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Muldakhmetov Z, Fazylov S, Nurkenov O, Gazaliev A, Sarsenbekova A, Pustolaikina I, Nurmaganbetov Z, Seilkhanov O, Alsfouk AA, Elkaeed EB, Eissa IH, Metwaly AM. Combined Computational and Experimental Studies of Anabasine Encapsulation by Beta-Cyclodextrin. PLANTS 2022; 11:plants11172283. [PMID: 36079665 PMCID: PMC9460387 DOI: 10.3390/plants11172283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The encapsulation of the famous alkaloid, anabasine, with β-CD was studied to obtain a more stable and bioavailable inclusion complex. Various in silico and experimental studies of the obtained β-CD-anabasine complex are presented. Firstly, molecular docking studies were conducted against the α, β, and γ cyclodextrins to explore which subclass is the best for encapsulation. The obtained results that pointed at β-cyclodextrin were further confirmed by five MD simulations and MM-PBSA studies. Experimentally, the spectral properties of the anabasine β-cyclodextrin complex were determined by FT-IR, 1H, and 13C-NMR spectroscopic methods. Additionally, the surface morphology of the anabasine β-cyclodextrin was investigated using a scanning electron microscope. Furthermore, the outputs of the thermographic measurements utilizing a differential scanning calorimeter were displayed. The activation energy of the reaction of thermo-oxidative destruction of the clathrate complex was calculated, and the kinetic parameters of the thermal destruction processes were decided using the Freeman–Carroll, Sharpe–Wentworth, Achar, and Coates–Redfern methods. The kinetic parameters of the thermal decomposition of the anabasine β-cyclodextrin were in agreement and verified the reliability of the obtained results. The obtained computational, spectral, morphological, and thermogravimetric results verified the successful formation of the anabasine β-cyclodextrin complex.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Serik Fazylov
- Institute of Organic Synthesis and Coal Chemistry, Karaganda 100012, Kazakhstan
- Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Chemistry Faculty, Karagandy University of the Name of Academician E.A. Buketov, Karaganda 100024, Kazakhstan
- Correspondence: (S.F.); (A.M.M.)
| | - Oral Nurkenov
- Institute of Organic Synthesis and Coal Chemistry, Karaganda 100012, Kazakhstan
- Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Chemistry Faculty, Karagandy University of the Name of Academician E.A. Buketov, Karaganda 100024, Kazakhstan
| | - Arstan Gazaliev
- Institute of Organic Synthesis and Coal Chemistry, Karaganda 100012, Kazakhstan
| | - Akmaral Sarsenbekova
- Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Chemistry Faculty, Karagandy University of the Name of Academician E.A. Buketov, Karaganda 100024, Kazakhstan
| | - Irina Pustolaikina
- Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Chemistry Faculty, Karagandy University of the Name of Academician E.A. Buketov, Karaganda 100024, Kazakhstan
| | | | - Olzhas Seilkhanov
- Laboratory of NMR-Spectroscopy, Sh. Ualikhanov Kokshetau University, Kokshetau 020000, Kazakhstan
| | - Aisha A. Alsfouk
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, Riyadh 11671, Saudi Arabia
| | - Eslam B. Elkaeed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, AlMaarefa University, Riyadh 13713, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibrahim H. Eissa
- Pharmaceutical Medicinal Chemistry & Drug Design Department, Faculty of Pharmacy (Boys), Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt
| | - Ahmed M. Metwaly
- Pharmacognosy and Medicinal Plants Department, Faculty of Pharmacy (Boys), Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt
- Biopharmaceutical Product Research Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute, City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications, Alexandria 21934, Egypt
- Correspondence: (S.F.); (A.M.M.)
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Guo L, Xiao P, Zhang X, Yang Y, Yang M, Wang T, Lu H, Tian H, Wang H, Liu J. Inulin ameliorates schizophrenia via modulation of the gut microbiota and anti-inflammation in mice. Food Funct 2021; 12:1156-1175. [PMID: 33432310 DOI: 10.1039/d0fo02778b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The microbiome-gut-brain (MGB) axis, which regulates neurological and cognitive functions, plays an essential role in schizophrenia (SCZ) progression. Dietary inulin could be a novel strategy for the treatment of SCZ due to its modulating effects on the gut microbiota. In this study, the effects of inulin on mice with SCZ were studied. As indicated by the behavioural tests, expression of neurotransmitters, inflammatory indicators, and brain morphology, inulin administration ameliorated aberrant behaviours (locomotor hypoactivity, anxiety disorders and depressive behaviours, and impaired learning and spatial recognition memory) and effectively reduced neuroinflammation and neuronal damage. In addition, inulin improved intestinal integrity and permeability, as indicated by the elevated expression of tight junction proteins (p < 0.05). The results of 16S rRNA sequencing and analysis showed that inulin increased the abundance of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, which were negatively correlated with 5-hydroxytryptamine and inflammatory cytokines and positively correlated with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Inulin caused a reduction in Akkermansia that was positively correlated with inflammatory cytokines and negatively correlated with BDNF. These results suggested that dietary inulin modulated the gut microbiota and exerted anti-inflammatory effects in mice though the MGB axis, which further ameliorated SCZ. Therefore, the results of this study provide a potential explanation for inulin intervention in the treatment of SCZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Guo
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Peilun Xiao
- Department of Anatomy, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261042, Shandong, China.
| | - Xiaoxia Zhang
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Yang Yang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Miao Yang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Ting Wang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Haixia Lu
- Clinical Medical College, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Hongyan Tian
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Hao Wang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Juan Liu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China.
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Bondarenko SP, Mrug GP, Vinogradova VI, Frasinyuk MS. Synthesis of New Conjugates of Coumarins with Anabasine and Cytisine. Chem Nat Compd 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10600-021-03268-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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4
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Deutsch SI, Burket JA. An Evolving Therapeutic Rationale for Targeting the α 7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2020; 45:167-208. [PMID: 32468495 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2020_136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Abnormalities of cholinergic nuclei, cholinergic projections, and cholinergic receptors, as well as abnormalities of growth factors involved in the maturation and maintenance of cholinergic neurons, have been described in postmortem brains of persons with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Further, microdeletions of the 15q13.3 locus that encompasses CHRNA7, the gene coding the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR), are associated with a spectrum of neurodevelopmental disorders, including ASD. The heterozygous 15q13.3 microdeletion syndrome suggests that diminished or impaired transduction of the acetylcholine (ACh) signal by the α7 nAChR can be a pathogenic mechanism of ASD. The α7 nAChR has a role in regulating the firing and function of parvalbumin (PV)-expressing GABAergic projections, which synchronize the oscillatory output of assemblies of pyramidal neurons onto which they project. Synchronous oscillatory output is an electrophysiological substrate for higher executive functions, such as working memory, and functional connectivity between discrete anatomic areas of the brain. The α7 nAChR regulates PV expression and works cooperatively with the co-expressed NMDA receptor in subpopulations of GABAergic interneurons in mouse models of ASD. An evolving literature supports therapeutic exploration of selectively targeted cholinergic interventions for the treatment of ASD, especially compounds that target the α7 nAChR subtype. Importantly, development and availability of high-affinity, brain-penetrable, α7 nAChR-selective agonists, partial agonists, allosteric agonists, and positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) should facilitate "proof-of-principle/concept" clinical trials. nAChRs are pentameric allosteric proteins that function as ligand-gated ion channel receptors constructed from five constituent polypeptide subunits, all of which share a common structural motif. Importantly, in addition to α7 nAChR-gated Ca2+ conductance causing membrane depolarization, there are emerging data consistent with possible metabotropic functions of this ionotropic receptor. The ability of α7-selective type II PAMs to "destabilize" the desensitized state and promote ion channel opening may afford them therapeutic advantages over orthosteric agonists. The current chapter reviews historic and recent literature supporting selective therapeutic targeting of the α7 nAChR in persons affected with ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen I Deutsch
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, USA.
| | - Jessica A Burket
- Department of Molecular Biology and Chemistry, Christopher Newport University, Newport News, VA, USA
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Xia W, Veljkovic E, Koshibu K, Peitsch MC, Hoeng J. Neurobehavioral effects of selected tobacco constituents in rodents following subchronic administration. Eur J Pharmacol 2019; 865:172809. [PMID: 31738931 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2019.172809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Revised: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Bidirectional correlations between cigarette smoking and affective disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia, are well documented. These findings have led to substantial investigations into the effects of the major tobacco alkaloid, nicotine, and to a lesser extent, of other tobacco constituents, on the central nervous system (CNS). However, systematic profiling of the neuropharmacological effects of tobacco constituents is limited. To elucidate the effects of selected tobacco constituents on the CNS, we used the SmartCube® system, which captures and classifies behavioral features of compound-treated mice, to profile the psychiatric drugs-like properties of previously reported neuroactive tobacco compounds in mice. Daily intraperitoneal injection of nicotine (0.5 and 1 mg/kg/day) and anatabine (5 mg/kg/day) for 7 days produced antidepressant-like behavioral SmartCube® signatures in mice, and these results were supported by the improved active coping responses in the forced swim tests. Conversely, ferulic acid did not show any identifiable class signatures in the SmartCube® tests, but rather displayed subclass signatures associated with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. In novel object recognition memory test in rats, ferulic acid improved memory after 7 days of subcutaneous injection at 0.3 or 3 mg/kg/day. These results support previous findings showing the antidepressant drug-like effects of nicotine and the nootropic effects of ferulic acid. This is also the first report on the antidepressant drug-like effects of anatabine in rodents. This study provides a systemic behavioral evaluation of tobacco alkaloids and further insights into the association between affective disorders and smoking incidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhao Xia
- PMI R&D, Philip Morris International Research Laboratories Pte. Ltd., 50 Science Park Road, The Kendall #02-07, Science Park II, 117406, Singapore.
| | - Emilija Veljkovic
- PMI R&D, Philip Morris Products S.A., Quai Jeanrenaud 5, CH-2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Kyoko Koshibu
- PMI R&D, Philip Morris Products S.A., Quai Jeanrenaud 5, CH-2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Manuel C Peitsch
- PMI R&D, Philip Morris Products S.A., Quai Jeanrenaud 5, CH-2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Julia Hoeng
- PMI R&D, Philip Morris Products S.A., Quai Jeanrenaud 5, CH-2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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Bondarenko SP, Mrug GP, Vinogradova VI, Khilya VP, Frasinyuk MS. Conjugation of the Alkaloid Anabasine to Coumarins. Chem Nat Compd 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10600-019-02765-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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8
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Whalley BJ, Lin H, Bell L, Hill T, Patel A, Gray RA, Elizabeth Roberts C, Devinsky O, Bazelot M, Williams CM, Stephens GJ. Species-specific susceptibility to cannabis-induced convulsions. Br J Pharmacol 2018; 176:1506-1523. [PMID: 29457829 PMCID: PMC6487554 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose Numerous claims are made for cannabis' therapeutic utility upon human seizures, but concerns persist about risks. A potential confounder is the presence of both Δ9‐tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), variously reported to be pro‐ and anticonvulsant, and cannabidiol (CBD), widely confirmed as anticonvulsant. Therefore, we investigated effects of prolonged exposure to different THC/CBD cannabis extracts on seizure activity and associated measures of endocannabinoid (eCB) system signalling. Experimental Approach Cannabis extract effects on in vivo neurological and behavioural responses, and on bioanalyte levels, were measured in rats and dogs. Extract effects on seizure activity were measured using electroencephalography telemetry in rats. eCB signalling was also investigated using radioligand binding in cannabis extract‐treated rats and treatment‐naïve rat, mouse, chicken, dog and human tissue. Key Results Prolonged exposure to cannabis extracts caused spontaneous, generalized seizures, subserved by epileptiform discharges in rats, but not dogs, and produced higher THC, but lower 11‐hydroxy‐THC (11‐OH‐THC) and CBD, plasma concentrations in rats versus dogs. In the same rats, prolonged exposure to cannabis also impaired cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1 receptor)‐mediated signalling. Profiling CB1 receptor expression, basal activity, extent of activation and sensitivity to THC suggested interspecies differences in eCB signalling, being more pronounced in a species that exhibited cannabis extract‐induced seizures (rat) than one that did not (dog). Conclusions and Implications Sustained cannabis extract treatment caused differential seizure, behavioural and bioanalyte levels between rats and dogs. Supporting radioligand binding data suggest species differences in eCB signalling. Interspecies variations may have important implications for predicting cannabis‐induced convulsions from animal models. Linked Articles This article is part of a themed section on 8th European Workshop on Cannabinoid Research. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.10/issuetoc
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Whalley
- Division of Pharmacology, School of Chemistry, Food and Nutritional Sciences, and Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK.,GW Research Ltd, Salisbury, UK
| | - Hong Lin
- Division of Pharmacology, School of Chemistry, Food and Nutritional Sciences, and Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Lynne Bell
- School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Thomas Hill
- Physiology & Medical Physics, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | | | | | - Orrin Devinsky
- Department of Neurology, Comprehensive Epilepsy Center, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Claire M Williams
- School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Gary J Stephens
- Division of Pharmacology, School of Chemistry, Food and Nutritional Sciences, and Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK
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Levin ED, Hao I, Burke DA, Cauley M, Hall BJ, Rezvani AH. Effects of tobacco smoke constituents, anabasine and anatabine, on memory and attention in female rats. J Psychopharmacol 2014; 28:915-22. [PMID: 25122040 PMCID: PMC4305443 DOI: 10.1177/0269881114543721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nicotine has been well characterized to improve memory and attention. Nicotine is the primary, but not only neuroactive compound in tobacco. Other tobacco constituents such as anabasine and anatabine also have agonist actions on nicotinic receptors. The current study investigated the effects of anabasine and anatabine on memory and attention. Adult female Sprague-Dawley rats were trained on a win-shift spatial working and reference memory task in the 16-arm radial maze or a visual signal detection operant task to test attention. Acute dose-effect functions of anabasine and anatabine over two orders of magnitude were evaluated for both tasks. In the radial-arm maze memory test, anabasine but not anatabine significantly reduced the memory impairment caused by the NMDA antagonist dizocilpine (MK-801). In the signal detection attentional task, anatabine but not anabasine significantly attenuated the attentional impairment caused by dizocilpine. These studies show that non-nicotine nicotinic agonists in tobacco, similar to nicotine, can significantly improve memory and attentional function. Both anabasine and anatabine produced cognitive improvement, but their effectiveness differed with regard to memory and attention. Follow-up studies with anabasine and anatabine are called for to determine their efficacy as therapeutics for memory and attentional dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward D Levin
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Ian Hao
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Dennis A Burke
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Marty Cauley
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Brandon J Hall
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Amir H Rezvani
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
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Gelenberg AJ, de Leon J, Evins AE, Parks JJ, Rigotti NA. Smoking cessation in patients with psychiatric disorders. PRIMARY CARE COMPANION TO THE JOURNAL OF CLINICAL PSYCHIATRY 2011; 10:52-8. [PMID: 18311422 DOI: 10.4088/pcc.v10n0109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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11
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Wojciechowska-Nowak M, Jasiewicz B, Boczoń W, Warżajtis B, Rychlewska U. Spectroscopic and X-ray studies of N-methylanabasine complexes with ZnX2 (X=Br, Cl). J Mol Struct 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2011.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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12
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Choi YS, Lee CJ, Kim YH. MK-801-induced learning impairments reversed by physostigmine and nicotine in zebrafish. Anim Cells Syst (Seoul) 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/19768354.2011.555124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
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13
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Huang K, Ortiz-Marciales M, De Jesús M, Stepanenko V. A New and Efficient Approach to the Synthesis of Nicotine and Anabasine Analogues. J Heterocycl Chem 2009; 46:1252-1258. [PMID: 20161612 DOI: 10.1002/jhet.233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
A straightforward and practical approach was established for the synthesis of nicotine and anabasine analogues by the cyclization of mesylated 1-(3-pyridinyl)-1,4, and 1,5-diol derivatives to form the pyrrolidino or piperidino fragments. Nicotine analogue (S)-15 was prepared with good enantioselectivity using the developed azacyclization procedure of nonracemic (R)-1-pyridin-3-yl-butane-1,4-diol, which was obtained by the borane-mediated reduction of ketone 12 in the presence of the spiroborate ester derived from diphenyl prolinol and ethylene glycol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Huang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico-Humacao, CUH Station, Humacao, Puerto Rico 00791-4300, USA
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Pro-cognitive and antipsychotic efficacy of the alpha7 nicotinic partial agonist SSR180711 in pharmacological and neurodevelopmental latent inhibition models of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009; 34:1753-63. [PMID: 19158670 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2008.232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia symptoms can be segregated into positive, negative and cognitive, which exhibit differential sensitivity to drug treatments. Accumulating evidence points to efficacy of alpha7 nicotinic receptor (nAChR) agonists for cognitive deficits in schizophrenia but their activity against positive symptoms is thought to be minimal. The present study examined potential pro-cognitive and antipsychotic activity of the novel selective alpha7 nAChR partial agonist SSR180711 using the latent inhibition (LI) model. LI is the reduced efficacy of a previously non-reinforced stimulus to gain behavioral control when paired with reinforcement, compared with a novel stimulus. Here, no-drug controls displayed LI if non-reinforced pre-exposure to a tone was followed by weak but not strong conditioning (2 vs 5 tone-shock pairings). MK801 (0.05 mg/kg, i.p.) -treated rats as well as rats neonatally treated with nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NoArg (10 mg/kg, s.c.) on postnatal days 4-5, persisted in displaying LI with strong conditioning, whereas amphetamine (1 mg/kg) -treated rats failed to show LI with weak conditioning. SSR180711 (0.3, 1, 3 mg/kg, i.p.) was able to alleviate abnormally persistent LI produced by acute MK801 and neonatal L-NoArg; these models are believed to model cognitive aspects of schizophrenia and activity here was consistent with previous findings with alpha7-nAChR agonists. In addition, unexpectedly, SSR180711 (1, 3 mg/kg, i.p.) potentiated LI with strong conditioning in no-drug controls and reversed amphetamine-induced LI disruption, two effects considered predictive of activity against positive symptoms of schizophrenia. These findings suggest that SSR180711 may be beneficial not only for the treatment of cognitive symptoms in schizophrenia, as reported multiple times previously, but also positive symptoms.
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15
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Tizabi Y. Nicotine and nicotinic system in hypoglutamatergic models of schizophrenia. Neurotox Res 2008; 12:233-46. [PMID: 18201951 DOI: 10.1007/bf03033907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a complex neuropsychiatric disorder with devastating consequences. It is characterized by thought fragmentation, hallucination and delusion, collectively referred to as positive symptoms. In addition, mood changes or affective disorders, referred to as negative symptoms, as well as cognitive impairments can be manifested in these patients. Arguably, modeling such a disorder in its entirety in animals might not be feasible. Despite this limitation, various models with significant construct, predictive and some face validity have been developed. One such model, based on hypoglutamatergic hypothesis of schizophrenia, makes use of administering NMDA receptor antagonists and evaluating behavioral paradigms such as sensorimotor gating. Because of very high incidence of smoking among schizophrenic patients, it has been postulated that some of these patients may actually be self medicating with tobacco's nicotine. Research on nicotinic-glutamatergic interactions using various animal models has yielded conflicting results. In this review, some of these models and possible confounding factors are discussed. Overall, a therapeutic potential for nicotinic agonists in schizophrenia can be suggested. Moreover, it is evident that various experimental paradigms or models of schizophrenia symptoms need to be combined to provide a wider spectrum of the behavioral phenotype, as each model has its inherent limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousef Tizabi
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, USA.
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16
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SHI JW. Assessing Exploratory Behavior and Memory in ICR, BALB/c and C57BL/6 Mice Using Habituation. Zool Res 2008. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1141.2008.00049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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17
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Deutsch SI, Rosse RB, Schwartz BL, Schooler NR, Gaskins BL, Long KD, Mastropaolo J. Effects of CDP-choline and the combination of CDP-choline and galantamine differ in an animal model of schizophrenia: development of a selective alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist strategy. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2008; 18:147-51. [PMID: 17656074 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2007.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2007] [Accepted: 05/30/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The regionally selective reduction of expression of the alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (alpha7 nAChR) in schizophrenia underlies impaired sensory inhibition, a possible endophenotype of the disorder. This ligand-gated ion channel receptor has been proposed as a pharmacotherapeutic target in schizophrenia. The current study examined the effect of CDP-choline alone and the combination of CDP-choline and galantamine, administered acutely and once-daily for five consecutive days, in an animal model of NMDA receptor hypofunction that is relevant to schizophrenia. The results support the allosteric modulatory influence of galantamine on CDP-choline; however, individual doses of CDP-choline and galantamine must be carefully titrated in order to achieve optimal levels of alpha7 nAChR "agonism" that may be necessary for the desired therapeutic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen I Deutsch
- Mental Health Service Line (116A), Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 50 Irving Street, NW, Washington, DC 20422, United States.
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18
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Olszewski RT, Wegorzewska MM, Monteiro AC, Krolikowski KA, Zhou J, Kozikowski AP, Long K, Mastropaolo J, Deutsch SI, Neale JH. Phencyclidine and dizocilpine induced behaviors reduced by N-acetylaspartylglutamate peptidase inhibition via metabotropic glutamate receptors. Biol Psychiatry 2008; 63:86-91. [PMID: 17597589 PMCID: PMC2185547 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2007] [Revised: 04/13/2007] [Accepted: 04/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor open channel blockers phencyclidine (PCP) and dizocilpine (MK-801) elicit schizophrenia-like symptoms in humans and in animal models. Group II metabotropic glutamate receptor agonists reverse the behavioral effects of PCP and MK-801 in animal models. N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG), the third most prevalent neurotransmitter in the mammalian nervous system, is a selective group II metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist. We previously reported that ZJ43, a potent inhibitor of the enzymes that inactivate synaptically released NAAG, reduced motor and stereotypic effects of PCP in the rat. METHODS To confirm the efficacy of NAAG peptidase inhibition in decreasing motor behaviors induced by PCP and MK-801, ZJ43 was tested in additional schizophrenia models. RESULTS ZJ43 reduced MK-801-induced motor activation in a mouse model that has been used to characterize the efficacy of a wide range of pharmacotherapies for this human disorder. In a second mouse strain, the peptidase inhibitor reduced PCP-induced stereotypic movements. ZJ43 also reduced PCP-induced negative symptoms in a resident-intruder assay. The group II metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonist, LY341495, blocked the effect of NAAG peptidase inhibition in these mouse models of positive and negative PCP- and MK-801-induced behaviors. Additionally, LY341495 alone increased some PCP-induced behaviors suggesting that normal levels of NAAG act to moderate the effect of PCP via a group II mGluR. CONCLUSIONS These data support the proposal that NAAG peptidase inhibition and elevation of synaptic NAAG levels represent a new therapeutic approach to treating the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia that are modeled by open channel NMDA receptor antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafal T. Olszewski
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20057, USA
| | | | - Ana C. Monteiro
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20057, USA
| | | | - Jia Zhou
- Acenta Discovery Inc., Tuscon, AZ, 85747
| | - Alan P. Kozikowski
- Acenta Discovery Inc., Tuscon, AZ, 85747
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Katrice Long
- Mental Health Service Line, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Washington, D.C. 20422
| | - John Mastropaolo
- Mental Health Service Line, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Washington, D.C. 20422
| | - Stephen I. Deutsch
- Department of Psychiatry, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20057, USA
- Mental Health Service Line, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Washington, D.C. 20422
| | - Joseph H. Neale
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20057, USA
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19
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Levin ED, Rezvani AH. Nicotinic interactions with antipsychotic drugs, models of schizophrenia and impacts on cognitive function. Biochem Pharmacol 2007; 74:1182-91. [PMID: 17714691 PMCID: PMC2702723 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2007.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2007] [Revised: 07/12/2007] [Accepted: 07/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
People with schizophrenia often have substantial cognitive impairments, which may be related to nicotinic receptor deficits, (alpha7 and alpha4beta2), documented in the brains of people with schizophrenia. The large majority of people with schizophrenia smoke cigarettes. Thus, nicotinic interactions with antipsychotic drugs are widespread. Complementary co-therapies of novel nicotinic ligands are being developed to add to antipsychotic therapy to treat the cognitive impairment of schizophrenia. Thus, it is critical to understand the interaction between nicotinic treatments and antipsychotic drugs. Nicotinic interactions with antipsychotic drugs, are complex since both nicotine and antipsychotics have complex actions. Nicotine stimulates and desensitizes nicotinic receptors of various subtypes and potentiates the release of different neurotransmitters. Antipsychotics also act on a verity of receptor systems. For example, clozapine acts as an antagonist at a variety of neurotransmitter receptors such as those for dopamine, serotonin, norepinepherine and histamine. In a series of studies, we have found that in normally functioning rats, moderate doses of clozapine impair working memory and that clozapine blocks nicotine-induced memory and attentional improvement. Clozapine and nicotine can attenuate each other's beneficial effects in reversing the memory impairment caused by the psychototmimetic drug dizocilpine. A key to the clozapine-induced attenuation of nicotine-induced cognitive improvement appears to be its 5HT(2) antagonist properties. The selective 5HT(2) antagonist ketanserin has a similar action of blocking nicotine-induced memory and attentional improvements. It is important to consider the interactions between nicotinic and antipsychotic drugs to develop the most efficacious treatment for cognitive improvement in people with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward D Levin
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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20
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Ozyurt B, Ozyurt H, Akpolat N, Erdogan H, Sarsilmaz M. Oxidative stress in prefrontal cortex of rat exposed to MK-801 and protective effects of CAPE. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2007; 31:832-8. [PMID: 17374554 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2007.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2006] [Revised: 01/18/2007] [Accepted: 01/19/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
MK-801 was shown to be one of the most neurotoxic non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonists. It is known that repeated injection of MK-801 was proposed in an animal model in psychosis. The aims of this study are to investigate the contributing effect of oxidative stress in MK-801-induced experimental psychosis model, and to show that prevention of oxidative stress may improve prognosis. Furthermore, there is evidence that oxygen free radicals play an important role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. In this study, Wistar Albino rats were divided into three groups: 1st group: Control, 2nd group: MK-801, 3rd group: MK-801+CAPE (Caffeic acid phenethyl ester) group. MK-801 was given intraperitoneally at the dose of 0.5 mg/kg/day for 5 days. CAPE was given to the treatment group while exposed to MK-801. In control group, saline was given intraperitoneally at the same time. After 7 days, rats were killed by decapitation. Prefrontal cortex (PFC) of rats was removed for biochemical and histological analyses. As a result, malondialdehyde (MDA), protein carbonyl (PC), nitric oxide (NO) levels and superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and xanthine oxidase (XO) and adenosine deaminase (AD) enzyme activities were found to be increased significantly in prefrontal cortex (PFC) of MK-801 group (p<0.0001) compared to control group. In CAPE treated rats, prefrontal tissue MDA, PC, NO levels and, GSH-Px, XO, AD enzyme activities were significantly decreased when compared to MK-801 groups (p<0.0001) whereas catalase (CAT) enzyme activity was not changed. Moreover, in the light of microscopic examination of MK-801 groups, a great number of apoptotic cells were observed. CAPE treatment decreased the apoptotic cell count in PFC. The results of this study showed that MK-801-induced neurotoxicity caused oxidative stress in PFC of rats. This experimental study may also provide some evidences for the new treatment strategies with antioxidants in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birsen Ozyurt
- Gaziosmanpasa University Faculty of Medicine, Department of Anatomy, Dekanlik Binasi, Tokat, Turkey.
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21
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Martin LF, Freedman R. Schizophrenia and the alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2007; 78:225-46. [PMID: 17349863 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(06)78008-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
In addition to the devastating symptoms of psychosis, many people with schizophrenia also suffer from cognitive impairment. These cognitive symptoms lead to marked dysfunction and can impact employability, treatment adherence, and social skills. Deficits in P50 auditory gating are associated with attentional impairment and may contribute to cognitive symptoms and perceptual disturbances. This nicotinic cholinergic-mediated inhibitory process represents a potential new target for therapeutic intervention in schizophrenia. This chapter will review evidence implicating the nicotinic cholinergic, and specifically, the alpha7 nicotinic receptor system in the pathology of schizophrenia. Impaired auditory sensory gating has been linked to the alpha7 nicotinic receptor gene on the chromosome 15q14 locus. A majority of persons with schizophrenia are heavy smokers. Although nicotine can acutely reverse diminished auditory sensory gating in people with schizophrenia, this effect is lost on a chronic basis due to receptor desensitization. The alpha7 nicotinic agonist 3-(2,4 dimethoxy)benzylidene-anabaseine (DMXBA) can also enhance auditory sensory gating in animal models. DMXBA is well tolerated in humans and a new study in persons with schizophrenia has found that DMXBA enhances both P50 auditory gating and cognition. alpha7 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists appear to be viable candidates for the treatment of cognitive disturbances in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura F Martin
- Research Service, VA Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Denver, Colorado 80220, USA
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22
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Ozyurt B, Parlaktas BS, Ozyurt H, Aslan H, Ekici F, Atis O. A preliminary study of the levels of testis oxidative stress parameters after MK-801-induced experimental psychosis model: protective effects of CAPE. Toxicology 2006; 230:83-9. [PMID: 17169478 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2006.11.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2006] [Revised: 10/27/2006] [Accepted: 11/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We evaluated the effects of caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) on antioxidant enzyme levels and histopathologic changes in dizocilpine (MK-801) induced schizophrenic rat testis. A total of 30 adult male Wistar-Albino rats were divided into three groups. Group-I was used as control. Rats in the Group-II were intraperitoneally injected with MK-801, whereas those in Group-III were intraperitoneally injected with CAPE in addition to MK-801. The testes were collected for biochemical and histopathological examinations. Antioxidant enzyme activities, malondialdehyde, protein carbonyl and nitric oxide levels in testicular tissues were analyzed with spectrophotometric methods. Induction of schizophrenia resulted in a significant oxidative stress by increasing the levels of antioxidant enzymes. Tissue malondialdehyde and protein carbonyl levels were also increased. Treatment with CAPE led to significant decrease in oxidative injury. Administration of CAPE reduced the detrimental histopathologic changes caused by MK-801. The results showed that experimentally induced schizophrenia caused oxidative stress in testes of rats and treatment with CAPE reduced these harmful effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birsen Ozyurt
- Gaziosmanpasa University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Anatomy, Tokat, Turkey.
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23
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Abstract
In summary, neuronal nicotinic systems are important for a variety of aspects of cognitive function impacted by antipsychotic drugs. It has been demonstrated that antipsychotic drugs have memory and attentional impairing effects when given to unimpaired subjects. Nicotine can reduce some of these impairments, but antipsychotic drug administration can also attenuate nicotine effects. We have found that nicotinic agonists selective for alpha7 and alpha4beta2 receptor subtypes significantly improve learning and memory. Serotonergic actions of antipsychotic drugs may decrease efficacy of nicotinic co-treatments. When the antipsychotic drug clozapine and nicotine are administered to subjects with cognitive impairments caused by NMDA glutamate receptor blockade or hippocampal dysfunction they can significantly attenuate the attentional and memory impairments. Nicotine has been shown in our studies to reverse the memory impairment caused by acute clozapine-induced memory improvement. Acute risperidone and haloperidol has been shown to attenuate nicotine-induced memory improvement. We have determined the role of hippocampal alpha7 and alpha4beta2 nicotinic receptors in the neural basis of nicotinic antipsychotic interactions. Local acute and chronic hippocampal infusion of either nicotinic alpha7 or alpha4beta2 antagonists cause significant spatial working memory impairment. Chronic hippocampal nicotinic antagonist infusions have served as a model of persistent decreases in nicotinic receptor level seen in schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease. Clozapine attenuated the memory deficit caused by chronic suppression of hippocampal alpha4beta2 receptors while the amnestic effects of clozapine were potentiated by chronic suppression of hippocampal alpha7 receptors. Nicotinic co-treatment may be a useful adjunct in the treatment of schizophrenia, to attenuate cognitive impairment of schizophrenia. Nicotine as well as selective nicotinic alpha7 and alpha4beta2 receptor agonists significantly improve working memory and attentional function. Nicotine treatment was found to be effective in attenuating the attentional and memory impairments caused by the psychototmimetic NMDA antagonist dizocilpine (MK-801), a model of the cognitive impairment of schizophrenia. Studies of the interactions of antipsychotic drugs with nicotinic agents provided quite useful information concerning possible co-treatment of people with schizophrenia with nicotinic therapy. Nicotine was found to significantly attenuate the memory impairments caused by the antipsychotic drugs clozapine and olanzapine. Interestingly, nicotine-induced cognitive improvement was significantly attenuated by the antipsychotic drug clozapine. One of the principal effects of clozapine is to block 5HT2 receptors. Ketanserin a 5HT2 antagonist significantly attenuated nicotine-induced improvements in attention and memory. Thus it appears that antipsychotic drugs with actions blocking 5HT2 receptors may limit the efficacy of nicotinic co-treatments for cognitive enhancement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward D Levin
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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24
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Ozyurt B, Sarsilmaz M, Akpolat N, Ozyurt H, Akyol O, Herken H, Kus I. The protective effects of omega-3 fatty acids against MK-801-induced neurotoxicity in prefrontal cortex of rat. Neurochem Int 2006; 50:196-202. [PMID: 16971021 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2006.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2006] [Revised: 07/27/2006] [Accepted: 08/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The aims of this study are to investigate the contribution effect of oxidative stress in MK-801-induced experimental psychosis model, and to show that prevention of oxidative stress may improve prognosis. Because oxidative damage has been suggested in the neuropathophysiology of schizophrenia, the possible protecting agents against lipid peroxidation are potential target for the studies in this field. For this purpose, Wistar Albino rats were divided into three groups: the first group was used as control, MK-801 was given to the rats in the second group and MK-801+omega-3 essential fatty acids (EFA) was given to the third group. MK-801 was given intraperitoneally at the dose of 0.5mg/(kgday) once a day for 5 days in experimental psychosis group. In the second group, 0.8g/(kgday), omega-3 FA (eicosapentaenoic acid, 18%, docosahexaenoic acid, 12%) was given to the rats while exposed MK-801. In control group, saline was given intraperitoneally at the same time. After 7 days, rats were killed by decapitation. Prefrontal brain area was removed for histological and biochemical analyses. As a result, malondialdehyde (MDA), as an indicator of lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyl (PC), as an indicator of protein oxidation, nitric oxide (NO) levels and superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities as antioxidant enzymes, and xanthine oxidase (XO) and adenosine deaminase (AD) activities as an indicator of DNA oxidation was found to be increased significantly in prefrontal cortex (PFC) of MK-801 group (P<0.0001) compared to control group. In omega-3 FA treated rats, prefrontal tissue MDA, PC and NO levels as well as SOD, GSH-Px, XO, and AD enzyme activities were significantly decreased when compared to MK-801 groups (P<0.0001) whereas catalase (CAT) enzyme activity was not changed. Moreover, in the light of microscopic examination of MK-801 groups, a great number of apoptotic cells were observed. omega-3 FA supplementation decreased the apoptotic cell count in PFC. The results of this study revealed that oxidative stress and apoptotic changes in PFC may play an important role in the pathogenesis of MK-801-induced neuronal toxicity. This experimental study also provides some evidences for the protective effects of omega-3 FA on MK-801-induced changes in PFC of rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birsen Ozyurt
- Department of Anatomy, Gaziosmanpasa University, Faculty of Medicine, Dekanlik Binasi, Tokat, Turkey.
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25
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McKerchar TL, Zarcone TJ, Fowler SC. Use of a force-plate actometer for detecting and quantifying vertical leaping induced by amphetamine in BALB/cJ mice, but not in C57BL/6J, DBA/2J, 129X1/SvJ, C3H/HeJ, and CD-1 mice. J Neurosci Methods 2005; 153:48-54. [PMID: 16290200 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2005.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2005] [Revised: 10/03/2005] [Accepted: 10/05/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The force-plate actometer is a relatively new computer-based instrument with high temporal and spatial resolution that has been used to measure the behavioral effects of genetic restriction (e.g., inbred mice) and drugs (e.g., dopaminergic agonists and antagonists) on a variety of behaviors in rodents, including locomotor activity, stereotypies, tremor, and wall rearing. In the present study, the force-plate actometer was used to measure the differential effects of amphetamine-induced (10.0mg/kg) vertical leaping in five inbred mouse strains (BALB/cJ, C57BL/6J, DBA/2J, 129X1/SvJ, and C3H/HeJ) and one outbred stock (CD-1). Across a 13-day, five-injection procedure, mice of the BALB/cJ strain leaped an average of 82 times per 60-min session; the C57BL/6J, DBA/2J, 129X1/SvJ, C3H/HeJ strains and CD-1 stock always showed zero or near zero levels of vertical leaping following amphetamine treatment. The quantitative precision afforded by the force-plate actometer revealed that the mean duration of the leaps by the BALB/cJ strain was 0.18 second, and the corresponding peak force averaged 87.4 gram per leap, which was more than 400% of the average body weight of this strain. Although no evidence of behavioral sensitization was indicated for amphetamine's effects on vertical leaping, sensitization to amphetamine's effects on spatial confinement (i.e., bouts of low mobility) was observed in all mouse types. Results indicate that the force-plate actometer is an instrument well suited for detecting and quantifying both vertical leaping and collateral behaviors induced by amphetamine in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd L McKerchar
- Department of Applied Behavioral Science, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045-2505, USA
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