Optimal glucocorticoid replacement in adrenal insufficiency

Central adrenal insufficiency: who, when, and how? From the evidence to the controversies - an exploratory review

Central adrenal insufficiency (CAI) is a life-threatening disorder. This occurs when ACTH production is insufficient, leading to low cortisol levels. Since corticosteroids are crucial to many metabolic responses under organic stress and inflammatory conditions, CAI recognition and prompt treatment are vital. However, the diagnosis of CAI is challenging. This is not only because its clinical presentation is usually oligosymptomatic, but also because the CAI laboratory investigation presents many pitfalls. Thus, the clarification of when to use each test could be helpful in many contexts. The CAI challenge is also involved in treatment: Several formulations of synthetic steroids exist, followed by the lack of a biomarker for glucocorticoid replacement. This review aims to access all available literature to synthesize important topics about who should investigate CAI, when it should be suspected, and how CAI must be treated.

Longitudinal Monitoring of Hair Cortisol Using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry to Prevent Hypercortisolism in Patients Undergoing Glucocorticoid Replacement Therapy

OBJECTIVE

Currently available methods for endogenous cortisol monitoring in patients with hormonal insufficiency rely on measurements of plasma levels only at a single time point; thus, any kind of chronic exposure to cortisol is challenging to evaluate because it requires collecting samples at different time points. Hair cortisol levels acquired longitudinally better reflected chronic exposure (both cortisol synthesis and deposition) and may significantly contribute to better outcomes in glucocorticoid replacement therapies.

DESIGN

Twenty-two patients on cortisol substitution therapy were monitored for plasma, urinary, and hair cortisol levels for 18 months to determine whether hair cortisol may serve as a monitoring option for therapy setting and adjustment.

METHODS

Plasma and urinary cortisol levels were measured using standardized immunoassay methods, and segmented (∼1 cm) hair cortisol levels were monitored by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. A log-normal model of the changes over time was proposed, and Bayesian statistics were used to compare plasma, urinary, and hair cortisol levels over 18 months.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Hair cortisol levels decreased over time in patients undergoing substitutional therapy. The residual variance of hair cortisol in comparison to plasma or urinary cortisol levels was much lower. Thus, longitudinal monitoring of hair cortisol levels could prove beneficial as a noninvasive tool to reduce the risk of overdosing and improve the overall patient health.

Endocrine Disorder in Patients With Craniopharyngioma

Craniopharyngioma is an intracranial congenital epithelial tumor growing along the pathway of the embryonic craniopharyngeal tube. The main clinical symptoms of patients with craniopharyngioma include high intracranial pressure, visual field defect, endocrine dysfunction, and hypothalamic dysfunction. At present, the preferred treatment remains the surgical treatment, but the recovery of endocrine and hypothalamic function following surgery is limited. In addition, endocrine disorders often emerge following surgery, which seriously reduces the quality of life of patients after operation. So far, research on craniopharyngioma focuses on ways to ameliorate endocrine dysfunction. This article reviews the latest research progress on pathogenesis, manifestation, significance, and treatment of endocrine disorders in patients with craniopharyngioma.

New era of therapy for endocrine autoimmune disorders

The new era of immune and reconstitution therapy of autoimmune disorders is ongoing. However, endocrine autoimmune diseases comprise a group of elaborating pathologies where the development of new treatment strategies remains slow. Substitution of the missing hormones is still standard practice, taking care of the devastating symptoms but not the cause of disease. As our knowledge of the genetic contribution to the aetiology of endocrine disorders increases and early diagnostic tools are available, it is now possible to identify persons at risk before they acquire full-blown disease. This review summarizes current knowledge and treatment of endocrine autoimmune disorders, focusing on type 1 diabetes, Addison's disease, autoimmune thyroid diseases and primary ovarian insufficiency. We explore which new therapies might be used in the different stages of the disease, focus on legalized therapy and elaborate on the ongoing clinical studies for these diseases and the research front, before hypothesizing on the way ahead.

Towards the tailoring of glucocorticoid replacement in adrenal insufficiency: the Italian Society of Endocrinology Expert Opinion

CONTEXT

Glucocorticoid (GC) replacement therapy in patients with adrenal insufficiency (AI) is life saving. After over 50 years of conventional GC treatment, novel formulations are now entering routine clinical practice.

METHODS

Given the spectrum of medications currently available and new insights into the understanding of AI, the authors reviewed relevant medical literature with emphasis on original studies, prospective observational data and randomized controlled trials performed in the past 35 years. The Expert Opinion of a panel of selected endocrinologists was sought to answer specific clinical questions. The objective was to provide an evidence-supported guide, for the use of GC in various settings from university hospitals to outpatient clinics, that offers specific advice tailored to the individual patient.

RESULTS

The Panel reviewed available GC replacement therapies, comprising short-acting, intermediate and long-acting oral formulations, subcutaneous formulations and the novel modified-release hydrocortisone. Advantages and disadvantages of these formulations were reviewed.

CONCLUSIONS

In the Panel's opinion, achieving the optimal GC timing and dosing is needed to improve the outcome of AI. No-single formulation offers the best option for every patients. Recent data suggest that more emphasis should be given to the timing of intake. Tailoring of GS should be attempted in all patients-by experts-on a case-by-case basis. The Panel identified specific subgroups of AI patients that could be help by this process. Long-term studies are needed to confirm the short-term benefits associated with the modified-release GCs. The impact of GC tailoring has yet to be proven in terms of hospitalization rate, morbidity and mortality.

GDF15 Is Elevated in Conditions of Glucocorticoid Deficiency and Is Modulated by Glucocorticoid Replacement

CONTEXT

GDF15 is a stress-induced hormone acting in the hindbrain that activates neural circuitry involved in establishing aversive responses and reducing food intake and body weight in animal models. Anorexia, weight loss, nausea and vomiting are common manifestations of glucocorticoid deficiency, and we hypothesized that glucocorticoid deficiency may be associated with elevated levels of GDF15.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the impact of primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) and glucocorticoid replacement on circulating GDF15 levels.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We measured circulating concentrations of GDF15 in a cohort of healthy volunteers and Addison's disease patients following steroid withdrawal. Significantly higher GDF15 (mean ± standard deviation [SD]) was observed in the Addison's cohort, 739.1 ± 225.8 pg/mL compared to healthy controls, 497.9 ± 167.7 pg/mL (P = 0.01). The effect of hydrocortisone replacement on GDF15 was assessed in 3 independent PAI cohorts with classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia or Addison's disease; intravenous hydrocortisone replacement reduced GDF15 in all groups. We examined the response of GDF15 to increasing doses of glucocorticoid replacement in healthy volunteers with pharmacologically mediated cortisol deficiency. A dose-dependent difference in GDF15 (mean ± SD) was observed between the groups with values of 491.0 ± 157.7 pg/mL, 427.0 ± 152.1 pg/mL and 360 ± 143.1 pg/mL, in the low, medium and high glucocorticoid replacement groups, respectively, P < .0001.

CONCLUSIONS

GDF15 is increased in states of glucocorticoid deficiency and restored by glucocorticoid replacement. Given the site of action of GDF15 in the hindbrain and its effects on appetite, further study is required to determine the effect of GDF15 in mediating the anorexia and nausea that is a common feature of glucocorticoid deficiency.

Stress-Dosed Glucocorticoids and Mineralocorticoids Before Intensive Endurance Exercise in Primary Adrenal Insufficiency

Patients with primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) require increased doses of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids during stressors, such as surgery, trauma, and sepsis. Although current guidelines exist for dose adjustments in these situations, there is no accepted dosing regimen for patients with PAI participating in intensive endurance exercise. Given the extensive physiologic stress of events, such as marathons, triathlons, and similar events, it is likely that a "stress-dose" of adrenal replacement therapy will not only prevent adrenal crisis, but also improve performance. A 50-year-old male endurance athlete with known PAI reported severe fatigue, nausea, and malaise after competing in prior marathons and intensive endurance exercise. After supplementing with glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids before competition, he experienced decreased symptoms and improved performance. To better care for these patients, further studies should be conducted to provide safe and effective glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid dose adjustments before intensive endurance exercise.

Insuffisance surrénalienne secondaire : actualités diagnostiques et thérapeutiques

Immunotherapy and opioids treatment are new causes of secondary adrenal insufficiency (SAI). Prevalence of SAI with immunotherapy is more frequent with combined therapy (8% vs 4 to 10% with CTLA4 blocking antibody and 1% with PD1 blocking antibody). Although hypophysitis are more frequently observed with CTLA4 blocking antibody, some cases of Isolated SAI have been reported in patients treated by PD1 blocking antibody. SAI could be transient, requiring long-term monitoring. The use of opioid analgesics is increasing in many countries, thus becoming a public health problem. Prevalence of opioid-related SAI is unclear but recent prospective studies reveal a prevalence between 5 and 20%. The main risk factor to develop this pathology is morphine-equivalent daily dose. Diagnosis relies on 8.00 am plasma cortisol measurement and cortisol increase after Synacthen^® administration. Recent cortisol immuno-assays, in agreement with mass spectrometry, give lower reference values, encouraging reevaluation of the current cut-off of 500 nmol/L. New modified-release hydrocortisone preparations have been recently developed to better mimic the physiological cortisol rhythm and to improve compliance in adrenocortical deficient patients. Nowadays, continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion seems to be a unique replacement therapy allowing adequate circadian biorhythm but should be restricted to specific patients due to the complexity of this substituting strategy. © 2019 Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved. Cet article fait partie du numéro supplément Les Must de l'Endocrinologie 2019 réalisé avec le soutien institutionnel de Ipsen-Pharma.

A new compound heterozygous mutation in a female with 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase deficiency, slipped capital femoral epiphysis, and adrenal myelolipoma

17α-Hydroxylase/17,20-lyase deficiency (17-OHD) is a rare disease caused by mutations of the CYP17A1 gene. Slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE) rarely occurs in adults. There are occasional reports of adrenal myelolipoma (AML) in 17-OHD. A 27-year-old Chinese female (46, XX) visited the hospital for SCFE and presented with continuous hypokalemia, absent spontaneous puberty, and hypertension. Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism was detected. The laboratory tests were consistent with 17-OHD. AML was considered based on the imaging examinations. A mutation analysis of the CYP17A1 gene identified the following compound heterozygous mutation: a frame-shift mutation, i.e. c.985_987delTACinsAA (p.Tyr329fs), that had been reported to be a common mutation in the Chinese population was found in exon 6. Another new nonsense mutation, i.e. c.1270C > T (p.Gln424*), that causes a premature termination codon was found in exon 8. Treatment with prednisone had poor efficacy. The administration of 0.75 mg dexamethasone and estradiol/dydrogesterone cyclic treatment significantly improved the patient's symptoms. For the first time, we report a 17-OHD case accompanied by SCFE, AML, and a novel mutation site in the CYP17A1 gene. We provide insight into the clinical manifestations, genetic analysis, and treatment options of 17-OHD.

Novel insights into glucocorticoid replacement therapy for pediatric and adult adrenal insufficiency

Adrenal insufficiency is defined as impaired adrenocortical hormone synthesis. According to its source, the deficit is classified as primary (adrenal steroidogenesis impairment), secondary (pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone deficit) or tertiary (hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone deficit). The management of adrenal insufficiency resides primarily in physiological replacement of glucocorticoid secretion. Standard glucocorticoid therapy is shrouded in several controversies. Along the difficulties arising from the inability to accurately replicate the pulsatile circadian cortisol rhythm, come the uncertainties of dose adjustment and treatment monitoring (absence of reliable biomarkers). Furthermore, side effects of inadequate replacement significantly hinder the quality of life of patients. Therefore, transition to circadian hydrocortisone therapy gains prominence. Recent therapeutic advancements consist of oral hydrocortisone modified-release compounds (immediate, delayed and sustained absorption formulations) or continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion. In addition to illustrating the current knowledge on conventional glucocorticoid regimens, this review outlines the latest research outcomes. We also describe the management of pediatric patients and suggest a novel strategy for glucocorticoid replacement therapy in adults.

[Cardiovascular and metabolic impact of glucocorticoid substitution therapy in patients with Addison's disease]

Les études récentes menées chez des patients atteints de maladie d'Addison (MA) ont permis de révéler que cette pathologie, même traitée, reste grevée d'une morbi-mortalité non négligeable. L'objectif de notre étude était de déterminer les effets délétères de la substitution glucocorticoïde au long cours principalement sur le plan métabolique et cardiovasculaire. Il s'agit d'une étude rétrospective qui a inclu 28 patients ayant une MA traitée, évoluant depuis plus que 15 ans. L'âge moyen était de 58,53 ans avec une prédominance féminine à 65%. La durée moyenne de suivi était de 17,87 ans. La dose d'hydrocortisone était initialement à 32,5mg/j (20,52 mg/m²) et à 27,9mg/j (16,41mg/m²) au moment de l'étude. La prévalence du syndrome métabolique (SM) au cours de la MA était de 35,71% après une durée de traitement supérieur à 15 ans. On note au terme du suivi que 28,57% des patients étaient obèses. Vingt-cinq (25)% des patients avaient développé une HTA et un diabète de type 2. La prévalence de la dyslipidémie était passé de 3,57% à 42,85%. Un seul patient avait présenté un infarctus de myocarde à 25 ans de suivi. Les facteurs favorisant la survenue du SM dans notre étude étaient l'ancienneté de la maladie et la perte du poids à la découverte de la maladie. L'ajustement du traitement substitutif au cours de la maladie d'Addison reste un enjeu au vu de la morbi-mortalité liée au surdosage. Un suivi régulier, et une approche thérapeutique personnalisée sont nécessaires pour améliorer le pronostic de ses patients.

[CME: Adrenal Insufficiency]

CME: Adrenal Insufficiency Abstract. Patients suffering from adrenal insufficiency (AI) often present with unspecific symptoms. Therefore, the diagnosis of AI, a potential life-threatening condition, can be missed. Lab tests, especially the ACTH-stimulation test, play a crucial role in the diagnosis of AI. According to the different etiologies, AI can be grouped into a primary (adrenal) or central (hypothalamic or pituitary, respectively) form. However, the most common cause is the treatment with glucocorticoids, which can lead to central AI. Patients suffering from AI are given hydrocortisone. The chronic replacement dose should be as low as possible, in acute situations, a rapid and sufficient increase of the hydrocortisone dose is necessary to prevent adrenal crisis. Replacement therapy with fludrocortisone is only necessary in patients with primary AI.

Extent of surgery for phaeochromocytomas in the genomic era

Background

Germline mutations are present in 20–30 per cent of patients with phaeochromocytoma. For patients who develop bilateral disease, complete removal of both adrenal glands (total adrenalectomy) will result in lifelong adrenal insufficiency with an increased risk of death from adrenal crisis. Unilateral/bilateral adrenal-sparing surgery (subtotal adrenalectomy) offers preservation of cortical function and independence from steroids, but leaves the adrenal medulla in situ and thus at risk of developing new and possibly malignant disease. Here, present knowledge about how tumour genotype relates to clinical behaviour is reviewed, and application of this knowledge when choosing the extent of adrenalectomy is discussed.

Methods

A literature review was undertaken of the penetrance of the different genotypes in phaeochromocytomas, the frequency of bilateral disease and malignancy, and the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, with emphasis on explaining the clinical phenotypes of phaeochromocytomas and their associated syndromes.

Results

Patients with bilateral phaeochromocytomas most often have multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN2) or von Hippel–Lindau disease (VHL) with high-penetrance mutations for benign disease, whereas patients with mutations in the genes encoding SDHB (succinate dehydrogenase subunit B) or MAX (myelocytomatosis viral proto-oncogene homologue-associated factor X) are at increased risk of malignancy.

Conclusion

Adrenal-sparing surgery should be the standard approach for patients who have already been diagnosed with MEN2 or VHL when operating on the first side, whereas complete removal of the affected adrenal gland(s) is generally recommended for patients with SDHB or MAX germline mutations. Routine assessment of a patient's genotype, even after the first operation, can be crucial for adopting an appropriate strategy for follow-up and future surgery.

Pharmacokinetics of oral hydrocortisone - Results and implications from a randomized controlled trial

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE

This study aimed at comparing pharmacokinetics of two different doses of hydrocortisone (HC) in patients with secondary adrenal insufficiency (SAI).

DESIGN, SETTING AND PATIENTS

Forty-six patients with SAI participated in this randomized double-blind crossover study.

INTERVENTION

Patients received two different doses of HC (0.2-0.3mg HC/kg body weight/day and 0.4-0.6mg HC/kg body weight/day).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

One- and two-compartment population models for plasma free cortisol, plasma total cortisol and salivary cortisol were parameterized. The individual pharmacokinetic parameters clearance (CL), volume of distribution (V_d), elimination half-life (t_1/2), maximum concentration (C_max), and area under the curve (AUC) were calculated.

RESULTS

The one-compartment models gave a better description of the data compared to the two-compartment models. Weight-adjusted dosing reduced variability in cortisol exposure with comparable AUCs between weight groups. However, there was large inter-individual variation in CL and V_d of plasma free cortisol, plasma total cortisol and salivary cortisol. As a consequence, AUC_24h varied more than 10 fold. Cortisol exposure was increased with the higher dose, but this was dose proportional only for free cortisol concentrations and not for total cortisol.

CONCLUSIONS

Cortisol concentrations after a doubling of the dose were only dose proportional for free cortisol. HC pharmacokinetics can differ up to 10-fold inter-individually and individual adjustment of treatment doses may be necessary. Doubling of the HC dose in fast metabolizers (patients that showed relative low AUC and thus high clearance compared to other patients), does not result in significantly enhanced exposure during large parts of the day and these patients may need other management strategies.

Management of glucocorticoid replacement in adrenal insufficiency shows notable heterogeneity - data from the EU-AIR

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE

Treatment for adrenal insufficiency (AI) remains suboptimal. Despite glucocorticoid replacement, patients with AI have reduced life expectancy and quality of life. This study aimed to describe the spectrum of management of glucocorticoid replacement in patients with AI enrolled in the European Adrenal Insufficiency Registry (EU-AIR).

DESIGN, SETTING AND PATIENTS

EU-AIR is a prospective, multinational, multicentre, observational study initiated in August 2012 to monitor the long-term safety of glucocorticoid replacement in routine clinical practice in Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and the UK (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01661387). This analysis included 1166 patients with primary and secondary AI (mean disease duration 16·1 ± 11·6 years) receiving long-term glucocorticoid replacement therapy.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Glucocorticoid type, dose, frequency and treatment regimen were examined.

RESULTS

Most patients (87·4%) were receiving hydrocortisone. The most common dose range, taken by 42·2% of patients, was 20 to <25 mg/day; however, 12·6% were receiving doses of ≥30 mg/day. Hydrocortisone was being taken once daily by 5·5%, twice daily by 48·7%, three times daily by 43·6% and four times daily by 2·1%. Patients with primary AI received higher replacement doses than those with secondary AI (23·4 ± 8·9 and 19·6 ± 5·9 mg/day, respectively). Twenty-five different regimens were being used to deliver a daily hydrocortisone dose of 20 mg.

CONCLUSIONS

We have shown significant heterogeneity in the type, dose, frequency and timing of glucocorticoid replacement in real-world clinical practice. This reflects dose individualization based on patient symptoms and lifestyle in the absence of data supporting the optimal regimen.

[Addison's disease : Primary adrenal insufficiency]

Adrenal insufficiency, a rare disorder which is characterized by the inadequate production or absence of adrenal hormones, may be classified as primary adrenal insufficiency in case of direct affection of the adrenal glands or secondary adrenal insufficiency, which is mostly due to pituitary or hypothalamic disease. Primary adrenal insufficiency affects 11 of 100,000 individuals. Clinical symptoms are mainly nonspecific and include fatigue, weight loss, and hypotension. The diagnostic test of choice is dynamic testing with synthetic ACTH. Patients suffering from chronic adrenal insufficiency require lifelong hormone supplementation. Education in dose adaption during physical and mental stress or emergency situations is essential to prevent life-threatening adrenal crises. Patients with adrenal insufficiency should carry an emergency card and emergency kit with them.