Double stranded RNA drives anti-viral innate immune responses, sickness behavior and cognitive dysfunction dependent on dsRNA length, IFNAR1 expression and age

Mitochondrial Dysfunction is a Crucial Immune Checkpoint for Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration: mtDAMPs in Focus

Neuroinflammation is a pivotal factor in the progression of both age-related and acute neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and stroke. Mitochondria, essential for neuronal health due to their roles in energy production, calcium buffering, and oxidative stress regulation, become increasingly susceptible to dysfunction under conditions of metabolic stress, aging, or injury. Impaired mitophagy in aged or injured neurons leads to the accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria, which release mitochondrial-derived damage-associated molecular patterns (mtDAMPs). These mtDAMPs act as immune checkpoints, activating pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and triggering innate immune signaling pathways. This activation initiates inflammatory responses in neurons and brain-resident immune cells, releasing cytokines and chemokines that damage adjacent healthy neurons and recruit peripheral immune cells, further amplifying neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Long-term mitochondrial dysfunction perpetuates a chronic inflammatory state, exacerbating neuronal injury and contributing additional immunogenic components to the extracellular environment. Emerging evidence highlights the critical role of mtDAMPs in initiating and sustaining neuroinflammation, with circulating levels of these molecules potentially serving as biomarkers for disease progression. This review explores the mechanisms of mtDAMP release due to mitochondrial dysfunction, their interaction with PRRs, and the subsequent activation of inflammatory pathways. We also discuss the role of mtDAMP-triggered innate immune responses in exacerbating both acute and chronic neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Targeting dysfunctional mitochondria and mtDAMPs with pharmacological agents presents a promising strategy for mitigating the initiation and progression of neuropathological conditions.

Research progress on immune mechanism and control strategy of dsRNA impurities in mRNA vaccine

INTRODUCTION

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is a key impurities of mRNA vaccines prepared by in vitro transcription (IVT) and is primarily transcribed by T7 RNA polymerase. It can trigger innate immunity and induce a series of side effects that may influence the safety of mRNA vaccines.

AREAS COVERED

This manuscript summarizes dsRNA generation mechanisms and immunity activation and analyzes the current challenges in dsRNA detection and control strategies. Regulatory standards for dsRNA impurities in mRNA vaccines have also been discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

dsRNA as a critical quality attribute (CQA), the structural heterogeneity of it (including length and structure) and its precise immunomodulatory mechanisms affecting vaccine safety are poorly understood. Regulatory authorities have not released specific standards for dsRNA. Additionally, there is a lack of comparative analysis data on different corporate testing methods. Therefore, to ensure the safety of dsRNA containing mRNA vaccines, and improve mRNA-based platforms, it is of great significance to establish standardized detection methods and standards for dsRNA; to design mRNA production with low dsRNA impurities by adopting the quality by design (QbD) approach; and to evaluate the immune stimulation mechanism of dsRNA impurities in mRNA vaccines.

Neuroplasticity elicited by peripheral immune challenge with a viral mimetic

Peripheral viral infections are well known to profoundly alter brain function; however detailed mechanisms of this immune-to-brain communication have not been deciphered. This review focuses on studies of cerebral effects of peripheral viral challenge employing intraperitoneal injection of a viral mimetic, polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (PIC). In this paradigm, PIC challenge induces the acute phase response (APR) characterized by a transient surge of circulating inflammatory factors, primarily IFNβ, IL-6 and CXCL10. The blood-borne factors, in turn, elicit the generation of CXCL10 by hippocampal neurons. Neurons also express the cognate receptor of CXCL10, i.e., CXCR3 implicating the existence of autocrine/paracrine signaling. The CXCL10/CXCR3 axis mediates the ensuing neuroplastic changes manifested as neuronal hyperexcitability, seizure hypersusceptibility, and sickness behavior. Electrophysiological studies revealed that the neuroplastic changes entail the potentiation of excitatory synapses likely at both pre- and postsynaptic loci. Excitatory synaptic transmission is further augmented by PIC challenge-induced elevation of extracellular glutamate that is mediated by astrocytes. In addition, the hyperexcitability of neuronal circuits might involve the repression of inhibitory signaling. Accordingly, CXCL10 released by neurons activates microglia whose processes invade perisomatic inhibitory synapses, resulting in a partial detachment of the presynaptic terminals, and thus, de-inhibition. This process might be facilitated by the cerebral complement system, which is also upregulated and activated by PIC challenge. Moreover, CXCL10 stimulates the expression of neuronal c-fos protein, another index of hyperexcitability. The reviewed studies form a foundation for full elucidation of the fascinating intersection between peripheral viral infections and neuroplasticity. Because the activation of such pathways may constitute a serious comorbidity factor for neuropathological conditions, this research would advance the development of preventive strategies.

Microglial activation states and their implications for Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the accumulation of toxic amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) of tau protein in the brain. Microglia, key immune cells of the central nervous system, play an important role in AD development and progression, primarily through their responses to Aβ and NFTs. Initially, microglia can clear Aβ, but in AD, chronic activation overwhelms protective mechanisms, leading to sustained neuroinflammation that enhances plaque toxicity, setting off a damaging cycle that affects neurons, astrocytes, cerebral vasculature, and other microglia. Current AD treatments have been largely ineffective, though emerging immunotherapies focusing on plaque removal show promise, but often overlook the role of neuroinflammation. Activated microglia display a complex range of phenotypes that can be broadly broken into pro- or anti-inflammatory states, although this dichotomy does not describe the significant overlap between states. Aβ can strongly induce inflammatory activity, triggering the production of reactive oxygen species, inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6), synapse engulfment, blood-brain barrier compromise, and impaired Aβ clearance. These processes contribute to neural tissue loss, manifesting as cognitive decline such as impaired executive function and memory. Conversely, anti-inflammatory activation exerts neuroprotective effects by suppressing inflammatory pathways and releasing neurotrophic factors that aid neuron repair and protection. Induction of anti-inflammatory states may offer a dual therapeutic approach to address both neuroinflammation and plaque accumulation in AD. This approach suggests potential strategies to modulate microglial phenotypes, aiming to restore neuroprotective functions and mitigate disease progression by simultaneously targeting inflammation and plaque pathology.

TLR3 Knockdown Attenuates Pressure-Induced Neuronal Damage In Vitro

The disruption of nerve parenchyma and axonal networks triggered by spinal cord injury (SCI) can initiate a cascade of events associated with secondary injury. Toll-like receptors play a critical role in initiating and regulating immune-inflammatory responses following SCI; however, the precise involvement of Toll-like receptor-3 (TLR3) in secondary neuronal injury remains incompletely understood. To investigate the potential contribution of TLR3 in mediating neuronal pressure-induced damage, we established a stress-induced neuronal damage model using rat anterior horn motor neuron line (VSC4.1), which was subjected to varying levels and durations of sustained pressure. Our findings suggest that pressure induces neuronal damage and apoptosis, and reduced proliferation rates in VSC4.1 cells. Furthermore, this pressure-induced neuronal injury is accompanied by upregulation of TLR3 expression and activation of downstream TLR3 signalling molecules. Knockdown experiments targeting TLR3 significantly alleviate pressure-induced motor neuron injury and apoptosis within the anterior horn region while promoting mitochondria-related autophagy and reducing mitochondrial dysfunction via the TLR3/IRF3 and TLR3/NF-κB pathways.

Targeting exosomal double-stranded RNA-TLR3 signaling pathway attenuates morphine tolerance and hyperalgesia

Long-term morphine use leads to tolerance and hyperalgesia in patients with chronic pain, with neuroinflammation playing a key role, but its underlying mechanisms remain elusive. This study determines that repeated intrathecal morphine injections increase double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) production in spinal neurons, due to downregulated adenosine deaminase RNA specific 1 (ADAR1) expression. Lentivirus-induced ADAR1 elevation decreases the high levels of intracellular dsRNA and attenuates morphine tolerance and hyperalgesia. dsRNA is released into cerebrospinal fluid via exosomes (Exos) after repeated morphine injections and is taken up by microglia for TLR3-TRIF-IL-6 signaling activation. Blocking Exos release with GW4869 or inhibition of TLR3 signaling mitigates neuroinflammation, preventing the development of morphine tolerance and hyperalgesia. Intrathecal injection of TLR3 inhibitor alone shows analgesic effects in neuropathic pain, and co-administration with morphine amplifies the analgesic efficacy of morphine. These findings demonstrate that targeting dsRNA-TLR3 signaling to mitigate neuroinflammation could be a promising treatment for morphine tolerance.

Systemic immune challenge exacerbates neurodegeneration in a model of neurological lysosomal disease

Mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIA (MPS IIIA) is a rare paediatric lysosomal storage disorder, caused by the progressive accumulation of heparan sulphate, resulting in neurocognitive decline and behavioural abnormalities. Anecdotal reports from paediatricians indicate a more severe neurodegeneration in MPS IIIA patients, following infection, suggesting inflammation as a potential driver of neuropathology. To test this hypothesis, we performed acute studies in which WT and MPS IIIA mice were challenged with the TLR3-dependent viral mimetic poly(I:C). The challenge with an acute high poly(I:C) dose exacerbated systemic and brain cytokine expression, especially IL-1β in the hippocampus. This was accompanied by an increase in caspase-1 activity within the brain of MPS IIIA mice with concomitant loss of hippocampal GFAP and NeuN expression. Similar levels of cell damage, together with exacerbation of gliosis, were also observed in MPS IIIA mice following low chronic poly(I:C) dosing. While further investigation is warranted to fully understand the extent of IL-1β involvement in MPS IIIA exacerbated neurodegeneration, our data robustly reinforces our previous findings, indicating IL-1β as a pivotal catalyst for neuropathological processes in MPS IIIA.

Enzymatic isolation and microfluidic electrophoresis analysis of residual dsRNA impurities in mRNA vaccines and therapeutics

The versatility, rapid development, and ease of production scalability of mRNA therapeutics have placed them at the forefront of biopharmaceutical research. However, despite their vast potential to treat diseases, their novelty comes with unsolved analytical challenges. A key challenge in ensuring sample purity has been monitoring residual, immunostimulatory dsRNA impurities generated during the in vitro transcription of mRNA. Here, we present a method that combines an enzyme, S1 nuclease, to identify and isolate dsRNA from an mRNA sample with a microfluidic electrophoresis analytical platform to characterize the impurity. After the method was developed and optimized, it was tested with clinically relevant, pseudouridine-modified 700 and 1800 bp dsRNA and 818-4451 nt mRNA samples. While the treatment impacted the magnitude of the fluorescent signal used to analyze the samples due to the interference of the buffer with the labeling of the sample, this signal loss was mitigated by 8.8× via treatment optimization. In addition, despite the mRNA concentration being up to 400× greater than that of the dsRNA, under every condition, there was a complete disappearance of the main mRNA peak. While the mRNA peak was digested, the dsRNA fragments remained physically unaffected by the treatment, with no change to their migration time. Using these samples, we detected 0.25% dsRNA impurities in mRNA samples using 15 μL with an analytical runtime of 1 min per sample after digestion and were able to predict their size within 8% of the expected length. The short runtime, sample consumption, and high throughput compatibility make it suitable to support the purity assessment of mRNA during purification and downstream.

Frequent low-impact exposure to THC during adolescence causes persistent sexually dimorphic alterations in the response to viral infection in mice

Adolescent exposure to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) has enduring effects on energy metabolism and immune function. Prior work showed that daily administration of a low-impact dose of THC (5 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) during adolescence alters transcription in adult microglia and disrupts their response to bacterial endotoxin or social stress. To explore the lasting impact of adolescent THC exposure on the brain's reaction to viral infection, we administered THC (5 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) in male and female mice once daily on postnatal day (PND) 30-43. When the mice reached adulthood (PND 70), we challenged them with the viral mimic, polyinosinic acid:polycytidylic acid [Poly(I:C)], and assessed sickness behavior (motor activity, body temperature) and whole brain gene transcription. Poly(I:C) caused an elevation in body temperature which was lessened by prior THC exposure in female but not male mice. Adolescent THC exposure did not affect the locomotor response to Poly(I:C) in either sex. Transcriptomic analyses showed that Poly(I:C) produced a substantial upregulation of immune-related genes in the brain, which was decreased by THC in females. Additionally, the viral mimic caused a male-selective downregulation in transcription of genes involved in neurodevelopment and synaptic transmission, which was abrogated by adolescent THC treatment. The results indicate that Poly(I:C) produces complex transcriptional alterations in the mouse brain, which are sexually dimorphic and differentially affected by early-life THC exposure. In particular, adolescent THC dampens the brain's antiviral response to Poly(I:C) in female mice and prevents the transcriptional downregulation of neuron-related genes caused by the viral mimic in male mice.

The DNA repair enzyme, aprataxin, plays a role in innate immune signaling

Ataxia with oculomotor apraxia type 1 (AOA1) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a gradual loss of coordination of hand movements, speech, and eye movements. AOA1 is caused by an inactivation mutation in the APTX gene. APTX resolves abortive DNA ligation intermediates. APTX deficiency may lead to the accumulation of 5'-AMP termini, especially in the mitochondrial genome. The consequences of APTX deficiency includes impaired mitochondrial function, increased DNA single-strand breaks, elevated reactive oxygen species production, and altered mitochondrial morphology. All of these processes can cause misplacement of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, which can activate innate immune sensors to elicit an inflammatory response. This study explores the impact of APTX knockout in microglial cells, the immune cells of the brain. RNA-seq analysis revealed significant differences in the transcriptomes of wild-type and APTX knockout cells, especially in response to viral infections and innate immune pathways. Specifically, genes and proteins involved in the cGAS-STING and RIG-I/MAVS pathways were downregulated in APTX knockout cells, which suggests an impaired immune response to cytosolic DNA and RNA. The clinical relevance of these findings was supported by analyzing publicly available RNA-seq data from AOA1 patient cell lines. Comparisons between APTX-deficient patient cells and healthy control cells also revealed altered immune responses and dysregulated DNA- and RNA-sensing pathways in the patient cells. Overall, this study highlights the critical role of APTX in regulating innate immunity, particularly in DNA- and RNA-sensing pathways. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms of AOA1 pathology and highlights potential therapeutic targets for this disease.

Immune activation state modulates infant engram expression across development

Infantile amnesia is possibly the most ubiquitous form of memory loss in mammals. We investigated how memories are stored in the brain throughout development by integrating engram labeling technology with mouse models of infantile amnesia. Here, we found a phenomenon in which male offspring in maternal immune activation models of autism spectrum disorder do not experience infantile amnesia. Maternal immune activation altered engram ensemble size and dendritic spine plasticity. We rescued the same apparently forgotten infantile memories in neurotypical mice by optogenetically reactivating dentate gyrus engram cells labeled during complex experiences in infancy. Furthermore, we permanently reinstated lost infantile memories by artificially updating the memory engram, demonstrating that infantile amnesia is a reversible process. Our findings suggest not only that infantile amnesia is due to a reversible retrieval deficit in engram expression but also that immune activation during development modulates innate, and reversible, forgetting switches that determine whether infantile amnesia will occur.

In vitro assessment of inflammatory skin potential of poly(methyl methacrylate) at non-cytotoxic concentrations

Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) is considered an attractive substrate material for fabricating wearable skin sensors such as fitness bands and microfluidic devices. Despite its widespread use, inflammatory and allergic responses have been attributed to the use of this material. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to obtain a comprehensive understanding of potential biological effects triggered by PMMA at non-cytotoxic concentrations using in vitro models of NIH3T3 fibroblasts and reconstructed human epidermis (RhE). It was hypothesized that concentrations that do not reduce cell viability are sufficient to activate pathways of inflammatory processes in the skin. The study included cytotoxicity, cell metabolism, cytokine quantification, histopathological, and gene expression analyses. The NIH3T3 cell line was used as a testbed for screening cell toxicity levels associated with the concentration of PMMA with different molecular weights (MWs) (i.e., MW ~5,000 and ~15,000 g/mol). The lower MW of PMMA had a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50 ) value of 5.7 mg/cm2 , indicating greater detrimental effects than the higher MW (IC50  = 14.0 mg/cm2 ). Non-cytotoxic concentrations of 3.0 mg/cm2 for MW ~15,000 g/mol and 0.9 mg/cm2 for MW ~5,000 g/mol) induced negative metabolic changes in NIH3T3 cells. Cell viability was severely reduced to 7% after the exposure to degradation by-products generated after thermal and photodegradation degradation of PMMA. PMMA at non-cytotoxic concentrations still induced overexpression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors (IL1B, CXCL10, CCL5, IL1R1, IL7, IL17A, VEGFA, FGF2, IFNG, IL15) on the RhE model. The inflammatory response was also supported by histopathological and gene expression analyses of PMMA-treated RhE, indicating tissue damage and gene overexpression. Results suggested that non-cytotoxic concentrations of PMMA (3.0 to 5.6 mg/cm2 for MW ~15,000 g/mol and 0.9 to 2.1 mg/cm2 for MW ~5,000 g/mol) were sufficient to negatively alter NIH3T3 cells metabolism and activate inflammatory events in the RhE skin.

Exploring the heterogeneous transcriptional response of the CNS to systemic LPS and Poly(I:C)

Peripheral contact to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) evokes a systemic innate immune response which is rapidly relayed to the central nervous system (CNS). The remarkable cellular heterogeneity of the CNS poses a significant challenge to the study of cell type and stimulus dependent responses of neural cells during acute inflammation. Here we utilized single nuclei RNA sequencing (snRNAseq), serum proteome profiling and primary cell culture methods to systematically compare the acute response of the mammalian brain to the bacterial PAMP lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and the viral PAMP polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (Poly(I:C)), at single cell resolution. Our study unveiled convergent transcriptional cytokine and cellular stress responses in brain vascular and ependymal cells and a downregulation of several key mediators of directed blood brain barrier (BBB) transport. In contrast the neuronal response to PAMPs was limited in acute neuroinflammation. Moreover, our study highlighted the dominant role of IFN signalling upon Poly(I:C) challenge, particularly in cells of the oligodendrocyte lineage. Collectively our study unveils heterogeneous, shared and distinct cell type and stimulus dependent acute responses of the CNS to bacterial and viral PAMP challenges. Our findings highlight inflammation induced dysregulations of BBB-transporter gene expression, suggesting potential translational implications on drug pharmacokinetics variability during acute neuroinflammation. The pronounced dependency of oligodendrocytes on IFN stimulation during viral PAMP challenges, emphasizes their limited molecular viral response repertoire.

Maternal Immune Activation Induces Cortical Catecholaminergic Hypofunction and Cognitive Impairments in Offspring

BACKGROUND

Impairment of specific cognitive domains in schizophrenia has been associated with prefrontal cortex (PFC) catecholaminergic deficits. Among other factors, prenatal exposure to infections represents an environmental risk factor for schizophrenia development in adulthood. However, it remains largely unknown whether the prenatal infection-induced changes in the brain may be associated with concrete switches in a particular neurochemical circuit, and therefore, if they could alter behavioral functions.

METHODS

In vitro and in vivo neurochemical evaluation of the PFC catecholaminergic systems was performed in offspring from mice undergoing maternal immune activation (MIA). The cognitive status was also evaluated. Prenatal viral infection was mimicked by polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidylic acid (poly(I:C)) administration to pregnant dams (7.5 mg/kg i.p., gestational day 9.5) and consequences were evaluated in adult offspring.

RESULTS

MIA-treated offspring showed disrupted recognition memory in the novel object recognition task (t = 2.30, p = 0.031). This poly(I:C)-based group displayed decreased extracellular dopamine (DA) concentrations compared to controls (t = 3.17, p = 0.0068). Potassium-evoked release of DA and noradrenaline (NA) were impaired in the poly(I:C) group (DA: Ft[10,90] = 43.33, p < 0.0001; Ftr[1,90] = 1.224, p = 0.2972; Fi[10,90] = 5.916, p < 0.0001; n = 11); (NA: Ft[10,90] = 36.27, p < 0.0001; Ftr[1,90] = 1.841, p = 0.208; Fi[10,90] = 8.686, p < 0.0001; n = 11). In the same way, amphetamine-evoked release of DA and NA were also impaired in the poly(I:C) group (DA: Ft[8,328] = 22.01, p < 0.0001; Ftr[1,328] = 4.507, p = 0.040; Fi[8,328] = 2.319, p = 0.020; n = 43); (NA: Ft[8,328] = 52.07; p < 0.0001; Ftr[1,328] = 4.322; p = 0.044; Fi[8,398] = 5.727; p < 0.0001; n = 43). This catecholamine imbalance was accompanied by increased dopamine D1 and D2 receptor expression (t = 2.64, p = 0.011 and t = 3.55, p = 0.0009; respectively), whereas tyrosine hydroxylase, DA and NA tissue content, DA and NA transporter (DAT/NET) expression and function were unaltered.

CONCLUSIONS

MIA induces in offspring a presynaptic catecholaminergic hypofunction in PFC with cognitive impairment. This poly(I:C)-based model reproduces catecholamine phenotypes reported in schizophrenia and represents an opportunity for the study of cognitive impairment associated to this disorder.

Extracellular RNAs-TLR3 signaling contributes to cognitive impairment after chronic neuropathic pain in mice

Chronic pain is often associated with cognitive decline, which could influence the quality of the patient's life. Recent studies have suggested that Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) is crucial for memory and learning. Nonetheless, the contribution of TLR3 to the pathogenesis of cognitive decline after chronic pain remains unclear. The level of TLR3 in hippocampal neurons increased in the chronic constriction injury (CCI) group than in the sham group in this study. Importantly, compared to the wild-type (WT) mice, TLR3 knockout (KO) mice and TLR3-specific neuronal knockdown mice both displayed improved cognitive function, reduced levels of inflammatory cytokines and neuronal apoptosis and attenuated injury to hippocampal neuroplasticity. Notably, extracellular RNAs (exRNAs), specifically double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs), were increased in the sciatic nerve, serum, and hippocampus after CCI. The co-localization of dsRNA with TLR3 was also increased in hippocampal neurons. And the administration of poly (I:C), a dsRNA analog, elevated the levels of dsRNAs and TLR3 in the hippocampus, exacerbating hippocampus-dependent memory. In additon, the dsRNA/TLR3 inhibitor improved cognitive function after CCI. Together, our findings suggested that exRNAs, particularly dsRNAs, that were present in the condition of chronic neuropathic pain, activated TLR3, initiated downstream inflammatory and apoptotic signaling, caused damage to synaptic plasticity, and contributed to the etiology of cognitive impairment after chronic neuropathic pain.

A microfluidic electrophoretic dual dynamic staining method for the identification and relative quantitation of dsRNA contaminants in mRNA vaccines

mRNA vaccines (i.e., COVID-19 vaccine) offer various advantages over traditional vaccines in preventing and reducing disease and shortening the time between pathogen discovery and vaccine creation. Production of mRNA vaccines results in several nucleic acid and enzymatic by-products, most of which can be detected and removed; however, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) contaminants pose a particular challenge. Current purification and detection platforms for dsRNA vary in effectiveness, with problems in scalability for mass mRNA vaccine production. Effectively detecting dsRNA is crucial in ensuring the safety and efficacy of the vaccines, as these strands can cause autoimmune reactions with length-symptom dependency and enhance mRNA degradation. We present a new microfluidics method to rapidly identify and quantify dsRNA fragments in mRNA samples. Our innovation exploits the differences in the dynamic staining behavior between mRNA and dsRNA molecules to detect dsRNA contaminants in a high throughput approach. The limit of detection of the system for dsRNA was estimated to be between 17.7-76.6 pg μL-1 with a maximum loading capacity of mRNA of 12.99 ng μL-1. Based on these estimated values, our method allows for the detection of dsRNA contaminants present in percentages as low as 0.14-0.59% compared to the total mRNA concentration. Here, we discuss the molecular mechanism of the dynamic staining behavior of dsRNA and mRNA for two different stains. We believe our method will accelerate the mRNA vaccine development from initial development to quality control workflows.

The role of peripheral inflammatory insults in Alzheimer's disease: a review and research roadmap

Peripheral inflammation, defined as inflammation that occurs outside the central nervous system, is an age-related phenomenon that has been identified as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. While the role of chronic peripheral inflammation has been well characterized in the context of dementia and other age-related conditions, less is known about the neurologic contribution of acute inflammatory insults that take place outside the central nervous system. Herein, we define acute inflammatory insults as an immune challenge in the form of pathogen exposure (e.g., viral infection) or tissue damage (e.g., surgery) that causes a large, yet time-limited, inflammatory response. We provide an overview of the clinical and translational research that has examined the connection between acute inflammatory insults and Alzheimer's disease, focusing on three categories of peripheral inflammatory insults that have received considerable attention in recent years: acute infection, critical illness, and surgery. Additionally, we review immune and neurobiological mechanisms which facilitate the neural response to acute inflammation and discuss the potential role of the blood-brain barrier and other components of the neuro-immune axis in Alzheimer's disease. After highlighting the knowledge gaps in this area of research, we propose a roadmap to address methodological challenges, suboptimal study design, and paucity of transdisciplinary research efforts that have thus far limited our understanding of how pathogen- and damage-mediated inflammatory insults may contribute to Alzheimer's disease. Finally, we discuss how therapeutic approaches designed to promote the resolution of inflammation may be used following acute inflammatory insults to preserve brain health and limit progression of neurodegenerative pathology.

Preclinical and translational models for delirium: Recommendations for future research from the NIDUS delirium network

Delirium is a common, morbid, and costly syndrome that is closely linked to Alzheimer's disease (AD) and AD-related dementias (ADRD) as a risk factor and outcome. Human studies of delirium have advanced our knowledge of delirium incidence and prevalence, risk factors, biomarkers, outcomes, prevention, and management. However, understanding of delirium neurobiology remains limited. Preclinical and translational models for delirium, while challenging to develop, could advance our knowledge of delirium neurobiology and inform the development of new prevention and treatment approaches. We discuss the use of preclinical and translational animal models in delirium, focusing on (1) a review of current animal models, (2) challenges and strategies for replicating elements of human delirium in animals, and (3) the utility of biofluid, neurophysiology, and neuroimaging translational markers in animals. We conclude with recommendations for the development and validation of preclinical and translational models for delirium, with the goal of advancing awareness in this important field.

Maternal behaviours and adult offspring behavioural deficits are predicted by maternal TNFα concentration in a rat model of neurodevelopmental disorders

Exposure to inflammatory stressors during fetal development is a major risk factor for neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) in adult offspring. Maternal immune activation (MIA), induced by infection, causes an acute increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines which can increase the risk for NDDs directly by inducing placental and fetal brain inflammation, or indirectly through affecting maternal care behaviours thereby affecting postnatal brain development. Which of these two potential mechanisms dominates in increasing offspring risk for NDDs remains unclear. Here, we show that acute systemic maternal inflammation induced by the viral mimetic polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C) on gestational day 15 of rat pregnancy affects offspring and maternal behaviour, offspring cognition, and expression of NDD-relevant genes in the offspring brain. Dams exposed to poly I:C elicited an acute increase in the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor (TNF; referred to here as TNFα), which predicted disruption of key maternal care behaviours. Offspring of poly I:C-treated dams showed early behavioural and adult cognitive deficits correlated to the maternal TNFα response, but, importantly, not with altered maternal care. We also found interacting effects of sex and treatment on GABAergic gene expression and DNA methylation in these offspring in a brain region-specific manner, including increased parvalbumin expression in the female adolescent frontal cortex. We conclude that the MIA-induced elevation of TNFα in the maternal compartment affects fetal neurodevelopment leading to altered offspring behaviour and cognition. Our results suggest that a focus on prenatal pathways affecting fetal neurodevelopment would provide greater insights into the mechanisms underpinning the TNFα-mediated genesis of altered offspring behaviour and cognition following maternal inflammation.

Evolutionary Aspects of Infections: Inflammation and Sickness Behaviors

Sickness behavior was conceptualized initially as the behavioral counterpart of the fever response to infectious pathogens. It helps to raise body temperature to its higher setpoint and to maintain it at this new level and it has the additional benefit of enabling a weakened organism to protect itself from other dangers. The discovery of the behavioral effects of proinflammatory cytokines produced by activated immune cells provided a cellular and molecular basis to this phenomenon. The administration of cytokines or cytokine inducers like lipopolysaccharide to healthy rodents allowed to reveal the similarities and differences between inflammation-induced sickness behavior and the fever response. It also led to the understanding of how the inflammatory response that is triggered at the periphery can propagate into the brain and induce the behavioral manifestations of sickness. At the behavioral level, the demonstration that sickness behavior is the expression of a motivational state that reorganizes perception and action in face of a microbial pathogen just like fear in face of a predator appeared at first glance to strengthen the adaptive value of this behavior. However, all aspects of sickness behavior are not always favorable for the organism. This is the case for anorexia that is beneficial in the context of bacterial infection but detrimental in the context of viral infection. In addition, studies of sickness behavior in natural conditions revealed that like any other defensive behavior, sickness behavior requires trade-offs between its survival benefits for the sick individual and the costs incurred especially in the context of gregarious groups. Thanks to these studies, evidence is emerging that sickness behavior is much more variable in its expression than initially thought, and that part of this variability depends not only on the pathogen and the social context in which the infection develops but also on individual factors including species, sex, age, nutrition, and physiological status.

Immunomodulatory effects of new phytotherapy on human macrophages and TLR4- and TLR7/8-mediated viral-like inflammation in mice

Background

While all efforts have been undertaken to propagate the vaccination and develop remedies against SARS-CoV-2, no satisfactory management of this infection is available yet. Moreover, poor availability of any preventive and treatment measures of SARS-CoV-2 in economically disadvantageous communities aggravates the course of the pandemic. Here, we studied a new immunomodulatory phytotherapy (IP), an extract of blackberry, chamomile, garlic, cloves, and elderberry as a potential low-cost solution for these problems given the reported efficacy of herbal medicine during the previous SARS virus outbreak.

Methods

The key feature of SARS-CoV-2 infection, excessive inflammation, was studied in in vitro and in vivo assays under the application of the IP. First, changes in tumor-necrosis factor (TNF) and lnteurleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) concentrations were measured in a culture of human macrophages following the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge and treatment with IP or prednisolone. Second, chronically IP-pre-treated CD-1 mice received an agonist of Toll-like receptors (TLR)-7/8 resiquimod and were examined for lung and spleen expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and blood formula. Finally, chronically IP-pre-treated mice challenged with LPS injection were studied for "sickness" behavior. Additionally, the IP was analyzed using high-potency-liquid chromatography (HPLC)-high-resolution-mass-spectrometry (HRMS).

Results

LPS-induced in vitro release of TNF and IL-1β was reduced by both treatments. The IP-treated mice displayed blunted over-expression of SAA-2, ACE-2, CXCL1, and CXCL10 and decreased changes in blood formula in response to an injection with resiquimod. The IP-treated mice injected with LPS showed normalized locomotion, anxiety, and exploration behaviors but not abnormal forced swimming. Isoquercitrin, choline, leucine, chlorogenic acid, and other constituents were identified by HPLC-HRMS and likely underlie the IP immunomodulatory effects.

Conclusions

Herbal IP-therapy decreases inflammation and, partly, "sickness behavior," suggesting its potency to combat SARS-CoV-2 infection first of all via its preventive effects.

Cerebral dysfunctions caused by sepsis during ageing

Systemic inflammation elicited by sepsis can induce an acute cerebral dysfunction known as sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE). Recent evidence suggests that SAE is common but shows a dynamic trajectory over time. Half of all patients with sepsis develop SAE in the intensive care unit, and some survivors present with sustained cognitive impairments for several years after initial sepsis onset. It is not clear why some, but not all, patients develop SAE and also the factors that determine the persistence of SAE. Here, we first summarize the chronic pathology and the dynamic changes in cognitive functions seen after the onset of sepsis. We then outline the cerebral effects of sepsis, such as neuroinflammation, alterations in neuronal synapses and neurovascular changes. We discuss the key factors that might contribute to the development and persistence of SAE in older patients, including premorbid neurodegenerative pathology, side effects of sedatives, renal dysfunction and latent virus reactivation. Finally, we postulate that some of the mechanisms that underpin neuropathology in SAE may also be relevant to delirium and persisting cognitive impairments that are seen in patients with severe COVID-19.

Nafamostat reduces systemic inflammation in TLR7-mediated virus-like illness

BACKGROUND

The serine protease inhibitor nafamostat has been proposed as a treatment for COVID-19, by inhibiting TMPRSS2-mediated viral cell entry. Nafamostat has been shown to have other, immunomodulatory effects, which may be beneficial for treatment, however animal models of ssRNA virus infection are lacking. In this study, we examined the potential of the dual TLR7/8 agonist R848 to mimic the host response to an ssRNA virus infection and the associated behavioural response. In addition, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory effects of nafamostat in this model.

METHODS

CD-1 mice received an intraperitoneal injection of R848 (200 μg, prepared in DMSO, diluted 1:10 in saline) or diluted DMSO alone, and an intravenous injection of either nafamostat (100 μL, 3 mg/kg in 5% dextrose) or 5% dextrose alone. Sickness behaviour was determined by temperature, food intake, sucrose preference test, open field and forced swim test. Blood and fresh liver, lung and brain were collected 6 h post-challenge to measure markers of peripheral and central inflammation by blood analysis, immunohistochemistry and qPCR.

RESULTS

R848 induced a robust inflammatory response, as evidenced by increased expression of TNF, IFN-γ, CXCL1 and CXCL10 in the liver, lung and brain, as well as a sickness behaviour phenotype. Exogenous administration of nafamostat suppressed the hepatic inflammatory response, significantly reducing TNF and IFN-γ expression, but had no effect on lung or brain cytokine production. R848 administration depleted circulating leukocytes, which was restored by nafamostat treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that R848 administration provides a useful model of ssRNA virus infection, which induces inflammation in the periphery and CNS, and virus infection-like illness. In turn, we show that nafamostat has a systemic anti-inflammatory effect in the presence of the TLR7/8 agonist. Therefore, the results indicate that nafamostat has anti-inflammatory actions, beyond its ability to inhibit TMPRSS2, that might potentiate its anti-viral actions in pathologies such as COVID-19.

Interferons in Pain and Infections: Emerging Roles in Neuro-Immune and Neuro-Glial Interactions

Interferons (IFNs) are cytokines that possess antiviral, antiproliferative, and immunomodulatory actions. IFN-α and IFN-β are two major family members of type-I IFNs and are used to treat diseases, including hepatitis and multiple sclerosis. Emerging evidence suggests that type-I IFN receptors (IFNARs) are also expressed by microglia, astrocytes, and neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Apart from canonical transcriptional regulations, IFN-α and IFN-β can rapidly suppress neuronal activity and synaptic transmission via non-genomic regulation, leading to potent analgesia. IFN-γ is the only member of the type-II IFN family and induces central sensitization and microglia activation in persistent pain. We discuss how type-I and type-II IFNs regulate pain and infection via neuro-immune modulations, with special focus on neuroinflammation and neuro-glial interactions. We also highlight distinct roles of type-I IFNs in the peripheral and central nervous system. Insights into IFN signaling in nociceptors and their distinct actions in physiological vs. pathological and acute vs. chronic conditions will improve our treatments of pain after surgeries, traumas, and infections.

Traumatic Brain Injury Induces cGAS Activation and Type I Interferon Signaling in Aged Mice

Aging adversely affects inflammatory processes in the brain, which has important implications in the progression of neurodegenerative disease. Following traumatic brain injury (TBI), aged animals exhibit worsened neurological function and exacerbated microglial-associated neuroinflammation. Type I Interferons (IFN-I) contribute to the development of TBI neuropathology. Further, the Cyclic GMP-AMP Synthase (cGAS) and Stimulator of Interferon Genes (STING) pathway, a key inducer of IFN-I responses, has been implicated in neuroinflammatory activity in several age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we set out to investigate the effects of TBI on cGAS/STING activation, IFN-I signaling and neuroinflammation in young and aged C57Bl/6 male mice. Using a controlled cortical impact model, we evaluated transcriptomic changes in the injured cortex at 24 hours post-injury, and confirmed activation of key neuroinflammatory pathways in biochemical studies. TBI induced changes were highly enriched for transcripts that were involved in inflammatory responses to stress and host defense. Deeper analysis revealed that TBI increased expression of IFN-I related genes (e.g. Ifnb1, Irf7, Ifi204, Isg15) and IFN-I signaling in the injured cortex of aged compared to young mice. There was also a significant age-related increase in the activation of the DNA-recognition pathway, cGAS, which is a key mechanism to propagate IFN-I responses. Finally, enhanced IFN-I signaling in the aged TBI brain was confirmed by increased phosphorylation of STAT1, an important IFN-I effector molecule. This age-related activation of cGAS and IFN-I signaling may prove to be a mechanistic link between microglial-associated neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in the aged TBI brain.

Sex differences and similarities in the neuroimmune response to central administration of poly I:C

BACKGROUND

The neuroimmune system is required for normal neural processes, including modulation of cognition, emotion, and adaptive behaviors. Aberrant neuroimmune activation is associated with dysregulation of memory and emotion, though the precise mechanisms at play are complex and highly context dependent. Sex differences in neuroimmune activation and function further complicate our understanding of its roles in cognitive and affective regulation.

METHODS

Here, we characterized the physiological sickness and inflammatory response of the hippocampus following intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of a synthetic viral mimic, polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C), in both male and female C57Bl/6N mice.

RESULTS

We observed that poly I:C induced weight loss, fever, and elevations of cytokine and chemokines in the hippocampus of both sexes. Specifically, we found transient increases in gene expression and protein levels of IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, TNFα, CCL2, and CXCL10, where males showed a greater magnitude of response compared with females. Only males showed increased IFNα and IFNγ in response to poly I:C, whereas both males and females exhibited elevations of IFNβ, demonstrating a specific sex difference in the anti-viral response in the hippocampus.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that type I interferons are one potential node mediating sex-specific cytokine responses and neuroimmune effects on cognition. Together, these findings highlight the importance of using both males and females and analyzing a broad set of inflammatory markers in order to identify the precise, sex-specific roles for neuroimmune dysregulation in neurological diseases and disorders.