Subclinical carotid atherosclerosis and triglycerides predict the incidence of chronic kidney disease in the Japanese general population: results from the Kyushu and Okinawa Population Study (KOPS)

The relationship between kidney function and cardiometabolic risk factors, anthropometric indices, and dietary inflammatory index in the Iranian general population: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is estimated to be about 13.4% worldwide. Studies have shown that CKD accounts for up to 2% of the health cost burden. Various factors, such as genetic polymorphisms, metabolic disorders, and unhealthy lifestyles, can contribute to the occurrence of CKD. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the relationship between renal function and cardiometabolic risk factors, anthropometric characteristics, and the dietary inflammatory index (DII) in an Iranian population.

METHODS

This study was conducted on 2472 male and female employees of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences (SUMS), selected through census between 2018 and 2019. In this cross-sectional study, renal function was evaluated using serum creatinine (sCr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Biochemical indices including sCr, BUN, fasting blood sugar (FBS), total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and triglyceride (TG) were measured using standard laboratory methods. eGFR was calculated using the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease formula. Systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure as well as anthropometric indices such as height (Ht), weight (Wt), hip circumference (HC), waist circumference (WC), body mass index (BMI), conicity index (C-Index), visceral adiposity index (VAI), abdominal volume index (AVI), body adiposity index (BAI), and body shape index (ABSI) were measured and calculated using standard methods and formulas. Diet was evaluated through a 113-item food frequency questionnaire, and the DII was calculated according to its specific instructions. To predict the factors influencing renal function and to remove the impact of confounders, multivariable linear regression was employed using the backward elimination method.

RESULTS

There was a significant direct relationship between sCr and FBS, TG, HDL, DBP, Wt, and BAI as well as between BUN and age, TG, HDL, and BAI. In addition, there was a significant inverse relationship between eGFR and SBP, Wt, BAI, and VAI. In women compared to men, sCr and BUN values were significantly lower, while eGFR levels were significantly higher.

CONCLUSIONS

It seems that age, gender, lipid profile, glycemic status, BP, BAI, VAI, and Wt can be considered factors associated with renal function.

Atherogenic indices and risk of chronic kidney disease in metabolic derangements: Gangnam Severance Medical Cohort

BACKGROUND

The effects of atherogenic indices on kidney function remain unclear. This study evaluated the association between atherogenic indices and risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in adults with metabolic derangements.

METHODS

A total of 4,176 participants from the Gangnam Severance Medical Cohort (2006-2021), which consisted of participants who had at least one disease related to metabolic derangements including diabetes mellitus, fatty liver, and hypertension were enrolled and atherogenic indices (lipid ratios including atherogenic index of plasma [AIP]) were assessed. The study endpoint was a composite kidney outcome (estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR] of <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 in at least two measurements in participants with baseline eGFR of ≥60 mL/min/1.73 m2; ≥30% decrease in eGFR from baseline in participants with baseline eGFR of <60 mL/min/1.73 m2; or the initiation of dialysis or kidney transplantation).

RESULTS

During a median follow-up of 6.0 years (interquartile range, 2.5-11.0 years), 1,266 composite kidney outcomes (30.3%) occurred. The highest quartile of AIP showed a higher risk of composite kidney outcome than the lowest quartile (hazard ratio [HR], 1.31; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.12-1.54). This association was consistent when the AIP was treated as a continuous variable (HR per 1.0 increase, 1.51; 95% CI, 1.21-1.88). However, other atherogenic indices did not show significant associations with composite kidney outcome. Adding AIP to the traditional risk model to predict composite kidney outcomes significantly improved the C-index, net reclassification index, and integrated discrimination improvement. The association between high AIP and an increased risk of composite kidney outcome was consistent regardless of subgroup.

CONCLUSION

High AIP was associated with an increased risk of CKD in adults with metabolic derangements.

Age Differences in the Correlation Between the Cardiometabolic Index and Chronic Kidney Disease Risk in Adults With Hypertension

Literature on the association between the cardiometabolic index (CMI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) risk is limited, especially in hypertensive populations. The objective of the present investigation was to assess the relationship between the CMI and CKD risk in a hypertensive population. The current cross-sectional study included a total of 13 717 individuals with hypertension. The calculation of the CMI was based on the waist-to-height ratio and the triglyceride-to-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio. The definition of CKD was based on an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) of less than 60 mL/min/1.73 m2. The prevalence of CKD was found to be 4.24% in younger adults (aged < 65 years) and 14.93% in the elderly (aged ≥ 65 years). The results of the multivariate regression analysis indicated that in the elderly group, the CMI was positively associated with CKD risk (odd ratio [OR] 1.29; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.14, 1.46), while no significant relationship was observed in the younger group (OR 1.04, 95% CI: 0.85, 1.27). Furthermore, subgroup analyses did not identify any potential factors that could modify the relationship between the CMI and CKD risk (all p for interaction > 0.05). Among adults with hypertension, there was an independent and positive correlation between the CMI and CKD risk in the elderly, whereas such a correlation was not observed in younger adults. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: ChiCTR1800017274 [China Hypertension Registry Study].

Triglyceride-Glucose Index Associated with Future Renal Function Decline in the General Population

BACKGROUND

The triglyceride-glucose index (TyG index), calculated as the logarithmic product of fasting triglyceride and glucose concentrations, is recognized as a simple marker of insulin resistance. However, the association between the TyG index and future decline of renal function remains unclear in the general population.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether the TyG index was associated with future decline of renal function in the general population who had not progressed to chronic kidney disease stage G2.

DESIGN

Retrospective longitudinal observational cohort study.

PARTICIPANTS

Individuals who received a population-based health checkup at JA Ehime Kouseiren Checkup Center from 2010 to 2019 (n = 134,007). Individuals without data of baseline fasting triglyceride or glucose levels, or baseline and follow-up data of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), or those with baseline eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 were excluded.

MAIN MEASURES

Future renal function decline, defined as a ≥ 25% decrease in eGFR from baseline.

KEY RESULTS

Of 10,758 participants, 8,076 were classified into the low TyG index group (TyG index < 8.76, 1st to 3rd quartiles) and 2,682 into the high TyG index group (TyG index ≥ 8.76, 4th quartile). The mean follow-up period was 37.8 ± 23.6 months. The incidence rates of renal function decline were 0.31 and 0.69 per 100 person-years in the low and high TyG index groups, respectively. In multivariate Cox proportional hazard models, high TyG index was significantly associated with future renal function decline (hazard ratio 2.25, 95% CI 1.40-3.60). This association was consistent across subgroups stratified by age, sex, body mass index, baseline eGFR, and diagnosed hypertension, diabetes, or dyslipidemia.

CONCLUSION

In the general population, high TyG index was associated with future renal function decline. The TyG index may be useful in identifying individuals at high risk for future renal function decline in the setting of health checkups.

Carotid intima-media thickness and atherosclerotic plaques are associated with renal function decline: a 14-year longitudinal population-based study

BACKGROUND

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) leads to increased morbidity and mortality. The underlying causes of CKD are often similar to those of atherosclerosis. We investigated whether carotid atherosclerotic parameters are associated with renal function decline.

METHODS

Within the population-based Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP), Germany, 2904 subjects were observed over 14 years. The carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) as well as carotid plaques were measured by standardized B-mode ultrasound protocol. CKD is defined as estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 and albuminuria as urinary albumin-creatinine ratio (ACR) ≥30 mg/g. eGFR was calculated by the full age spectrum (FAS) equation and the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) equation. Mixed models were applied to associate carotid parameters with change in renal function longitudinally and adjusted for confounding.

RESULTS

The age range of the study sample was 25-86 years with a median of 54 years at baseline. In longitudinal analyses, subjects with high cIMT and the presence of plaques at baseline showed a greater decrease in eGFR (cIMT: FAS-eGFR: P < .001, CKD-EPI-eGFR: P < .001; plaques: FAS-eGFR: P < .001, CKD-EPI-eGFR: n.s.) as well as an increased risk of developing CKD during the follow-up (cIMT: FAS-eGFR: P = .001, CKD-EPI-eGFR: P = .04; plaques: FAS-eGFR: P = .008, CKD-EPI-eGFR: P = .001). There was no association between atherosclerotic parameters and the risk of developing albuminuria.

CONCLUSIONS

cIMT and carotid plaques are associated with renal function decline as well as CKD in a population-based sample. Furthermore, the FAS equation adapts best to this study population.

Nontraditional Risk Factors for Progression Through Chronic Kidney Disease Risk Categories: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study

BACKGROUND

There may be nontraditional pathways of chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression that are complementary to classical pathways. Therefore, we aimed to examine nontraditional risk factors for incident CKD and its progression.

METHODS

We used the generally healthy population (n = 4382) starting at age 27-41 years in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) cohort, which is an observational longitudinal study. Nontraditional risk factors included forced vital capacity, inflammation, serum urate, and serum carotenoids. CKD risk category was classified using the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) measured in 1995-1996 and repeated every 5 years for 20 years: No CKD, low risk, moderate risk, high risk, and very high risk.

RESULTS

At baseline, 84.8% had no CKD (eGFR ≥60 mL/min/1.73 m2 and UACR <10 mg/g), 10.3% were in the low risk (eGFR ≥60 and UACR 10-29), and 4.9% had CKD (eGFR <60 and/or UACR ≥ 30). Nontraditional risk factors were significantly associated with the progression of CKD to higher categories. Hazard ratios per standard deviation of the predictor for incident CKD and its progression from the No CKD and low and moderate risk into CKD were inverse for forced vital capacity and serum carotenoids and positive for serum urate, GlycA, and C-reactive protein, the first 3 even after adjustment for conventional risk factors.

CONCLUSION

Several nontraditional markers were significantly associated with an increased risk of progression to higher CKD categories in generally healthy young to middle-aged adults.

The association between hypertriglyceridemic-waist phenotype and chronic kidney disease: a cohort study and meta-analysis

Evidence on the association between hypertriglyceridemic-waist phenotype (HTGW) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) is limited and inconsistent. We aimed to explore such association among 7406 Chinese aged ≥ 45 years in a cohort setting, followed by a meta-analysis. Participants were categorized into four phenotypes: NTNW (normal triglycerides and normal waist circumference), NTGW (isolated enlarged waist circumference), HTNW (isolated high triglycerides), and HTGW (high triglycerides and enlarged waist circumference). We used multivariate logistic regression to determine the association between different phenotypes and risk of CKD in the cohort study. For meta-analysis, we searched relevant studies from Embase, Medline, PubMed, and Web of Science from dataset inception up to May 1, 2021. A random-effect model was used to estimate the pooled effect and I² statistic was applied to evaluate heterogeneity. In the cohort study, compared to the NTNW phenotype, HTGW (OR 1.82, 95% CI 1.32 to 2.51, p < 0.01) and NTGW (OR 1.48, 95% CI 1.13 to 1.94, p = 0.004) were significantly associated with CKD risk after 4 years follow-up, but not for the HTNW phenotype. The meta-analysis also showed a positive association between HTGW phenotype and CKD risk (pooled OR 1.53, 95% CI 1.31 to 1.79, I² = 62.4%). Assessment of triglyceridemic-waist phenotypes might help to identify individuals with high-risk of developing CKD.

Narrative Review of Carotid disease and the kidney

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) have an increased cardiovascular (CV) risk that is only in part explained by established risk factors. Carotid arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis are increased in CKD, play a role in the causation of CV disease in these patients and can affect the progression of renal disease. The arterial stiffening process is evident even in CKD patients with a very mild reduction of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) whereas arterial thickening is evident in more advanced stages. Possible mechanisms include functional and structural alterations of the arterial wall. Arterial stiffness can mediate the effect of CKD on target organs (i.e., brain, kidney and heart). In this review we discuss the arterial phenotype of patients with CKD. This is characterized by increased common carotid artery stiffness and outward remodeling (enlargement and thickening of the arterial wall) and a normal/reduced stiffness paired with an inward remodeling (narrowing of the arterial wall) of muscular arteries. We also discuss the consequences of carotid dysfunction, including the involvement of large elastic arteries stiffness on ventricular-vascular coupling, the mechanisms linking carotid stiffening and increased cardio- and cerebrovascular risk in CKD patients, and the therapeutic options to improve carotid function.

A Nomogram for Identifying Subclinical Atherosclerosis in Chronic Kidney Disease

Purpose

Atherosclerosis contributes substantially to cardiovascular mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). But precise risk model for subclinical atherosclerosis in the CKD population is still lacking. The study aimed to develop and validate a nomogram for screening subclinical atherosclerosis among CKD patients without dialysis.

Patients and Methods

A total of 1452 CKD stage 1‒5 has been recruited in this cross-sectional study. Subclinical atherosclerosis was diagnosed with carotid ultrasonography. Patients were divided into the training set and validation set. The risk factors of atherosclerosis were identified by the training set and confirmed by the validation set. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and decision curve analyses (DCA) were executed to evaluate the accuracy of fitted logistic models in training and validation sets. Finally, a nomogram based on constructed logistic regression model in all participants was plotted.

Results

A total of 669 (46.1%) patients were diagnosed with subclinical carotid atherosclerosis. Binary logistic regression analysis showed that males, age, hypertension, diabetes, CKD stages, calcium, platelet, and albumin were risk factors for atherosclerosis. The accuracy of fitted logistic models was evaluated by the area under the ROC curve (AUC), which showed good predictive accuracy in the training set (AUC=0.764 (95% Confidence interval (CI): 0.733–0.794) and validation set (AUC=0.808 (95% CI: 0.765–0.852). A high net benefit was also proven by the DCA. Finally, these predictors were all included to generate the nomogram.

Conclusion

This proposed nomogram shows excellent predictive ability and might have a significant clinical implication for detecting subclinical atherosclerosis in patients with CKD.

Association Between Diabetic Retinopathy and Carotid Intima-Media Thickness

Introduction

Patients with diabetes having advanced stage of diabetic retinopathy (DR) may predict future risk of coronary artery disease. To predict cardiovascular outcomes carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT) is utilized in diabetic patients. The aim of our study was the evaluation of the relationship between retinopathy and CIMT as two valuable non-invasive methods for early detection of micro- and macrovascular complication of diabetes.

Methods

This comparative cross-sectional study was conducted in the internal medicine ward of tertiary care hospital in Pakistan from November 2020 to January 2021. Three hundred patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and 300 control subjects were enrolled in the study after taking informed consent. Ophthalmological examination was done to screen patients for DR. CIMT was evaluated by a Doppler ultrasound for both carotid arteries.

Results

Carotid artery intimal thickness was more in patients with retinopathy compared to patients without retinopathy in both right (0.77 ± 0.16 vs. 0.66 ± 0.12; p-value: <0.0001) and left carotid artery (0.77 ± 0.15 vs. 0.65 ± 0.11; p-value: <0.0001).

Conclusion

In our study, there was a correlation between DR and CIMT. Screening for DR, which may be a potential early marker for complications, may help detect patients at risk of various macro and microvascular complications.

Influence of height on endothelial maintenance activity: a narrative review

Recent studies have revealed an inverse association between height and cardiovascular disease. However, the background mechanism of this association has not yet been clarified. Height has also been reported to be positively associated with cancer. Therefore, well-known cardiovascular risk factors, such as increased oxidative stress and chronic inflammation, are not the best explanations for this inverse association because these risk factors are also related to cancer. However, impaired blood flow is the main pathological problem in cardiovascular disease, while glowing feeding vessels (angiogenesis) are the main characteristic of cancer pathologies. Therefore, endothelial maintenance activity, especially for the productivity of hematopoietic stem cells such as CD34-positive cells, could be associated with the height of an individual because this cell contributes not only to the progression of atherosclerosis but also to the development of angiogenesis. In addition, recent studies have also revealed a close connection between bone marrow activity and endothelial maintenance; bone marrow-derived hematopoietic stem cells contribute towards endothelial maintenance. Since the absolute volume of bone marrow is positively associated with height, height could influence endothelial maintenance activity. Based on these hypotheses, we performed several studies. The aim of this review is not only to discuss the association between height and bone marrow activity, but also to describe the potential mechanism underlying endothelial maintenance. In addition, this review also aims to explain some of the reasons that implicate hypertension as a major risk factor for stroke among the Japanese population. The review also aims to clarify the anthropological reasons behind the high risk of atherosclerosis progression in Japanese individuals with acquired genetic characteristics.

Usefulness of atherogenic index of plasma for estimating reduced eGFR risk: insights from the national health and nutrition examination survey

AIMS

Previous studies have identified Atherogenic index of plasma (AIP) as a simple measure of atherosclerosis. Because atherosclerosis plays a role in the development of renal damage, our study aims to evaluate the effect of AIP on the risk of reduced eGFR and assess its usefulness to refine the risk stratification of reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR).

METHODS

Our study included 15,836 participants from the National Health and Nutritional Survey (NHANES) 2009-2016. Association was investigated by logistic regression. AIP was calculated as log (triglycerides/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol). Reduced eGFR was determined as eGFR < 60 ml/min per 1.73 m*2.

RESULTS

The prevalence of reduced eGFR was 8.01%. In the full model, each SD increase of AIP leaded to 27.4% additional risk for reduced eGFR. After dividing AIP into quartiles, the fourth quartile had a 1.649 times risk than the first quartile. Moreover, smooth curve fitting suggested that the risk of reduced eGFR elevated linearly with the increase of AIP. Subgroup analysis demonstrated that the association between AIP and reduced eGFR was robust in sex, body mass index, hypertension, and diabetes subpopulation, but the association was significantly stronger in black race and people aged less than 50 years old. Additionally, AUC displayed an advancement when introducing AIP into established risk factors (0.875 cs. 0.897, P < 0.001), category-free net reclassification index (0.249, 95% CI: 0.192-0.306, P < 0.001) and integrated discrimination index (0.007, 95% CI: 0.004-0.009, P < 0.001) also suggested the improvement from AIP.

CONCLUSION

The present work suggested a linear association between AIP and reduced eGFR. Furthermore, the results showed that the association was stronger in black race and people aged less than 50 years old. Most importantly, our work implicated the usefulness of AIP to refine the risk stratification of reduced eGFR.

Maximum Carotid Intima-Media Thickness in Association with Renal Outcomes

Aim: We aimed to examine the association between the maximum intima-media thickness of the carotid artery (Max IMT) and renal prognosis, considering their potential interaction with age.

Methods: Survival analyses were performed in 112 patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), to assess renal prognosis, with the endpoint defined as a ≥ 30% decline in estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) or end-stage renal disease.

Results: During a median follow-up of 12.5 years, 44 participants reached the study endpoint. The major determinant of Max IMT was the maximum IMT of the internal carotid artery (Max ICA-IMT), which was the distribution ratio of 50.0% of Max IMT. Kaplan–Meier analyses showed that Max IMT ≥ 1.5 mm was significantly associated with renal prognosis when age and eGFR were matched. On multivariate Cox regression analysis, Max IMT was significantly associated with the renal outcomes and had a significant interaction with the age categories (≥ 65 years or ＜65 years) ( P =0.0153 for interaction). A 1-mm increase in Max IMT was significantly associated with disease progression in the sub-cohort ＜65 years age-category, but not in the ≥ 65 years age-category; similarly the hazard ratio (HR) in the ＜65 years age-category was higher than in the ≥ 65 years age-category (HR: 2.52 vs. 0.95). Comparable results were obtained for Max ICA-IMT, Max bulb-IMT, but not for Max common carotid artery-IMT.

Conclusions: A higher Max IMT was a significant renal prognosis factor in patients with CKD aged ＜65 years. Our results may provide new insights into treating CKD.

The association between dyslipidemia and the incidence of chronic kidney disease in the general Zhejiang population: a retrospective study

Background

According to the “lipid nephrotoxicity hypothesis”, there is now significant research being conducted in this area. By studying the role of hyperlipidemia in chronic kidney disease in the general Zhejiang population, we aimed to explore the correlation between changes in blood lipid levels and chronic kidney disease.

Methods

We collected and analyzed clinical data from ordinary residents who participated in the annual comprehensive physical examination with no overt kidney disease in Zhejiang Provincial People’s Hospital, China from January 2011 to December 2016. According to triglyceride, total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein levels, participants were respectively divided into 4 groups. Statistical methods were used to evaluate the correlation between different blood lipid profiles and chronic kidney disease.

Results

Five thousand one hundred eighty-three participants were included in our study. During the six-year follow-up period, 227 participants (4.4%) developed chronic kidney disease. The odds ratio for incident chronic kidney disease was 3.14 (95%CI: 1.53–6.43) in Q3, 3.84 (95%CI: 1.90–7.76) in Q4 according to the total cholesterol group and 1.17 (95%CI: 1.04–1.32) in Q3, 1.40 (95%CI: 1.11–2.48) in Q4 according to the low-density lipoprotein group, respectively, after multivariable-adjusted analyses. According to the triglyceride grouping, the odds ratio for incident chronic kidney disease was 2.88 (95%CI: 1.29–6.43) in Q2, 2.92 (95%CI: 1.44–6.57) in Q3 and 3.08 (95%CI: 1.11–6.69) in Q4, after multivariable-adjusted analyses.

Conclusion

Increased triglycerides and high levels of total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein were independently associated with an increased likelihood of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) decline and development of incident chronic kidney disease in the general Zhejiang population.

The CHA2DS2-VASc score predicts chronic kidney disease among patients with atrial fibrillation

BACKGROUND

It is unclear how the CHA2DS2-VASc score can predict subsequent chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) among atrial fibrillation (AF) patients.

METHODS

We identified incident AF patients without CKD between 2000 and 2013 from the National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD) of Taiwan and calculated the CHA₂DS₂-VASc score for each patient. Adjusted hazard ratio (HR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) was estimated from multivariate cause-specific Cox models to assess the risk of CKD and ESRD associated with the CHA₂DS₂-VASc score.

RESULTS

A total of 8764 participants with AF who did not have CKD were included in the analysis. The mean age was 69.63 ± 13.48 years and 4800 (54.8%) were males. The adjusted HR of CKD displayed a stepwise increase with the increase in the CHA₂DS₂-VASc score. When compared with those with a CHA₂DS₂-VASc score of 0, the adjusted HRs of CKD were 1.57 (95% CI 1.09-2.26), 2.04 (95% CI 1.42-2.94), 2.48 (95% CI 1.70-3.62), 2.88 (95% CI 1.95-4.26), 3.29 (95% CI 2.18-4.95) and 4.00 (95% CI 2.61-6.13) for the AF patients with a CHA₂DS₂-VASc score of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and ≥ 6, respectively. Similarly, as the CHA₂DS₂-VASc score increased, the adjusted HR of ESRD showed a gradual increase.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with a higher CHA₂DS₂-VASc score were linked to a higher risk of CKD and ESRD in a dose-dependent effect, i.e. the incidence of CKD/ESRD increased with the increasing CHA₂DS₂-VASc score.

The association of metabolic syndrome components and chronic kidney disease in patients with hypertension

Background

Hypertension is a highly prevalent disease and the leading cause of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Metabolic syndrome could also be the risk factor for CKD. We sought to study the association between metabolic syndrome components and the prevalence of CKD in patients with hypertension.

Methods

We carried out a multi-center cross-sectional study from Apr. 2017- Apr. 2018 in 15 cities in China.

Results

A total of 2484 patients with hypertension were enrolled. Among them, 56% were male and the average age was 65.12 ± 12.71 years. The systolic BP/diastolic BP was 142 ± 18/83 ± 12 mmHg. Metabolic syndrome components turned out to be highly prevalent in patients with hypertension, ranging from 40 to 58%. The prevalence of chronic kidney disease reached 22.0%. Multi-variate logistic analysis revealed that elevated triglyceride (TG) (OR = 1.81, 95% CI 1.28–2.57, p < 0.01), elevated fasting blood glucose (FBG) (OR = 1.43, 95% CI 1.00–2.07, p = 0.05) and hypertension grades (OR = 1.20, 95% CI 1.00–1.44, p = 0.05) were associated with the prevalence of CKD. In sub-group analysis, elevated TG remained strongly associated with CKD in both diabetes (OR = 2.10, 95%CI 1.22–3.61, p < 0.01) and non-diabetes (OR = 1.53, 95% CI 1.09–2.16, p = 0.01). In sub-group analysis of hypertension grades, there was also a graded trend between elevated TG and CKD from controlled blood pressure (BP) to hypertension grade 2 (OR = 1.81, 95%CI 1.06–3.11, p = 0.03; OR = 1.85, 95%CI 1.00–3.43, p = 0.05; OR = 2.81, 95% CI 1.09–7.28, p = 0.03, respectively).

Conclusion

Elevated TG, elevated FBG and hypertension grades were significantly associated with the prevalence of CKD in patients with hypertension. Particularly, elevated TG was strongly associated with CKD, independent of diabetes and hypertension grades.

Serum Triglycerides Are Related to Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) Stage 2 in Young and Middle-Aged Chinese Individuals During Routine Health Examination

BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to determine the risk factors for early chronic kidney disease (CKD) (GFR 60-89 ml/min/1.73 m²; CKD stage 2) in asymptomatic Chinese individuals undergoing routine health examination. MATERIAL AND METHODS This cross-sectional study enrolled 9100 individuals who received voluntary medical examinations between 10/01/2011 and 09/30/2017. Demographic data, clinical history, clinical examination, medication, smoking, alcohol, blood biochemistry, urinalysis, and carotid ultrasound were extracted from the medical records. All laboratory analyses were performed routinely. Multivariable logistic regression for factors predicting CKD stage 2 was performed. RESULTS A total of 9100 individuals were enrolled (age of 18-65 and 65.4% male). CKD stage 2 was found in 1989/9100 individuals (21.9%). Male gender (OR=6.711, 95%CI: 5.376-8.403, P<0.001), older age (OR=1.077, 95%CI: 1.068-1.086, P<0.001), hemoglobin levels (OR=1.051, 95%CI: 1.046-1.057, P<0.001), triglycerides levels (OR=1.174, 95%CI: 1.067-1.292, P=0.001), HDL-C (OR=0.539, 95%CI: 0.380-0.763, P<0.001), Lp(a) levels (OR=1.000, 95%CI: 1.000-1.001, P=0.03), and carotid atherosclerosis (OR=1.248, 95%CI: 1.005-1.550, P=0.045) were associated with CKD stage 2 among all subjects. Serum triglycerides levels were associated with CKD stage 2 in the 18-45 and 45-65 years of age subgroups. CONCLUSIONS Factors that are routinely assessed during routine health examinations (male gender, age, hemoglobin levels, triglycerides levels, HDL-C, Lp(a) levels, and carotid atherosclerosis) can help identify individuals at higher risk of having CKD stage 2. The Chinese dyslipidemia is characterized by high triglycerides and low HDL-C and occurs in young and middle-aged individuals. Those factors could help identify individuals at higher risk for CKD stage 2 and who could benefit from preventive treatments.

Prognostic impact of carotid intima-media thickness and carotid plaques on the development of micro- and macrovascular complications in individuals with type 2 diabetes: the Rio de Janeiro type 2 diabetes cohort study

BACKGROUND

The prognostic importance of carotid atherosclerosis in individuals with diabetes is unsettled. We aimed to evaluate the relationships between parameters of carotid atherosclerosis and the future occurrence of micro- and cardiovascular complications in individuals with type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

Ultrasonographic parameters of carotid atherosclerosis, intima-media thickness (CIMT) and plaques, were measured at baseline in 478 participants who were followed-up for a median of 10.8 years. Multivariate Cox analysis was used to examine the associations between carotid parameters and the occurrence of microvascular (retinopathy, renal, and peripheral neuropathy) and cardiovascular complications (total cardiovascular events [CVEs] and cardiovascular mortality), and all-cause mortality. The improvement in risk stratification was assessed by using the C-statistic and the integrated discrimination improvement (IDI) index.

RESULTS

During follow-up, 116 individuals had a CVE and 115 individuals died (56 from cardiovascular diseases); 131 newly-developed or worsened diabetic retinopathy, 156 achieved the renal composite outcome (94 newly developed microalbuminuria and 78 deteriorated renal function), and 83 newly-developed or worsened peripheral neuropathy. CIMT, either analysed as a continuous or as a categorical variable, and presence of plaques predicted CVEs occurrence and renal outcomes, but not mortality or other microvascular complications. Individuals with an increased CIMT and plaques had a 1.5- to 1.8-fold increased risk of CVEs and a 1.6-fold higher risk of renal outcome. CIMT and plaques modestly improved cardiovascular risk discrimination over classic risk factors, with IDIs ranging from 7.8 to 8.4%; but more markedly improved renal risk discrimination, with IDIs from 14.8 to 18.5%.

CONCLUSIONS

Carotid atherosclerosis parameters predicted cardiovascular and renal outcomes, and improved renal risk stratification. Ultrasonographic carotid imaging may be useful in type 2 diabetes management.

Value of reduced glomerular filtration rate assessment with cardiometabolic index: insights from a population-based Chinese cohort

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have suggested that cardiometabolic index (CMI), a novel estimate of visceral adipose tissue, could be of use in the evaluation of cardiovascular risk factors. However, the potential utility and clinical significance of CMI in the detection of reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) remains uncertain. The purpose of this study was to investigate the usefulness of CMI in assessing reduced eGFR in the general Chinese population.

METHODS

This cross-sectional analysis included 11,578 participants (mean age: 53.8 years, 53.7% females) from Northeast China Rural Cardiovascular Health Study (NCRCHS) of general Chinese population (data collected from January 2013 to August 2013). CMI was calculated by triglyceride to high density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio multiply waist-to-height ratio. Reduced eGFR was defined as eGFR< 60 ml/min per 1.73m2. Multivariate regressions were performed to determine CMI's association with eGFR value and eGFR reduction, ROC analyses were employed to investigate CMI's discriminating ability for decreased eGFR.

RESULTS

The prevalence of reduced eGFR was 1.7% in males and 2.5% in females. CMI was notably more adverse in reduced eGFR groups, regardless of genders. In fully adjusted multivariate linear models, each 1 SD increment of CMI caused 3.150 ml/min per 1.73m2 and 2.411 ml/min per 1.73m2 loss of eGFR before CMI reached 1.210 and 1.520 in males and females, respectively. In logistic regression analyses, per 1 SD increase of CMI brought 51.6% additional risk of reduced eGFR in males while caused 1.347 times of risk in females. After divided into quartiles, people in the top quartile of CMI had higher adjusted ORs of having reduced eGFR, with ORs of 4.227 (1.681, 10.627) and 3.442 (1.685-7.031) for males and females respectively. AUC of CMI was revealed to be 0.633 (0.620-0.646) in males and 0.684 (0.672-0.695) in females.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher CMI was independently associated with greater burden of reduced eGFR, highlighting VAT distribution and dysfunction as a potential mechanism underlying the association of obesity with kidney damage and adverse cardiovascular outcomes. The findings from this study provided important insights regarding the potential usefulness and clinical relevance of CMI in the detection of reduced eGFR among general Chinese population.

Association of the Serum Endostatin Level, Renal Function, and Carotid Atherosclerosis of Healthy Residents of Japan: Results from the Kyushu and Okinawa Population Study (KOPS)

Aim: To analyze associations among the serum endostatin level, renal function, and carotid atherosclerosis of healthy residents of Japan.

Methods: Among 1,057 Japanese residents who attended free public physical examinations between 2010 and 2011, we evaluated the data of 648 healthy residents (200 men and 448 women, age 24 to 84 years) for whom the serum endostatin level and common carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) were measured. Renal function was assessed by estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Multiple linear regression analysis was done to determine the association of eGFR and serum endostatin level after adjustment for known covariates. Mediation analysis was done using Baron and Kenny's regression approach.

Results: The median endostatin level was 63.7 ng/mL (interquartile range: 49.7–93.2). The mean eGFR was 78.4 ± 14.8 mL/min/1.73m². Univariate analysis showed that age (r = −0.37, P < 0.01), non current smoking (85.8 ± 13.0 vs. 77.5 ± 14.8 mL/min/1.73 m², P < 0.01), hemoglobin A1c (r = −0.08, P = 0.05), low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (r = −0.13, P < 0.01), uric acid (r = −0.15, P < 0.01), carotid IMT (r = −0.11, P < 0.01), and log-transformed endostatin (r = −0.36, P < 0.01) were significantly associated with eGFR. In multiple linear regression analysis, log-transformed endostatin was significantly associated with eGFR (beta = −0.24, P < 0.01). While, carotid IMT was no longer significant. Mediation analysis showed serum endostatin level to be a mediator in the association between carotid IMT and eGFR.

Conclusions: The association between carotid IMT and eGFR is mediated by the serum endostatin level of healthy individuals.

Correlation between Thyroid Stimulating Hormone and Renal Function in Euthyroid Residents of Japan: Results from the Kyushu and Okinawa Population Study (KOPS)

Aim: The present large-scale Japanese population study was performed to evaluate the relation between the serum thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) level and renal function.

Methods: Out of 1,374 residents who participated in a free public physical examination between 2010 and 2011, we evaluated the data of 888 participants for whom the serum TSH level and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) were successfully measured. The participants were categorized into three groups based on TSH levels (normal TSH, ≤ 2.4; high-normal TSH, 2.5–4.4; and subclinical hypothyroid, ≥ 4.5 µIU/mL). Multiple linear regression analysis adjusted for cardiovascular risk factors was performed to determine the relationship between serum TSH level and renal function.

Results: The mean ± SD TSH level was 2.0 ± 1.4 µIU/mL, and 75.9% (n = 674) of the participants had normal, 17.9% (n = 159) had high-normal, and 6.2% (n = 55) had subclinical hypothyroid TSH levels. The mean eGFR significantly decreased with increased TSH levels (normal TSH, 79.3 ± 14.1; high-normal TSH, 77.4 ± 13.0; and subclinical hypothyroid, 72.3 ± 12.2 mL/min/1.73 m²: P for trend < 0.01). Multiple linear regression analysis extracted log-transformed TSH level as an independent factor correlated with eGFR in the high-normal TSH group (beta = −0.18, P = 0.02).

Conclusions: Our findings demonstrated a significant correlation between serum TSH levels and eGFR in high-normal TSH participants. In healthy individuals, high-normal TSH levels indicate increased the risk of chronic kidney disease.

The Relation between Serum Endostatin Level and Carotid Atherosclerosis in Healthy Residents of Japan: Results from the Kyushu and Okinawa Population Study (KOPS)

AIM

To examine the association between the serum endostatin levels and subclinical atherosclerosis independent of traditional risk factors in a healthy Japanese population.

METHODS

Among 1,057 residents who attended free public physical examinations between 2010 and 2011, we evaluated the data of 648 healthy residents for whom the serum endostatin level and common carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) were successfully measured.

RESULTS

The median endostatin level was 63.7 ng/mL (interquartile ranges: 49.7-93.2 ng/mL), and the mean carotid IMT was 0.68±0.12 mm. Residents with above median endostatin had significantly higher carotid IMT than did those with below median endostatin (0.71±0.14 vs. 0.65±0.09 mm, P＜0.001). Multiple linear regression analysis demonstrated that increased serum endostatin is significantly associated with carotid IMT (above vs. below median endostatin level; beta=0.11, P=0.03), independent of the known covariates of age, sex, body mass index, drinking and smoking status, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, hemoglobin A1c, low density lipoprotein cholesterol, estimated glomerular filtration rate, and log-transformed high sensitive C-reactive protein.

CONCLUSIONS

A higher serum endostatin level reflected subclinical atherosclerosis in this Japanese population.

Do HDL and LDL subfractions play a role in atherosclerosis in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients?

BACKGROUND

Significantly increased cardiovascular mortality in patients with chronic kidney (CKD) disease cannot be explained by traditional risk factors. Recent studies revealed that the quality of HDL and LDL cholesterol may be more important than their serum levels. The aim of this study was to assess which LDL and HDL subfractions were more abundant in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients and to analyse whether subfraction distribution could be associated with accelerated atherosclerotic processes.

METHODS

This study included 50 ESRD patients undergoing dialysis and 20 healthy volunteers. LDL and HDL subfractions were analysed in serum with the use of Lipoprint system. All patients had intima-media thickness (IMT) measured.

RESULTS

Statistically significant differences in subfractions between control and study group were observed in case of: HDL1 (p < 0.0001), HDL2 (p = 0.009), HDL3 (p < 0.0001), HDL4 (p = 0.003), HDL5 (p = 0.01), HDL7 (p < 0.0001), HDL8 (p < 0.0001), HDL9 (p < 0.0001), HDL10 (p < 0.0001), large HDL (p < 0.0001), HDL Small (p < 0.0001) as well as IDL-B (p = 0.014), IDLA (p = 0.011), LDL2 (p = 0.007). Significant differences were also observed in HDL and LDL subfraction distribution between haemodialysis patients with normal and increased IMT: HDL6 (p = 0.020), HDL Large (HDL1-3) (p = 0.017), HDL Intermediate (HDL4-7) (p = 0.017).

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed that ESRD influenced HDL subfractions. In HD patients, large HDL subfractions are more abundant while small HDL fraction is more frequent in healthy persons. It failed to show the influence of end-stage disease on LDL subfraction levels. Shift in HDL subfractions might be responsible for the increased risk of atherosclerosis in CKD patients.

Carotid Intima-Media Thickness and Incident ESRD: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Carotid intima-media thickness has been reported to predict kidney function decline. However, whether carotid intima-media thickness is associated with a hard kidney end point, ESRD, has not been investigated.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

We studied 13,197 Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities participants at visit 1 (1987-1989) without history of cardiovascular disease, including coronary heart disease, stroke, and heart failure, at baseline and assessed whether carotid intima-media thickness measured by B-mode ultrasound is associated with ESRD risk using Cox proportional hazards models. Regarding carotid intima-media thickness parameters, we investigated the mean and maximum values of overall and segment-specific (common, bifurcation, and internal carotid arteries) measurements.

RESULTS

Mean age was 54.0 (SD=5.7) years old, and there were 3373 (25.6%) blacks and 7370 (55.8%) women. During a median follow-up of 22.7 years, 433 participants developed ESRD (1.4/1000 person-years). After adjusting for shared risk factors for atherosclerosis and kidney disease, including baseline kidney function, carotid intima-media thickness was significantly associated with ESRD risk (hazard ratio [HR] between quartiles 4 and 1, 1.46; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 1.02 to 2.08 for overall mean intima-media thickness and HR between quartiles 4 and 1, 1.75; 95% CI, 1.24 to 2.48 for overall maximum intima-media thickness). The associations were largely consistent in demographic and clinical subgroups. When we explored segment-specific intima-media thicknesses, the associations with ESRD were most robust for bifurcation carotid (e.g., adjusted HR between quartiles 4 and 1 of mean intima-media thickness, 1.49; 95% CI, 1.04 to 2.13 for bifurcation; adjusted HR between quartiles 4 and 1 of mean intima-media thickness, 1.36; 95% CI, 0.94 to 1.97 for common; and adjusted HR between quartiles 4 and 1 of mean intima-media thickness, 0.93; 95% CI, 0.67 to 1.29 for internal).

CONCLUSIONS

Carotid intima-media thickness was independently associated with incident ESRD in the general population, suggesting the shared etiology of atherosclerosis and ESRD.

The relation of postprandial plasma glucose and serum endostatin to the urinary albumin excretion of residents with prediabetes: results from the Kyushu and Okinawa Population Study (KOPS)

BACKGROUND

Previous clinical studies have shown that the circulating level of endostatin is related to kidney injury. We hypothesized that the impact of HbA1c, fasting, and postprandial plasma glucose on urinary albumin excretion would be related to the serum endostatin level.

METHODS

A cross-sectional, community-based population study of 1057 Japanese residents was conducted. Of these subjects, 162 with a fasting plasma glucose value between 5.5 and 6.9 mmol/L and an HbA1c level of <6.5 % received an oral glucose tolerance test, had serum endostatin measured, and had the urinary albumin/creatinine ratio (UACR) calculated.

RESULTS

In multivariate analysis, 2-h postprandial plasma glucose (β = 0.26, P < 0.01) was significantly associated with log-transformed UACR, independently of fasting plasma glucose (β = 0.14, P = 0.28) and HbA1c (β = -0.08, P = 0.57). When divided by the median value of endostatin (82.2 ng/mL), 2-h postprandial plasma glucose (β = 0.38, P = 0.01) remained significantly associated with the log-transformed UACR of the participants below the median, while the fasting plasma glucose (β = 0.34, P = 0.046) was independently associated with the log-transformed UACR of participants above the median.

CONCLUSION

Postprandial plasma glucose was independently associated with the urinary albumin excretion of the residents with prediabetes. Moreover, this relationship was limited to residents with a serum endostatin level below the median.

Carotid Intima-Media Thickness and Visit-to-Visit HbA1c Variability Predict Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease in Type 2 Diabetic Patients with Preserved Kidney Function

Background/Aims. Subclinical atherosclerosis and long-term glycemic variability have been reported to predict incident chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the general population. However, these associations have not been investigated in patients with type 2 diabetes with preserved kidney function. Methods. We prospectively followed up 162 patients with type 2 diabetes (mean age, 62.3 years; 53.6% men) and assessed whether carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) measured by B-mode ultrasound and visit-to-visit HbA1c variability are associated with deterioration of CKD (incident CKD defined as estimated GFR [eGFR] < 60 mL/min/1.73 m² and progression of CKD stages) over a median follow-up of 6.0 years. At baseline, 25 patients (15.4%) had CKD. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used for identifying associated factors of CKD deterioration. Results. Estimated GFR decreased from 75.8 ± 16.3 to 67.4 ± 18.2 mL/min/1.73 m² (p < 0.01). Of 162 patients, 32 developed CKD and 8 made a progression of CKD stages. Multivariate Cox regression analysis revealed that carotid IMT (HR: 4.0, 95% CI: 1.1-14.226.7, and p = 0.03) and coefficient of variation of HbA1c (HR: 1.12, 95%: 1.04-1.21, and p = 0.003) were predictors of deterioration of CKD independently of age, mean HbA1c, urinary albumin/creatinine ratio, baseline eGFR, uric acid, and leucocyte count. Conclusions. Subclinical atherosclerosis and long-term glycemic variability predict deterioration of chronic kidney disease (as defined by incident or worsening CKD) in type 2 diabetic patients with preserved kidney function.

Causes of changes in carotid intima-media thickness: a literature review

Atherosclerosis causes significant morbidity and mortality. Carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT) predicts future cardiovascular and ischaemic stroke incidence. CIMT, a measure of atherosclerotic disease, can be reliably determined in vivo by carotid ultrasound. In this review, we determined that CIMT is associated with traditional cardiovascular risk factors such as age, sex, race, smoking, alcohol consumption, habitual endurance exercise, blood pressure, dyslipidemia, dietary patterns, risk-lowering drug therapy, glycemia, hyperuricemia, obesity-related anthropometric parameters, obesity and obesity-related diseases. We also found that CIMT is associated with novel risk factors, including heredity, certain genotypic indices, anthropometric cardiovascular parameters, rheumatoid arthritis, immunological diseases, inflammatory cytokines, lipid peroxidation, anthropometric hemocyte parameters, infectious diseases, vitamin D, matrix metalloproteinases, and other novel factors and diseases. However, the conclusions are inconsonant; the underlying causes of these associations remain to be further explored.

Circulating CD34-positive cells, glomerular filtration rate and triglycerides in relation to hypertension

OBJECTIVE

Serum triglycerides have been reported to be independently associated with the development of chronic kidney disease (CKD), which is known to play a role in vascular disturbance. On the other hand, circulating CD34-positve cells, including endothelial progenitor cells, are reported to contribute to vascular repair. However, no studies have reported on the correlation between triglycerides and the number of CD34-positive cells. Since hypertension is well known factor for vascular impairment, the degree of correlation between serum triglycerides and circulating CD34-positve cells should account for hypertension status.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study of 274 elderly Japanese men aged ≥ 60 years (range 60-79 years) undergoing general health checkups.

RESULTS

Multiple linear regression analysis of non-hypertensive subjects adjusting for classical cardiovascular risk factors showed that although triglyceride levels (1SD increments; 64 mg/dL) did not significantly correlate with glomerular filtration rate (GFR) (β = -2.06, p = 0.163), a significant positive correlation was seen between triglycerides and the number of circulating CD34-positive cells (β = 0.50, p = 0.004). In hypertensive subjects, a significant inverse correlation between triglycerides and GFR was observed (β = -2.66, p = 0.035), whereas no significant correlation between triglycerides and the number of circulating CD34-positive cells was noted (β = -0.004, p = 0.974).

CONCLUSION

Since endothelial progenitor cells (CD34-positive cells) have been reported to contribute to vascular repair, our results indicate that in non-hypertensive subjects, triglycerides may stimulate an increase in circulating CD34-positive cells (vascular repair) by inducing vascular disturbance.