to a Distributor

Many puppies from commercial breeding kennels (CBKs) are transported by ground from their kennels of origin to a distributor. This experience may elicit fear and stress during a sensitive developmental period, which may in turn negatively impact the puppies’ short- and long-term welfare. This study aimed to measure short-term effects of transportation on puppy welfare metrics. Eight-week-old puppies (n = 383) from 12 CBKs were tested at their kennels (pre-trans) and ~48 h after arriving at a distributor (post-trans). At each location, puppies underwent an isolation test, a stranger-approach test, and a physical health assessment. Behavioral responses to testing were scored from videos. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM), fecal secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), and presence of intestinal parasites were also analyzed. Linear mixed-effects models identified decreased exploration (p < 0.001), and increased locomotion (p < 0.001) and escape attempts (p = 0.001) during the post-trans isolation test. Increased affiliative behavior (p < 0.001), FGM (p < 0.001) and sIgA (p = 0.014) were also observed post-trans. Findings support good physical health both pre- and post-trans, while behavioral and physiological changes suggest increased puppy distress post-trans. Higher post-transport affiliative behavior may indicate that puppies sought social support as a coping strategy after experiencing transport-related distress. Future studies should explore the efficacy of transportation-related interventions to mitigate puppy distress.

Physiological Assessment of the Health and Welfare of Domestic Cats-An Exploration of Factors Affecting Urinary Cortisol and Oxytocin

Physiological samples are beneficial in assessing the health and welfare of cats. However, most studies have been conducted in specialized environments, such as shelters or laboratories, and have not focused on cats living in domestic settings. In addition, most studies have assessed physiological stress states in cats based on cortisol, and none have quantified positive indicators, such as oxytocin. Here, we collected urine samples from 49 domestic cats and quantified urinary cortisol, oxytocin, and creatinine using ELISA. To identify factors influencing hormone levels, owners responded to questionnaires regarding their housing environment, individual cat information, and the frequency of daily interactions with their cats. Using principal component analysis, principal component scores for daily interactions were extracted. These results showed that the frequency of tactile and auditory signal-based communication by owners was positively correlated with the mean concentration of oxytocin in the urine. Additionally, this communication was more frequent in younger cats or cats that had experienced a shorter length of cohabitation with the owner. However, no factors associated with urinary cortisol concentration were identified. Our study indicates that interactions and relationships with the owner influence the physiological status of cats and suggests that oxytocin is a valuable parameter for assessing their health and welfare.

Comparing Pears to Apples: Unlike Dogs, Cats Need Habituation before Lab Tests

Simple Summary

Comparative studies can help us better understand our family pets’ social and cognitive behaviours and gain more insights in the evolution of some human abilities. However, the comparison of the behaviours of cats and dogs in a standard laboratory environment is not without challenges. Though recently they play a similar role in modern Western societies as pets, both their evolutionary history and individual experiences are different. We tested the spontaneous behaviour of companion cats and dogs in the same novel laboratory environment, and if needed, we tried to habituate them in the presence of their owners and an unfamiliar experimenter. To pass the habituation test, subjects were expected to play with the experimenter or accept food from them. All dogs passed the test on the first occasion, while almost 60% of the cats needed habituation and some could not reach the criteria even after three habituation sessions. More experienced cats (which had the opportunity to meet strangers and explore unfamiliar places) were not more successful, in fact, younger cats passed more easily. We found marked differences between dogs and cats in all behavioural variables; compared to dogs, cats spent more time crouching and close to their box, while less time exploring or close to the owner. Our findings are important not only regarding the test methods of cats and the interpretation of their data collected in the laboratory so far but, in a more general sense, on developing future comparative experiments.

Abstract

Research on the socio-cognitive skills of different species often benefit from comparative experiments, however, the ecology of the species and development of the individuals may differently determine how they react to the same test situation. In this study, our aims were twofold: to observe and compare the spontaneous behaviour of companion cats and dogs in the same novel environment, and to habituate them (if needed) to the novel environment in the presence of their owners and an unfamiliar experimenter. The behaviour of 62 family cats, 31 experienced (which had the opportunity to meet strangers and explore unfamiliar places) and 31 inexperienced cats, and 27 family dogs was compared in an unfamiliar room. The subjects’ behaviour was coded during the first five minutes in the presence of two passive persons, their owners, and an unfamiliar experimenter. Then, based on a set of rules, first the owner, and then the experimenter tried to initiate interactions with the subjects and the subjects’ willingness to interact was evaluated. To pass the habituation test, subjects were expected to play with the experimenter or accept food from them. All dogs passed the test on the first occasion, while almost 60% of the cats failed. The cats’ experience did not play a significant role, in fact, younger cats passed more easily. We found marked differences between dogs and cats in all behavioural variables; compared to dogs, cats spent more time crouching and close to their box, while less time exploring or close to the owner. We did not find a difference in the cats’ behaviour based on their experience. Our results support the hypothesis that unlike dogs, cats need extensive habituation in a novel environment. This could partially be explained by the difference in the ecology and/or domestication process of the species, although developmental effects cannot be excluded. Our findings have fundamental consequences not only for the considerations of the testability of cats and on the interpretation of their data collected in the laboratory, but in a more general sense on developing comparative experiments.

Exploring the advantages of using artificial agents to investigate animacy perception in cats and dogs

Self-propelled motion cues elicit the perception of inanimate objects as animate. Studies usually rely on the looking behaviour of subjects towards stimuli displayed on a screen, but utilizing artificial unidentified moving objects (UMOs) provides a more natural, interactive context. Here, we investigated whether cats and dogs discriminate between UMOs showing animate vs inanimate motion, and how they react to the UMOs' interactive behaviour. Subjects first observed, in turn, the motion of an animate and an inanimate UMO, and then they could move freely for 2 min while both UMOs were present (two-way choice phase). In the following specific motion phase, the animate UMO showed one of three interactive behaviours: pushing a ball, a luring motion, or moving towards the subject (between-subject design). Then, subjects could move freely for 2 min again while the UMO was motionless. At the end, subjects were free to move in the room while the UMO was moving semi-randomly in the room. We found that dogs approached and touched the UMO(s) sooner and more frequently than cats, regardless of the context. In the two-way choice phase, dogs looked at the animate UMO more often, and both species touched the animate UMO more frequently. However, whether the UMO showed playing, luring or assertive behaviour did not influence subjects' behaviour. In summary, both species displayed distinctive behaviour towards the animate UMO, but in dogs, in addition to the physical contact this was also reflected by the looking behaviour. Overall, dogs were more keen to explore and interact with the UMO than cats, which might be due to the general increased stress of cats in novel environments. The findings indicate the importance of measuring multiple behaviours when assessing responses to animacy. The live demonstration using artificial agents provides a unique opportunity to study social perception in nonhuman species.

Dam (Canis familiaris) Welfare throughout the Peri-Parturient Period in Commercial Breeding Kennels

Simple Summary

Welfare problems experienced during gestation and lactation may negatively affect dams and their puppies. However, the welfare states of dams in commercial breeding (CB) kennels during this period have not been well examined. Therefore, we examined a range of behavioral, physical, and physiological metrics throughout the period around parturition to identify if changes indicative of impaired welfare were present. We tested 74 dams from eight CB kennels at 6 and 1 week prepartum, and 4 and 8 weeks postpartum. At each time point we measured their responses to a stranger approaching, their physical health, and indicators of their stress response, immune function, and parasite burden. Findings did not reveal major changes in dam welfare. Most changes observed were likely because of natural biological changes resulting from pregnancy, lactation, and weaning. However, as some changes in metrics deviated from what was expected and there were changes in environmental and management factors during this time, future research should identify how they affect dam welfare.

Abstract

Poor dam welfare throughout the peri-parturient period can also negatively affect that of their offspring. This study aimed to identify changes in physical, physiological, and behavioral metrics indicative of dam welfare throughout the peri-parturient period. Dams (n = 74) from eight U.S. Midwest commercial breeding (CB) kennels were tested at 6 and 1 week prepartum, and 4 and 8 weeks postpartum. At each time point dams underwent a stranger approach test, physical health assessment, hair collection for hair cortisol concentration (HCC) and fecal collection for fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM), fecal secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) and parasite detection. Linear mixed-effects models indicated dams exhibited more affiliative behaviors towards the stranger at 4 weeks postpartum than 6 weeks prepartum (p = 0.03), increased HCC from 4-weeks to 8 weeks postpartum (p = 0.02), and increased FGM from 1 week prepartum to 8 weeks postpartum (p = 0.04). At each respective time point, the percentage of dams with intestinal parasites was 11%, 4%, 23%, and 15%. Most changes are likely due to increased energy requirements and hormonal variations. However, deviations from expected changes may have resulted from changes in environment and/ or management, which should be explored in future studies.

Perception of stress in cats by German cat owners and influencing factors regarding veterinary care

OBJECTIVES

Visiting the veterinarian is generally perceived as a stressful situation for cats. Previous studies have shown that the perception of stress may influence cats' healthcare. In order to minimise stress in cats during the veterinary consultation, feline-friendly handling has gained importance and is increasingly being used. The aim of this study was to find out whether cats experience stress during a visit to the veterinarian (and, if so, to what extent), and which factors influence the perception of stress and whether feline-friendly handling techniques have an impact.

METHODS

An online survey was conducted among German cat owners. In total, 889 questionnaires were evaluated. The results were analysed with binary logistic regression and a χ² test. A principal component analysis was used to detect the main influencing factors on the perception of stress.

RESULTS

Most of the cats (88.7%, n = 732/825) were perceived as stressed during a veterinary consultation, while only about half of the owners (50.8%, n = 419/824) stated that they felt stressed themselves. The cat owners (n = 819) who perceived visiting the veterinarian as a stressful situation also described their cat as stressed significantly more often compared with owners who did not feel stressed (χ² = 101.113, P <0.001). The probability that owners experienced stress themselves was significantly increased if they perceived their cat to be stressed too (odds ratio 0.073, 95% confidence interval 0.016-0.328). One factor that influenced whether an owner was stressed was the stress behaviour of their cat (P <0.001). Furthermore a feline-friendly demeanour by the veterinarian led to less stress in the owners (P <0.001).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The owner's stress influences the perception of their cat's stress. By adhering to feline-friendly handling guidelines, veterinarians can reduce owner stress associated with veterinary visits, thereby promoting optimal veterinary care and health for their feline patients.

Veterinary background noise elicits fear responses in cats while freely moving in a confined space and during an examination

Many cats show signs of fear and stress during veterinary examinations and procedures, and environmental stimuli such as noise can contribute to these responses. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of background noise commonly heard in veterinary clinics (people talking, kennel doors shutting, dogs barking) on behavioural and physiological responses in companion cats. In Experiment 1, owned cats underwent a mock physical examination in a veterinary clinic with (n=16) or without (n=16) a pre-recorded noise track. A second experiment was conducted to assess cat responses to noise outside of handling and a clinic environment. In Experiment 2, shelter cats were either exposed (n=15) or not exposed (n=15) to the same noise track while allowed free movement in a small enclosure. Physiological and behavioural responses previously validated as negative responses in cats (e.g., indicative of fear, stress and aversion) were recorded, and outcome variables were compared between treatments. For both experiments, cats exposed to the noise track showed higher heart and respiratory rates. Noise was not associated with behavioural changes during the physical examination; however, cats who were freely moving showed more behavioural signs of fear and/or stress during noise exposure compared to the no noise conditions. These results show that high levels of background noise elicit physiological stress responses in cats, while ceiling effects of the examination and exposure to the clinic environment likely prevented treatment-related behavioral differences from being detected during the physical examination. It is recommended that those working with cats in environments with high levels of background noise limit cat exposure to these noises to reduce cat fear and stress.

Impact of Classical Counterconditioning (Quiet Kennel Exercise) on Barking in Kenneled Dogs—A Pilot Study

Simple Summary

Barking is a major source of noise pollution in dog kennels and negatively impacts the welfare of anyone within earshot, especially the dogs in the kennels themselves. It is crucial to have solutions to help reduce barking quickly and humanely that are easy to understand and put into place that also do not require a lot of resources such as time, expertise, or money. This study looked at the use of an exercise (Quiet Kennel Exercise—QKE) that uses classical counterconditioning (Pavlov) to help change the way the dogs feel when a person enters the kennel area from unpleasant to pleasant. This should help to reduce barking, especially that which is caused by negative emotions such as fear and frustration. After the initial baseline period of 5 days, people passing through the kennel tossed treats to the dogs no matter what the dogs did for 10 days. Data was collected three times a day for the entire study period. Sound level readings (decibels), number of dogs present, and number of dogs barking were recorded. Results showed improvement in the loudest volume recorded after the exercise was in place, fewer dogs barking over time, and each dog barking less each time. The most improvement was noticed in the afternoon.

Abstract

Excessive barking is a major source of noise pollution in dog kennels and negatively impacts welfare. Because resources are often limited, minimizing barking in the simplest and most easily implementable way is imperative. This pilot study implemented a Quiet Kennel Exercise (QKE) that utilized classical counterconditioning to change the dogs’ negative emotional state (which can lead to barking) to a more positive emotional state. Therefore, barking motivation is reduced, so barking should decrease. This study aims to show proof of concept that decreasing barking through classical counterconditioning is effective. It was conducted in one ward of day-time boarding kennels at North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine. Data was collected three times per day and included decibel readings, number of dogs present, and number of dogs barking during a 5-day initial baseline and 10-day intervention period. During baseline, people passing through the ward acted as they normally would. During intervention, passersby were asked to simply toss each dog a treat regardless of the dogs’ behaviors in the kennel. Descriptive results show improvement in maximum level of barking after QKE, fewer dogs barking over time, dogs barking less each time, and the most improvement noted in the afternoon.

The effect of animal shelter sound on cat behaviour and welfare

This study assessed how sound affected fear- and maintenance-related behaviour in singly housed cats (Felis silvestris catus) in an animal shelter. Two daily 30-min observation sessions (morning and evening) were made for 98 cats from admittance for ten days or until the cat was removed. Cat behaviour and presence of sound (classified by the source) were recorded by instantaneous and onezero sampling with 15-s intervals. Each 30-min observation session was classified as 'quiet' or 'noisy' if the one-zero score for presence of sound was above or below the median of sessions at that time of day. To ensure that cats had at least two complete days of comparable observations, statistical analysis was restricted to the 70 cats (30 females, 40 males) present for two or more weekdays. Cats varied widely in the amount of fear and maintenance behaviour they performed. Males showed less fear and maintenance behaviour than females. Morning sessions consistently had much more sound than evenings, and cats showed more fear behaviour and less maintenance behaviour in the mornings. Cats showed more fear behaviour in noisy morning sessions than quiet ones, with no comparable difference in maintenance behaviour. Where sessions included a pronounced transition in sound, fear-related behaviour was more common after a transition from quiet to noisy and less common after a transition from noisy to quiet. The results show that shelter cats vary greatly in their responses and suggest that sound in shelter environments can substantially affect their behaviour. Lowering sound levels in shelters may help improve cat welfare.

Changes in Health Indicators of Welfare in Group-Housed Shelter Cats

The aim of this study was to detect changes in health-oriented welfare indicators of shelter cats housed in a shelter by means of long-term monitoring of health indicators of welfare in a population of group-housed cats in a private, no-kill shelter in the Czech Republic. The cat population housed in a large group was monitored for 1 year. The data recording took place at 2-week intervals. A total of 220 cats were evaluated using a protocol containing eight health-oriented welfare indicators: body condition, third eye visibility, eye discharge, eye irritation, nose discharge, the presence of pathologically induced respiratory sounds, coat condition, and lameness and abnormal posture. The assessment was performed based on the observation by two trained evaluators. The cats' condition was rated on a 5-point scale for each indicator, where the optimal condition was represented by the score of 1 and a severe deterioration by the score of 5 for the given indicator, except for the body condition indicator, where the optimal condition was represented by the score of 3. A deterioration in the score in at least one of the indicators during the stay in the shelter was recorded in 52 (41.6%) of 125 cats that were assessed at least twice. The effect of the LOS, sex and age on the scores for each health indicator was examined via a linear mixed model analysis, as this method allows for handling of dependencies in the data of repeated measurements. The effect of predictors on the third eye visibility scores was not found. The age of cats predicted the coat condition and body condition scores. The LOS predicted scores of the abnormal posture and lameness indicator and scores of a composite index composed of indicators related to upper respiratory tract disease. The results suggest that despite the fact that some improvement of health was documented during the cats' stay in the shelter, there were a non-negligible number of animals experiencing a permanent or long-term deterioration in health. Efforts to minimize the undesirable factors contributing to the deterioration of well-being of cats during their stay in a shelter should be made.

Early maternal separation is not associated with changes in telomere length in domestic kittens (Felis catus)

OBJECTIVE

Studies of multiple species have found that adverse early life experiences, including childhood trauma and maternal separation, can result in accelerated telomere shortening. The objective of this study was to determine if premature separation from the mother affected telomere length in domestic kittens (Felis catus). Subjects were 42 orphaned kittens and 10 mother-reared kittens from local animal rescue groups and shelters. DNA was extracted from whole blood collected from kittens at approximately 1 week and 2 months of age. Telomere length was assessed by qPCR (quantitative polymerase chain reaction) from a total of 86 samples and expressed as a ratio of telomere PCR relative to a single copy gene PCR (T/S).

RESULTS

A generalized linear mixed model found there were no detectable differences in telomere length based on survival (F 1, 76.2 = 3.35, p = 0.07), orphan status (F 1, 56.5 = 0.44, p = 0.51), time point (F 1, 43.5 = 0.19, p = 0.67), or the interaction between orphan status and time (F 1, 43.5 = 0.86, p = 0.36). Although in other species telomere shortening is commonly associated with aging, even early in life, we did not find evidence for telomere shortening by two months of age. Our results suggest that the experience of early maternal separation in domestic cats who are subsequently hand-reared by humans does not accelerate telomere shortening compared to mother-reared kittens, at least in the first few months of life.

Effects of Human Presence and Voice on the Behaviour of Shelter Dogs and Cats: A Preliminary Study

Simple Summary

Environmental enrichment is fundamental for the welfare of shelter animals. This study compared the behaviour of single-housed shelter dogs and cats while being read a book (using a prerecording) in the presence of an unfamiliar human (without direct physical contact) or in its absence. Behaviours such as scratching the door, gaze direction and location in relation to the audio source/human were observed for 10 min. When a human was present, dogs spent longer in their bed and looking at the auditory source, while cats scratched the door and rubbed against the door. In the absence of the human, cats tended to spend more time in the vertical dimension, where the hiding boxes were located. Overall, the presence of a person, combined with auditory enrichment, induced greater interest compared to just an audio stimulation in both shelter dogs and cats. However, some animals showed signs of frustration likely due to not being able to physically interact with the human. Given that dogs that exhibit calmness and cats that scratch the door in the presence of humans and try to attract human attention are more likely to be adopted, auditory enrichment combined with human presence promotes behaviours that may consequentially increase adoption rate.

Abstract

Reading books to shelter animals combining auditory enrichment with human presence is increasingly used although its effects on animal welfare have not yet been investigated. This study compared the behaviour of single-housed shelter dogs and cats during a prerecorded reading condition in the absence or presence of an unfamiliar human (without direct physical contact). Fourteen dogs and twenty-one cats were observed in their enclosure in the two conditions in a counterbalanced order. Behaviours such as scratching the door, gaze direction and location in relation to the audio source/human were analysed from video recording for 10 min per condition. Dogs spent more time in their bed (p < 0.047) and looking at the auditory source (p < 0.004) when a human was present. Cats showed door scratching and rubbing when a human was present (p < 0.043), whereas they tended to spend more time in the vertical dimension (p = 0.051), where the hiding boxes were located, during auditory stimulation without a human present. These results show that the presence of a human induces greater interest compared to just audio stimulation in shelter dogs and cats but may induce frustration likely due to not being able to physically interact in some animals.

The Effects of Frequency and Duration of Handling on the Development of Feline Upper Respiratory Infections in a Shelter Setting

Simple Summary

Stress in cats residing in a shelter environment is a significant contributor to the development of upper respiratory disease (URD). Previous studies have shown that positive interactions can reduce stress and enhance the immune system. However, little is known on how the frequency and duration of daily handling affects a cat’s likelihood of developing URD. The goal of this study was to record the daily frequency and duration of handling of clinically healthy cats that were relinquished at a closed admission shelter and determine if these parameters were associated with a statistically significant increased risk of developing URD. While no parameters were statistically significantly associated with an increased hazard of developing URD, we found that cats that did not develop URD were handled more frequently than cats that did develop URD. Our results suggest that increased frequency and duration of handling does not appear to increase the risk of URD signs and may reduce the incidence of URD development. These results are important for the shelter community in developing handling and hygiene protocols for shelter cats.

Abstract

Reducing stress is important to maintaining the health of shelter cats and decreasing the risk of upper respiratory disease (URD). The aim of this study was to determine if the frequency and/or duration of daily routine handling of shelter cats affects the likelihood of URD development. At a closed admission shelter, each cat free of URD on intake was given a cage card for recording handling data. These data included: date and times when the cat was handled, duration of handling, if and when the cat developed signs of URD, and the handler identity. Cox regression was used to determine the relationship between these factors and URD development. We found cats that did not develop URD were handled significantly more than cats that did (1.1 times per day vs. 0.7 times per day, p < 0.001). Increased frequency of handling had a borderline significant effect on the hazard of developing URD (HR 0.37; CI: 0.13–1.1; p = 0.066). No other parameters were significantly associated with the development of URD; however, small sample size may be responsible for this finding. A larger study is needed to elucidate the relationship between handling and URD development.

Methods of Assessment of the Welfare of Shelter Cats: A Review

At any moment, there are millions of cats housed in foster care facilities for abandoned and stray animals for various reasons worldwide. Care, management and regulation among these facilities differ. Moreover, shelters can never substitute the full comfort of a good home for the animal, and the welfare of cats in shelters is a subject of discussion in many respects. Cats are animals sensitive to changes; for most of them, placement in a shelter is a stressful experience because of changes in routine, environment and the presence of other animals. Stress is reflected in changes in behaviour, causes fluctuations in physiological values and disrupts the immune system, which is a predisposition to the development or reactivation of disease. Evaluation of the presence and intensity of negative impacts is possible through the use of evaluation tools based on indicators that help set the environment and management of keeping so as to disrupt the quality of life as little as possible. Although a comprehensive and valid welfare tool that would evaluate animal-based and at the same time resource-based (or management-based) indicators of cats in shelters is not currently available, it is possible to use partial evaluation of individual welfare indicators to assess welfare. This review aims to provide the readers with an insight into current options of assessment of the welfare of cats in shelters with an emphasis on behavioural, physiological and health indicators with an application in both practical and scientific contexts.

The Effects of Play Behavior, Feeding, and Time of Day on Salivary Concentrations of sIgA in Calves

Simple Summary

The focus of animal welfare science has shifted over the last decades from efforts to avoid negative states to ways of allowing animals the experience of positive emotions. The emotional state of an animal interacts with its immune system. Secretory immunoglobulin A, a class of antibodies present on mucosal surfaces and acting as the first line of defense against infections, is influenced by positive and negative emotions in humans; the few studies of its association with emotions in animals focused almost exclusively on the impact of negative emotions and yielded conflicting results. We present the first study that focuses on salivary immunoglobulin A to investigate a possible relationship between positive emotions and immune functioning in calves. We detected a circadian rhythm of immunoglobulin A concentrations, with lowest levels at 14:00 h. Immunoglobulin A concentrations were decreased directly after feeding, possibly due to increased saliva flow rates, and we did not find higher immunoglobulin A concentrations after play. The results are important for the design of future studies of positive emotions, although they do not support immunoglobulin A as an indicator of positive emotional states.

Abstract

The focus of animal welfare science has shifted over the last decades from efforts to avoid negative states to ways of allowing animals the experience of positive emotions. They may influence physiological processes in farmed animals, potentially providing health benefits; in addition, the physiological changes might be used as indicators of emotional states. We investigated calves’ salivary secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) concentrations with regard to a possible circadian rhythm and two situations that elicit positive emotions. Ten saliva samples of 14 calves were taken on two consecutive days; within the course of a day we observed a significant decline in salivary sIgA concentrations at 14:00 h. Further, we probed the animals before and after milk feeding and, contrarily to our prediction, detected lower sIgA concentrations 5 min after feeding than 15 min before. A probable explanation might be an increase in salivary flow rate caused by milk ingestion. We also took samples before and after we stimulated play behavior in calves. There was no significant difference in sIgA concentrations between samples taken before and after play. Although there was a significant correlation between the change in sIgA concentrations and the amount of play behavior shown, the correlation depended on an unexpected decrease of sIgA in animals that played little, and thus, does not support our hypothesis. In general, the data showed a large variability that might arise from different factors that are difficult to standardize in animals. Thus, the use of salivary sIgA concentrations as a marker of positive emotions in calves is not supported conclusively by the present data.

Coping Styles in the Domestic Cat (Felis silvestris catus) and Implications for Cat Welfare

Identifying coping styles in cats may lead to improved health and welfare. The aims of this study were to (1) identify individual differences in response to acute confinement, and (2) to assess the predictability of guardian-rated personality traits on behavior. Adult cats (n = 55) were singly housed in enriched cages and behavioral observations were recorded for three days. On day 3, familiar and unfamiliar person approach tests were conducted. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM) were quantified from voided samples. A questionnaire assessing personality traits and sickness behaviors was completed by each guardian. Analysis identified two clusters-cats in Cluster 1 (n = 22) were described as shy, calm, mellow, and timid; cats in Cluster 2 (n = 33) were described as active, playful, curious, and easygoing. Multilevel mixed-effects GLM revealed significant differences between the clusters including food intake (C1 > C2, p < 0.0001), affiliative/maintenance behaviors (C2 > C1, p < 0.0001), vocalization (C2 > C1, p < 0.0001), hide (C1 > C2, p < 0.0001), perch (C2 > C1, p < 0.0001), and latency to approach a familiar (C1 > C2, p < 0.0001) and unfamiliar (C1 > C2, p = 0.013) person. No statistically significant differences in FGM concentrations were identified (cluster p = 0.28; day p = 0.16, interaction p = 0.26). Guardian-rated personality traits agreed with the response of the cats when confined to a cage, suggesting that domestic cats have different coping styles. Identifying individual differences in response to stressful events or environments may provide caretakers with important information leading to improved welfare.

Recognising and assessing feline emotions during the consultation: History, body language and behaviour

Practical relevance: Crucial to successful treatment of problem behaviour and optimising the welfare of the individual cat is determining which underpinning emotion(s) are involved in the presentation of the behaviour. Feline emotions are not feelings per se, but motivational-emotional systems that are responsible for instinctual emotional arousal. Often different interventions are required to alleviate different negative emotional motivations. Clinical challenges: Identifying different emotional motivations and the arousal level associated with them solely from observations of behaviour and body language is a difficult task because, as with any species, the behavioural repertoire of the domestic cat is finite and the same behaviour may occur with the activation of different emotional systems. In addition, cats, like people, may experience more than one emotion at the same time or switch quickly between emotional motivations, and this further complicates identification. The behavioural assessment of pain is also notoriously difficult in cats. Evidence base: This review draws on the published literature where available and, where there is a paucity of research, on hypotheses derived from observations of professionals in the field. Global importance: Being able to recognise and assess feline emotional motivations in order to address problem behaviours and improve welfare is important for all veterinarians who see cats.

Linking stress and immunity: Immunoglobulin A as a non-invasive physiological biomarker in animal welfare studies

As the animal welfare community strives to empirically assess how care and management practices can help maintain or even enhance welfare, the development of tools for non-invasively measuring physiological biomarkers is essential. Of the suite of physiological biomarkers, Immunoglobulin A (IgA), particularly the secretory form (Secretory IgA or SIgA), is at the forefront because of its crucial role in mucosal immunity and links to physical health, stress, and overall psychological well-being. While interpretation of changes in SIgA concentrations on short time scales is complex, long-term SIgA patterns are consistent: conditions that create chronic stress lead to suppression of SIgA. In contrast, when welfare is enhanced, SIgA is predicted to stabilize at higher concentrations. In this review, we examine how SIgA concentrations are reflective of both physiological stress and immune function. We then review the literature associating SIgA concentrations with various metrics of animal welfare and provide detailed methodological considerations for SIgA monitoring. Overall, our aim is to provide an in-depth discussion regarding the value of SIgA as physiological biomarker to studies aiming to understand the links between stress and immunity.

Snow cover and snowfall impact corticosterone and immunoglobulin a levels in a threatened steppe bird

Birds use both the corticosterone stress response and immune system to meet physiological challenges during exposure to adverse climatic conditions. To assess the stress level and immune response of the Asian Great Bustard during conditions of severe winter weather, we measured fecal corticosterone (CORT) and Immunoglobulin A (IgA) before and after snowfall in a low snow cover year (2014) and a high snow cover year (2015). A total of 239 fecal samples were gathered from individuals in Tumuji Nature Reserve, located in eastern Inner Mongolia, China. We observed high CORT levels that rose further after snowfall both in high and low snow cover years. IgA levels increased significantly after snowfall in the low snow cover year, but decreased after snowfall in the high snow cover year. These results suggest that overwintering Asian Great Bustards are subjected to climatic stress during severe winter weather, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune system react to this challenge. Extreme levels of stress, such as snowfall in already prolonged and high snow cover conditions may decrease immune function. Supplemental feeding should be considered under severe winter weather conditions for this endangered subspecies.

Facial correlates of emotional behaviour in the domestic cat (Felis catus)

Leyhausen's (1979) work on cat behaviour and facial expressions associated with offensive and defensive behaviour is widely embraced as the standard for interpretation of agonistic behaviour in this species. However, it is a largely anecdotal description that can be easily misunderstood. Recently a facial action coding system has been developed for cats (CatFACS), similar to that used for objectively coding human facial expressions. This study reports on the use of this system to describe the relationship between behaviour and facial expressions of cats in confinement contexts without and with human interaction, in order to generate hypotheses about the relationship between these expressions and underlying emotional state. Video recordings taken of 29 cats resident in a Canadian animal shelter were analysed using 1-0 sampling of 275 4-s video clips. Observations under the two conditions were analysed descriptively using hierarchical cluster analysis for binomial data and indicated that in both situations, about half of the data clustered into three groups. An argument is presented that these largely reflect states based on varying degrees of relaxed engagement, fear and frustration. Facial actions associated with fear included blinking and half-blinking and a left head and gaze bias at lower intensities. Facial actions consistently associated with frustration included hissing, nose-licking, dropping of the jaw, the raising of the upper lip, nose wrinkling, lower lip depression, parting of the lips, mouth stretching, vocalisation and showing of the tongue. Relaxed engagement appeared to be associated with a right gaze and head turn bias. The results also indicate potential qualitative changes associated with differences in intensity in emotional expression following human intervention. The results were also compared to the classic description of "offensive and defensive moods" in cats (Leyhausen, 1979) and previous work by Gourkow et al. (2014a) on behavioural styles in cats in order to assess if these observations had replicable features noted by others. This revealed evidence of convergent validity between the methods However, the use of CatFACS revealed elements relating to vocalisation and response lateralisation, not previously reported in this literature.

Effect of cognitive enrichment on behavior, mucosal immunity and upper respiratory disease of shelter cats rated as frustrated on arrival

Acquisition of resources and opportunity to engage in natural behaviors has been shown to reduce frustration-related behaviors and enhance health in nondomestic felids kept in zoos, but little is known about whether there are similar effects in domestic cats living in confinement in animal shelters. Fifteen cats rated as Frustrated during the first hour of confinement to a cage at an animal shelter were assigned to either a Treatment (n=7) or Control (n=8) group. Treatment cats were taken from their cages to a separate room four times daily for 10min each time over a 10 d period, where they took part in training sessions to learn a novel behavior (paw-hand contact with a researcher). Changes in emotional states and mucosal immune response were evaluated over 10days. Infectious status was determined upon admission and incidence of upper respiratory was determined up to day 40 based on clinical signs. Treated cats were more likely to be rated as Content than Control cats and had greater concentrations of S-IgA (537μg/g) in feces than Control cats (101μg/g). Within the Treatment group, cats that responded positively had greater concentrations of S-IgA (925μg/g) than those that responded negatively (399μg/g). Control cats were more likely to develop respiratory disease over time compared to cats that received treatment (Hazard Ratio: 2.37, Confidence Interval: 1.35-4.15). It is concluded that there is prima facie evidence that cognitive enrichment of cats exhibiting frustration-related behaviors can elicit positive affect (contentment), stimulate secretion of IgA and reduce incidence of respiratory disease, which is worthy of further study.

A novel set of behavioural indicators for measuring perception of food by cats

Behavioural indicators provide a promising approach for objective assessment of the perceptions of animals. In cats, the frequency of specific behaviours as indicators of perception has been studied in connection with food palatability. The aim of this study was to expand that knowledge by identifying behavioural indicators correlating with three degrees of palatability. Thirty-four pet cats were presented with three types of items: favoured food (FF), favoured food with a placebo mini-tablet hidden inside (TFF) and non-favoured food (NFF). The items were presented in a pseudo-randomised sequence, with six trials per item and 18 trials per cat. The behaviour of cats before, during and after eating, or refusing to eat, was video-recorded. Two trained observers, blinded to the types of food items, independently determined the frequency of 16 behavioural patterns on the video recordings. The data were analysed using a mixed logistic regression model. Five behavioural patterns differentiated FF from NFF; 'flick ears backwards', 'lick nose, not eaten', 'flick tail' and 'groom body' were more frequent with NFF, whereas 'lick lips' was more frequent with FF. One indicator, 'drop item', was more frequent with TFF than FF. These findings provide evidence of new behavioural indicators for objective assessment of food perception in cats. The findings also have practical applicability in designing a novel palatability test to be utilised in developing veterinary pharmaceuticals with improved palatability for cats.

Effect of interactions with humans on behaviour, mucosal immunity and upper respiratory disease of shelter cats rated as contented on arrival

Sustained positive affect may decrease vulnerability to upper respiratory infections in cats admitted to a shelter. Incidence of upper respiratory infections was examined in cats rated as Content upon admission to an animal shelter when provided with or without treatment to sustain contentment. Ninety-six cats rated as Content upon admission were provided with either human interaction, including petting, playing, and grooming, in four 10min sessions/d for 10 days or were exposed to a control treatment of a human standing in front of the cage with eyes averted for the same period. Changes in emotional state and mucosal immune responses were measured daily in treated and control groups. Infectious status was determined upon admission and on days 4 and 10 using combined conjunctival and oropharyngeal swab specimens tested by quantitative real-time PCR for feline herpes virus type 1, feline calicivirus, Mycoplasma felis, Chlamydophila felis, and Bordetella bronchiseptica. The onset of upper respiratory disease (URD) was determined by veterinary staff based on clinical signs, including ocular or nasal discharge. Treated cats were more likely to remain Content (Incident Rate Ratio [IRR]:1.13, Confidence Interval: 0.98-1.30, P <0.0001) and less likely to be rated as Anxious or Frustrated than Control cats over a 10 day period (IRR: 0.61, 95% CI: 0.42-0.88, P =0.007). Feline secretory IgA (S-IgA) quantified in faeces by ELISA techniques, was greater for Treated than Control cats (1451 Vs 846μg/g). Within the Treatment group, S-IgA was greater for cats that sustained Contentment throughout the study period compared to cats that became Anxious or Frustrated (1846 Vs 1394μg/g). An increasing proportion of Control than Treated cats shed pathogens over time (Control 22%, 36%, 61%; Treated 35%, 26%, 32% on d 1, 4 and 10, respectively; P =0.006). Control cats were more likely to develop URD than Treated cats (HR 2.9, CI: 1.30-6.67, P =0.01). Cats that responded positively to Treatment had a lower incidence of URD than negative responders (P =0.02). We conclude that the provision of human interaction treatments to shelter cats can facilitate sustained contentment, enhance secretion of S-IgA, and reduce incidence of URD.

The Use of Refuges by Communally Housed Cats

Simple Summary

Captive domestic cats frequently suffer from the lack of physical space and opportunities to perform species-typical behaviors, such as climbing or hiding. Environmental enrichment is a technique that helps transform the space available to animals into a more appropriate habitat. In this study, we tested horizontal and vertical refuge boxes as environmental enrichment for cats living communally in a cat rescue shelter. The provision of boxes in the environment increases the use of available space by the cats. We suggest this improves the cats’ welfare while in communally-housed rescue shelters.

Abstract

The increase of domestic animals kept in shelters highlights the need to ensure animal welfare. Environmental enrichment can improve animal welfare in many ways, such as encouraging captive animals to use all the space available to them. The effects of physical environmental enrichment on the spatial distribution and behavioral repertoire of 35 neutered domestic cats housed communally were analyzed. The provision of boxes in the environment increases the use of available space by the cats. We suggest this improves the cats’ welfare while in communally-housed rescue shelters. The frequencies of active and especially inactive behaviors also increased in the enriched condition. In a test with vertical environmental enrichment, the animals showed an increased length of stay in refuges located at a height of 0.5 m compared to those on the ground (0.0 m). However, the entry frequency was higher in refuges at 0.0 m. Both horizontal and vertical environmental enrichment increased the use of available space, demonstrating that box refuges as enrichment are effective in providing a refuge when at a height, or a place to explore at ground level. We suggest it enhances the welfare of cats in communally housed shelters. This information adds to the body of evidence relating to cat enrichment and can be useful in designing cat housing in veterinary clinics, research laboratories, shelters and domestic homes.

Effect of gentle stroking and vocalization on behaviour, mucosal immunity and upper respiratory disease in anxious shelter cats

Emotional, behavioural, and health benefits of gentle stroking and vocalizations, otherwise known as gentling, have been documented for several species, but little is known about the effect of gentling on cats in stressful situations. In this study, 139 cats rated as anxious upon admission to an animal shelter were allocated to either a Gentled or Control group. Cats were gentled four times daily for 10 min over a period of 10 days, with the aid of a tool for cats that were too aggressive to handle. The cats' mood, or persistent emotional state, was rated daily for 10 d as Anxious, Frustrated or Content. Gentled cats were less likely to have negatively valenced moods (Anxious or Frustrated) than Control cats (Incidence Rate Ratio [IRR]=0.61 CI 0.42-0.88, P=0.007). Total secretory immunoglobulin A (S-IgA) was quantified from faeces by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Gentled cats had increased S-IgA (6.9 ± 0.7 logeμg/g) compared to Control cats (5.9 ± 0.5 logeμg/g) (P<0.0001). Within the Gentled group of cats, S-IgA values were higher for cats that responded positively to gentling (7.03 ± 0.6, logeμg/g), compared with those that responded negatively (6.14 ± 0.8, logeμg/g). Combined conjunctival and oropharyngeal swab specimens were tested by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (rPCR) for feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1), feline calicivirus (FCV), Mycoplasma felis, Chlamydophila felis, and Bordetella bronchiseptica. There was a significant increase in shedding over time in Control cats (23%, 35%, 52% on days 1, 4 and 10, respectively), but not in gentled cats (32%, 26%, 30% on days 1, 4 and 10, respectively) (P=0.001). Onset of upper respiratory disease was determined by veterinary staff based on clinical signs, in particular ocular and/or nasal discharge. Control cats were 2.4 (CI: 1.35-4.15) times more likely to develop upper respiratory disease over time than gentled cats (P<0.0001). It is concluded that gentling anxious cats in animal shelters can induce positive affect (contentment), increase production of S-IgA, and reduce the incidence of upper respiratory disease.

A critically appraised topic (CAT) to compare the effects of single and multi-cat housing on physiological and behavioural measures of stress in domestic cats in confined environments

Background

Domestic cats have evolved from solitary, asocial predators and whilst they may display social behaviours, they can still exist as solitary survivors. Over-population and relinquishment of pet cats are ubiquitous problems worldwide, and rehoming centres (also known as rescues/ shelters) aim to ameliorate this by holding cats in confinement for a variable period until a new home is found. The provision of optimal housing for large numbers of cats in close confinement, such as in rehoming centres, is therefore inherently difficult. Under these conditions there is the potential for individuals to develop signs of physical and psychological ill health, and thus experience compromised welfare. Available information regarding housing practices that maximise welfare currently provides conflicting results, and as a consequence there are no unanimous housing recommendations. The aim of this study was therefore to review the evidence on the impact of single housing compared to multi-cat housing on stress in confined cats, as measured by physiological and/or behavioural outcomes. The review was conducted using a Critically Appraised Topic (CAT) format. A systematic search of electronic databases (CAB Abstracts, Zoological Records and Medline) was carried out to identify peer-reviewed literature comparing single and multi-cat housing in confined environments.

Results

A total of 959 papers were initially identified, six of which met sufficient criteria based on their relevance to be included within this review. All of the studies had significant limitations in design and methodology, including a lack of information on how groups were assigned, inconsistent handling and enrichment provision between groups, and lack of information on the socialisation status of cats.

Conclusions

Whilst some studies suggested that single housing may be less stressful for cats, others suggested group housing was less stressful. Several other important factors were however identified as potential mediators of stress within the different housing systems, and recommendations based upon these findings are presented.