Suvorexant in Patients With Insomnia: Results From Two 3-Month Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials

Prevalence and associations of multiple hypnotic prescriptions in a clinical sample

STUDY OBJECTIVES

We examined the prevalence of multiple hypnotic prescriptions and its association with clinical and demographic characteristics from the electronic health record (EHR) in the Mayo Clinic Biobank.

METHODS

Adult participants enrolled in the Mayo Clinic Biobank with an EHR number of ≥ 1 year were included (n = 52,940). Clinical and demographic characteristics were compared between participants who were and were not prescribed any hypnotic approved for insomnia by the US Food and Drug Administration and/or trazodone and in those prescribed a single vs multiple (≥ 2) hypnotics. A phenotype-based, phenome-wide association study (PheWAS) examining associations between hypnotic prescriptions and diagnoses across the EHR was performed adjusting for demographic and other confounders.

RESULTS

A total of 17,662 (33%) participants were prescribed at least 1 hypnotic and 5,331 (10%) received ≥ 2 hypnotics. Participants who were prescribed a hypnotic were more likely to be older, female, White, with a longer EHR, and a greater number of diagnostic codes (all P < .001). Those with multiple hypnotic prescriptions were more likely to be younger, female, with a longer EHR, and a greater number of diagnostic codes (all P < .001) compared with those prescribed a single hypnotic. The PheWAS revealed that participants with multiple hypnotic prescriptions had higher rates of mood disorders, anxiety disorders, suicidal ideation, restless legs syndrome, and chronic pain (all P < 1 e-10).

CONCLUSIONS

Receiving multiple hypnotic prescriptions is common and associated with a greater prevalence of psychiatric, chronic pain, and sleep-related movement disorders. Future studies should examine potential genetic associations with multiple hypnotic prescriptions to personalize treatments for chronic insomnia.

CITATION

Kolla BP, Mansukhani MP, Chakravorty S, Frank JA, Coombes BJ. Prevalence and associations of multiple hypnotic prescriptions in a clinical sample. J Clin Sleep Med. 2024;20(5):793-800.

Emerging and upcoming therapies in insomnia

Insomnia, commonly treated with benzodiazepine (BZD) receptor agonists, presents challenges due to associated serious side effects such as abuse and dependence. To address these concerns, many researches have been conducted to develop and advance both pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions. Dual orexin receptor antagonists (DORAs), which include suvorexant, daridorexant and lemborexant, have recently been approved by United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) as a novel pharmacotherapeutic alternative. Unlike BZD receptor agonists that act as positive allosteric modulators of the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A subunit alpha 1 receptor, DORAs function by binding to both orexin receptor types 1 and 2, and inhibiting the action of the wake-promoting orexin neuropeptide. These drugs induce normal sleep without sleep stage change, do not impair attention and memory performance, and facilitate easier awakening. However, more real-world safety information is needed. Selective orexin-2 receptor antagonists (2-SORAs) is under clinical developments. This review provides an overview of the mechanism of action in relation to insomnia, pharmacokinetics, efficacy and safety information of DORAs and SORA. According to insomnia management guidelines, the first-line treatment for chronic insomnia is cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I). Although it has proven effective in improving sleep-related quality of life, it has several restrictions limitations due to a face-to-face format. Recently, prescription digital therapy such as Somryst® was approved by US FDA. Somryst®, a smartphone app-based CBT-I, demonstrated meaningful responses in patients. However, digital limitations may impact scalability. Overall, these developments offer promising alternatives for insomnia treatment, emphasizing safety, efficacy, and accessibility.

Clinical safety and narcolepsy-like symptoms of dual orexin receptor antagonists in patients with insomnia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

STUDY OBJECTIVES

Dual orexin receptor antagonists (DORAs) are emerging treatments for insomnia. This meta-analysis study aimed to assess the safety of FDA-approved DORAs (suvorexant, lemborexant, and daridorexant), focusing on narcolepsy-like symptoms associated with these drugs.

METHODS

Five prominent databases were searched to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on this topic. Primary safety outcomes included treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs), treatment-related TEAEs, TEAEs leading to discontinuation, and serious TEAEs. Excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), sleep paralysis, and hallucinations were categorized as adverse events (AEs)-related narcolepsy-like symptoms.

RESULTS

Eleven RCTs with 7703 patients were included. DORAs were associated with a higher risk of TEAEs (risk ratio [RR], 1.09; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.03 to 1.15) and treatment-related TEAEs (RR, 1.69; 95% CI: 1.49 to 1.92) when compared to placebo. The DORA group exhibited a significantly higher risk of EDS (RR, 2.15; 95% CI: 1.02 to 4.52) and sleep paralysis (RR, 3.40; 95% CI: 1.18 to 9.80) compared to the placebo group.

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis achieved a comparative evaluation of the clinical safety and tolerability of FDA-approved DORAs for primary insomnia, specifically focusing on AEs-related narcolepsy-like symptoms. This study contributes to understanding the safety profile of FDA-approved DORAs for treating insomnia.

Orexin Receptor Antagonism: Normalizing Sleep Architecture in Old Age and Disease

Sleep is essential for human well-being, yet the quality and quantity of sleep reduce as age advances. Older persons (>65 years old) are more at risk of disorders accompanied and/or exacerbated by poor sleep. Furthermore, evidence supports a bidirectional relationship between disrupted sleep and Alzheimer's disease (AD) or related dementias. Orexin/hypocretin neuropeptides stabilize wakefulness, and several orexin receptor antagonists (ORAs) are approved for the treatment of insomnia in adults. Dysregulation of the orexin system occurs in aging and AD, positioning ORAs as advantageous for these populations. Indeed, several clinical studies indicate that ORAs are efficacious hypnotics in older persons and dementia patients and, as in adults, are generally well tolerated. ORAs are likely to be more effective when administered early in sleep/wake dysregulation to reestablish good sleep/wake-related behaviors and reduce the accumulation of dementia-associated proteinopathic substrates. Improving sleep in aging and dementia represents a tremendous opportunity to benefit patients, caregivers, and health systems.

The potential role of the orexin system in premenstrual syndrome

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) occurs recurrently during the luteal phase of a woman's menstrual cycle and disappears after menstruation ends. It is characterized by abnormal changes in both the body and mood, and in certain cases, severe disruptions in daily life and even suicidal tendencies. Current drugs for treating PMS, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, do not yield satisfactory results. Orexin, a neuropeptide produced in the lateral hypothalamus, is garnering attention in the treatment of neurological disorders and is believed to modulate the symptoms of PMS. This paper reviews the advancements in research on sleep disturbances, mood changes, and cognitive impairment caused by PMS, and suggests potential pathways for orexin to address these symptoms. Furthermore, it delves into the role of orexin in the molecular mechanisms underlying PMS. Orexin regulates steroid hormones, and the cyclic fluctuations of estrogen and progesterone play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of PMS. Additionally, orexin also modulates the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system and the inflammatory response involved in coordinating the mechanism of PMS. Unraveling the role of orexin in the pathogenesis of PMS will not only aid in understanding the etiology of PMS but also hold implications for orexin as a novel target for treating PMS.

Lack of Efficacy of Suvorexant in People with Insomnia and Poorly Controlled Type 2 Diabetes

Objective/Background

Sleep disturbance is a common and underappreciated feature of diabetes and sleep may contribute to glycemic control in people with type 2 diabetes (T2D). We conducted a 3-month trial to examine the efficacy of suvorexant in improving sleep and health outcomes in people with suboptimally controlled T2D and insomnia.

Participants/Methods

This parallel, double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial was conducted using the sequential parallel comparison design (SPCD). Sixty-nine people with poorly controlled T2D (HbA1c ≥ 6.5) were randomized to placebo and/or suvorexant (10-20 mg). The primary outcome was subjective total sleep time (sTST), and secondary outcomes were Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) score and wake time after sleep onset (WASO). Exploratory outcomes included sleep efficiency, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), and C-reactive protein (CRP). Exploratory analyses were conducted on relationships between sleep and diabetes outcomes.

Results

There were no significant improvements in sTST (p = 0.27), ISI (p = 0.86), or WASO (p = 0.94) among participants taking suvorexant compared to placebo. There were also no significant changes in any of the exploratory endpoints. Improvements in sleep were associated with improvements in both objective (ie, HbA1c) and subjective (ie, Diabetes Distress Scale) measures of diabetes, as well as reductions in depressive symptoms, independent of treatment assignment.

Conclusion

The study did not find evidence that suvorexant is efficacious for insomnia in people with poorly controlled T2D. The associations of improved sleep with improvements in both diabetes-related metrics and depressive symptoms across groups highlight the importance of identifying and treating sleeping difficulties in this population.

CT Registration #

Nct03818581.

Effects of new hypnotic drugs on cognition: A systematic review and network meta-analysis

Background

Insomnia is a common disease, and the application of various types of sleeping pills for cognitive impairment is controversial, especially as different doses can lead to different effects. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the cognitive impairment caused by different sleeping pills to provide a theoretical basis for guiding clinicians in the selection of medication regimens.

Objective

To evaluate whether various different doses (low, medium and high) of anti-insomnia drugs, such as the dual-orexin receptor antagonist (DORA), zopiclone, eszopiclone and zolpidem, induce cognitive impairment.

Methods

The PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar databases were searched from inception to September 20th, 2022 for keywords in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to evaluate the therapeutic effects of DORA, eszopiclone, zopiclone and zolpidem on sleep and cognitive function. The primary outcomes were indicators related to cognitive characteristics, including scores on the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST) and daytime alertness. The secondary outcomes were the indicators associated with sleep and adverse events. Continuous variables were expressed as the standard mean difference (SMD). Data were obtained through GetData 2.26 and analyzed by Stata v.15.0.

Results

A total of 8702 subjects were included in 29 studies. Eszopiclonehigh significantly increased the daytime alertness score (SMD = 3.00, 95 % CI: 1.86 to 4.13) compared with the placebo, and eszopiclonehigh significantly increased the daytime alertness score (SMD = 4.21, 95 % CI: 1.65 to 6.77; SMD = 3.95, 95 % CI: 1.38 to 6.51; SMD = 3.26, 95 % CI: 0.38 to 6.15; and SMD = 3.23, 95 % CI: 0.34 to 6.11) compared with zolpidemlow, zolpidemhigh, DORAlow, and eszopiclonemid, respectively. Compared with the placebo, zopiclone, zolpidemmid, and eszopiclonehigh, DORA significantly increased the TST (SMD = 2.39, 95 % CI: 1.11 to 3.67; SMD = 6.00, 95 % CI: 2.73 to 9.27; SMD = 1.89, 95 % CI: 0.90 to 2.88; and SMD = 1.70, 95 % CI: 0.42 to 2.99, respectively).

Conclusion

We recommend DORA as the best intervention for insomnia because it was highly effective in inducing and maintaining sleep without impairing cognition. Although zolpidem had a more pronounced effect on sleep maintenance, this drug is better for short-term use. Eszopiclone and zopiclone improved sleep, but their cognitive effects have yet to be verified.

Insomnia medications: History, characteristics, and guidelines for optimal use in clinical practice

This article reviews the history of insomnia pharmacotherapy, documenting the evolution that has occurred over time in the increasing availability of medications with novel mechanisms of action that more specifically target the neural systems that modulate sleep/wake function. This evolution provides an increasing capacity to improve the effectiveness of insomnia pharmacotherapy by allowing the selection of medications that specifically target the particular type of sleep difficulty present in each patient. As a result, they can achieve a therapeutic effect with fewer effects on aspects of brain function other than those needed to achieve benefit, thereby minimising adverse effects. The accumulated evidence-base is such that it can serve as the basis for a personalised insomnia pharmacotherapy paradigm. Here we outline a set of best-practice recommendations for how to carry out optimised personalised insomnia pharmacotherapy based on that evidence base in the hope that it will improve the treatment delivered to the many individuals suffering from insomnia.

Comparative short-term safety and efficacy of hypnotics: A quantitative risk-benefit analysis

Several professional societies have provided recommendations for prescribing medications for insomnia. None has provided an integrative analysis that concurrently quantifies safety and efficacy (e.g., risk-benefit ratios). This represents an important gap for informing clinician decision-making. Accordingly, the aim of the present review is to provide such an analysis for five classes of sleep-promoting medications. Adverse event data values were extracted from the most recent FDA-approved package inserts and converted to an integer before being placebo-adjusted and standardized as a rate per 1000 (AEr). Efficacy data, pre-to-post self-reported data for active and placebo conditions were acquired from pivotal trials identified in "white papers" and systematic reviews/meta-analyses. Weighted effect sizes were calculated for subjective sleep latency, wake time after sleep onset and total sleep time, and then were averaged by medication class for each sleep continuity variable. Overall efficacy was represented by a single variable, SWT (sleep latency + wake time after sleep onset + total sleep time). Risk-benefit was represented using a simple ratio value. For safety, it was found that melatonin receptor agonists had the lowest adverse event rate (AEr = 43.1), and non-benzodiazepine benzodiazepine receptor agonists had the highest rate (AEr = 255.0). For efficacy, it was found that the pre-to-post placebo adjusted effect sizes were largest for benzodiazepines (effect size = 1.94) and smallest for melatonin receptor agonists (effect size = 0.109). For risk-benefit, histamine antagonist had the most favourable profile (risk-benefit = 69.5), while melatonin receptor agonist had the least favourable profile (risk-benefit = 395.7). Overall, the combined metric for risk-benefit suggests that treatment with a histamine antagonist is optimal and potentially represents the best first-line therapy for the medical management of insomnia.

Identification of the simultaneous use of multiple hypnotics as a risk factor for falls in hospitalized patients by a matched case-control study

AIM

The risk of falls owing to simultaneous use of multiple hypnotics has not been clarified. The aim of this study was to assess the association between the simultaneous use of 2 hypnotics and the occurrence of falls in hospitalized patients.

METHODS

A matched case-control study was conducted at Tokyo Medical University Hospital in Tokyo, Japan, utilizing data from medical records. Cases were 434 hospitalized patients who experienced falls during their hospital stay between January 2016 and December 2016, and controls were 434 hospitalized patients without falls, individually matched by age, sex, and clinical department. The outcome was the occurrence of an in-hospital fall. The associations between the use of 1 hypnotic and falls, and between the use of 2 hypnotics and falls were assessed by conditional logistic regression analyses. The main multivariable conditional logistic regression model was adjusted for potential risk factors, including the use of other classes of psychotropics (antipsychotics, antidepressants, and anxiolytics), in addition to patient characteristics.

RESULTS

The main multivariable conditional logistic regression analyses showed that the simultaneous use of 2 hypnotics (odds ratio [OR] = 2.986; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.041-8.567), but not the use of a single hypnotic (OR = 1.252; 95% CI, 0.843-1.859), was significantly associated with an increased OR of falls.

CONCLUSION

The simultaneous use of 2 hypnotics is a risk factor for falls among hospitalized patients, whereas the use of a single hypnotic may not.

Prevalence, Severity, and Predictors of Insomnia in Advanced Colorectal Cancer

CONTEXT

Insomnia is an under-recognized and undertreated symptom in palliative care and advanced cancer cohorts. Insomnia in an advanced colorectal cancer cohort is yet to be investigated despite colorectal cancer being the third commonest cancer worldwide and one with a high symptom burden.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the prevalence of insomnia and its associations in a large advanced colorectal cancer cohort.

METHODS

A consecutive cohort study of 18,302 patients with colorectal cancer seen by palliative care services across various settings (inpatient, outpatient, and ambulatory) was conducted from an Australia-wide database (2013-2019). The Symptom Assessment Score (SAS) was used to assess the severity of insomnia. Clinically significant insomnia was defined as SAS score ≥3/10, and used to compare associations with other symptoms and functional scores from validated questionnaires.

RESULTS

The prevalence of any insomnia was 50.5%, and clinically significant insomnia 35.6%, particularly affecting people who were younger (<45-years-old), more mobile (AKPS score ≥70), or physically capable (RUG-ADL score ≤5). Outpatients and patients living at home had higher prevalence of insomnia. Nausea, anorexia and psychological distress were the commonest concurrent symptoms in patients with clinically significant insomnia.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, this study was the first to investigate the prevalence and associations of insomnia in an advanced colorectal cancer cohort. Our findings demonstrate several groups at greater risk of suffering from insomnia (younger, greater physical capacity, living at home, and those with greater psychological distress). This may guide earlier recognition and management of insomnia to improve overall quality of life in this population.

Are clinical trials for insomnia recruiting real-world patients?

Recent Phase III trials of hypnotic medications that have led to Food and Drug Administration approval have severely restrictive eligibility criteria. One hundred patients referred for insomnia who received a hypnotic medication at a large tertiary referral center were identified. Data were extracted to evaluate whether these patients would be eligible to be included in any of the recent Phase III trials. Of the 100 patients identified, only 3 were eligible. Most were excluded because of a prior or concurrent trial of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia. If this criterion were set aside, only 12% would have been eligible to participate. The remaining top reasons for exclusion were medical comorbidities, daytime napping, and sleep apnea. These findings question the generalizability of the regulatory studies and suggest that future trials should enroll patients with less-restrictive criteria to help determine the effectiveness of these medications in real-world settings.

CITATION

Golebiowski R, Mansukhani MP, Kolla BP. Are clinical trials for insomnia recruiting real-world patients? J Clin Sleep Med. 2023;19(8):1553-1555.

Number, Duration, and Distribution of Wake Bouts in Patients with Insomnia Disorder: Effect of Daridorexant and Zolpidem

BACKGROUND

Daridorexant, a dual orexin receptor antagonist approved in early 2022, reduces wake after sleep onset without reducing the number of awakenings in patients with insomnia. The objective of this post hoc analysis was to explore the effect of daridorexant on the number, duration, and distribution of night-time wake bouts, and their correlation with daytime functioning.

METHODS

Adults with insomnia disorder were randomized 1:1:1:1:1:1 to placebo, zolpidem 10 mg, or daridorexant 5, 10, 25, or 50 mg in a phase II dose-finding study, and 1:1:1 to placebo or daridorexant 25 or 50 mg in a pivotal phase III study. We analyzed polysomnography data for daridorexant 25 and 50 mg, zolpidem 10 mg, and placebo groups. Polysomnography was conducted at baseline, then on Days 1/2, 15/16, and 28/29 in the phase II study, and Months 1 and 3 in the phase III study. The number, duration, and distribution of wake bouts (≥ 0.5 min) were assessed.

RESULTS

Data from 1111 patients (phase II study: daridorexant 50 mg [n = 61], zolpidem 10 mg [n = 60], placebo [n = 60]; phase III study: daridorexant 25 mg [n = 310], daridorexant 50 mg [n = 310], placebo [n = 310]) were analyzed. Long wake bouts were defined as > 6 min. Compared with placebo, daridorexant 50 mg reduced overall wake time (p < 0.05; all time points, both studies), the odds of experiencing long wake bouts (p < 0.001; Months 1 and 3, phase III study), and the cumulative duration of long wake bouts (p < 0.01; all time points, both studies). Reductions in long wake bouts were sustained through the second half of the night and correlated with improvements in daytime functioning. An increase in the cumulative duration of short wake bouts was observed with daridorexant 50 mg (p < 0.01 vs placebo, Months 1 and 3, phase III study); this was uncorrelated with daytime functioning.

CONCLUSION

Daridorexant reduced the number and duration of longer wake bouts throughout the night compared with placebo, corresponding with improved daytime functioning.

CLINICAL TRIALS

Clinicaltrials.gov NCT02839200 (registered July 20, 2016), NCT03545191 (registered June 4, 2018).

The 2023 nonhormone therapy position statement of The North American Menopause Society

OBJECTIVE

To update the evidence-based Nonhormonal Management of Menopause-Associated Vasomotor Symptoms: 2015 Position Statement of The North American Menopause Society.

METHODS

An advisory panel of clinicians and research experts in women's health were selected to review and evaluate the literature published since the Nonhormonal Management of Menopause-Associated Vasomotor Symptoms: 2015 Position Statement of The North American Menopause Society. Topics were divided into five sections for ease of review: lifestyle; mind-body techniques; prescription therapies; dietary supplements; and acupuncture, other treatments, and technologies. The panel assessed the most current and available literature to determine whether to recommend or not recommend use based on these levels of evidence: Level I, good and consistent scientific evidence; Level II, limited or inconsistent scientific evidence, and Level III, consensus and expert opinion.

RESULTS

Evidence-based review of the literature resulted in several nonhormone options for the treatment of vasomotor symptoms. Recommended: Cognitive-behavioral therapy, clinical hypnosis, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors/serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, gabapentin, fezolinetant (Level I); oxybutynin (Levels I-II); weight loss, stellate ganglion block (Levels II-III). Not recommended: Paced respiration (Level I); supplements/herbal remedies (Levels I-II); cooling techniques, avoiding triggers, exercise, yoga, mindfulness-based intervention, relaxation, suvorexant, soy foods and soy extracts, soy metabolite equol, cannabinoids, acupuncture, calibration of neural oscillations (Level II); chiropractic interventions, clonidine; (Levels I-III); dietary modification and pregabalin (Level III).

CONCLUSION

Hormone therapy remains the most effective treatment for vasomotor symptoms and should be considered in menopausal women within 10 years of their final menstrual periods. For women who are not good candidates for hormone therapy because of contraindications (eg, estrogen-dependent cancers or cardiovascular disease) or personal preference, it is important for healthcare professionals to be well informed about nonhormone treatment options for reducing vasomotor symptoms that are supported by the evidence.

Daridorexant, a Recently Approved Dual Orexin Receptor Antagonists (DORA) in Treatment of Insomnia

Insomnia is one of the major challenges in medical science nowadays as it leads to great socio-economic burden by impairing daytime function as well as the development of exhaustion, depression, and memory disturbance in affected individuals. Several important classes of drugs have been tried, including the BZDs and non-BZD hypnotics. Available drugs to combat this disease have the limitations of abuse potential, tolerance, and cognitive impairment. In some instances, withdrawal symptoms have been observed upon the abrupt cessation of those drugs. The Orexin system has been very recently targeted as a therapeutic option to overcome those limitations. Treatment of insomnia with Daridorexant as a Dual Orexin Receptor Antagonist (DORA) has been evaluated in several preclinical and clinical studies. Available information obtained from those studies has shown a promising future for this drug in the management of insomnia. Beyond its effectiveness in insomnia, it has been successfully used in patients suffering from obstructive sleep apnoea, chronic obstructed airway disease (COAD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), hypertension, and cardiovascular disorders. Larger studies need to address the safety issues as well as obtain robust pharmacovigilance information to safeguard the risk-benefit aspect of this drug in insomniac adults.

Anterior cingulate cortex orexin signaling mediates early-life stress-induced social impairment in females

Early-life stress has long-term impacts on the structure and function of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and raises the risk of adult neuropsychiatric disorders including social dysfunction. The underlying neural mechanisms, however, are still uncertain. Here, we show that, in female mice, maternal separation (MS) during the first three postnatal weeks results in social impairment accompanied with hypoactivity in pyramidal neurons (PNs) of the ACC. Activation of ACC PNs ameliorates MS-induced social impairment. Neuropeptide Hcrt, which encodes hypocretin (orexin), is the top down-regulated gene in the ACC of MS females. Activating ACC orexin terminals enhances the activity of ACC PNs and rescues the diminished sociability observed in MS females via an orexin receptor 2 (OxR2)-dependent mechanism. Our results suggest orexin signaling in the ACC is critical in mediating early-life stress-induced social impairment in females.

Different doses of dual orexin receptor antagonists in primary insomnia: a Bayesian network analysis

Background: Systematic comparisons of the doses of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved dual orexin receptor antagonists (DORAs) for people with insomnia are limited. Methods: PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Clinicaltrials. gov were systematically searched to identify relevant studies published before 31 October 2022. We assessed the certainty of evidence using the confidence in network meta-analysis (CINeMA) framework. Results: We pooled 7257 participants from 9 randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Moderate to high certainty evidence demonstrated suvorexant (20 and 40 mg) and daridorexant (10 and 50 mg) as the most effective in latency to persistent sleep (LPS) reduction. Lemborexant at 5 and 10 mg was the most effective in subjective sleep onset time (sTSO) reduction. For wake time after sleep onset (WASO), all drugs except daridorexant 5 mg were more effective than placebo. Lemborexant 5 mg was among the best in subjective WASO (sWASO) (moderate to high certainty) and had the highest surface under the curve ranking area (SUCRA) values for sWASO (100%). For total sleep time (TST), suvorexant and daridorexant, except the respective minimum doses, were more effective than placebo, while suvorexant 40 mg and lemborexant 10 mg may have been the most effective for subjective TST (sTST) (low to very low certainty). Suvorexant 40 mg (RR 1.09), suvorexant 80 mg (RR 1.65), and daridorexant 25 mg (RR 1.16) showed a higher safety risk than placebo. Conclusion: Suvorexant 20 mg, lemborexant 5 mg, lemborexant 10 mg, and daridorexant 50 mg represent suitable approaches for insomnia. Clinical Trial Registration: clinicaltrials.gov, PROSPERO (CRD42022362655).

Dual orexin receptor antagonists for the treatment of insomnia: systematic review and network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

 Several randomized clinical trials (RCTs) have shown that dual orexin receptor antagonists (DORAs) are effective in the treatment of chronic insomnia. However, the superiority of one particular DORA over the others remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

 To perform a network meta-analysis to evaluate the efficacy of different DORAs in patients with chronic insomnia.

METHODS

 The Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Central databases were searched for RCTs that compared DORA with placebo in patients ≥ 18 years of age with a diagnosis of insomnia disorder. We pooled outcomes for wake time after sleep onset (WASO), latency to persistent sleep (LPS), total sleep time (TST), and adverse events (AEs).

RESULTS

 We included 10 RCTs with 7,806 patients, 4,849 of whom received DORAs as the intervention. Overall, we found that DORAs were associated with the improvement of all analyzed efficacy outcomes. Concerning TST, an apparent dose-dependent pattern was noticed, with higher doses relating to a longer TST. Lemborexant 10mg provided the largest reduction in WASO (at month 1) in minutes (standardized mean difference [SMD] = -25.40; 95% confidence interval [95%CI] = -40.02--10.78), followed by suvorexant 20/15mg (SMD = -25.29; 95%CI = -36.42--14.15), which also appeared to provide the largest decrease in long-term WASO (SMD = -23.70; 95%CI = -35.89--11.51). The most frequent AEs were somnolence, nasopharyngitis, and headache, with rates of up to 14.8%.

CONCLUSION

 Our results suggest that DORAs are associated with greater efficacy when compared with placebo in the treatment of insomnia, a complex 24-hour sleep disorder. Additionally, dosing might play an important role in the management of chronic insomnia.

Do Insomnia Treatments Improve Daytime Function?

A scientific advisory panel of seven U.S. and Canadian sleep experts performed a clinical appraisal by comparing general medical opinion, assessed via a survey of practicing clinicians, regarding insomnia treatment, with the available scientific evidence. This clinical appraisal focuses on the specific statement, "Treatments for insomnia have uniformly been shown to significantly improve the associated daytime impairment seen with insomnia." The advisory panel reviewed and discussed the available body of evidence within the published medical literature to determine what discrepancies may exist between the currently published evidence base and general medical opinion. The advisory panels' evaluation of this statement was also compared with the results of a national survey of primary care physicians, psychiatrists, nurse practitioners, physician assistants, and sleep specialists in the United States. Contrary to general medical opinion, the expert advisory panel concluded that the medical literature did not support the statement. This gap highlights the need to educate the general medical community regarding insomnia treatment efficacy in pursuit of improved treatment outcomes.

Exposure-Response Analyses of Polysomnography and Subjective Sleep Efficacy End Points From the Phase 3 Trials of Lemborexant, a Dual Orexin Receptor Antagonist for the Treatment of Insomnia

This report describes polysomnography and sleep diary exposure-response analyses from Study E2006-G000-304 (Study 304), a 1-month trial of 5- or 10-mg lemborexant, zolpidem, or placebo; and Study E2006-G000-303 (Study 303), a 6-month trial of 5- or 10-mg lemborexant or placebo. Studies 304 and 303 included 1006 (86%) and 956 (68%) (female) participants, respectively; >40% were ≥65 years, with individual lemborexant exposures derived from a previously described pharmacokinetic model. Linear mixed-effects analyses of polysomnography: latency to persistent sleep (LPS), sleep efficiency (SE), and wake after sleep onset (WASO) quantified the change from baseline given lemborexant exposure, time, and covariates, guided by consensus recommendations regarding clinical significance. A small impact of sex, body weight, and race was predicted for LPS and SE, irrespective of treatment. Effect of age on LPS was small; baseline SE was estimated to be 8% higher for a 50-year-old versus an 80-year-old, decreasing to 6% by 1 month. Baseline WASO was 13 minutes longer for Black versus White subjects, corresponding to a 5-minute lower change from baseline at the end of the study. For subjective end points, the statistically significant covariate effects for age, sex, and race were not deemed therapeutically relevant, likely reflecting physiologic sleep pattern changes across age and study subgroups. Both polysomnography and subjective analyses indicated clinically meaningful differences from baseline for both lemborexant treatments, with effects being greater for 10-mg versus 5-mg lemborexant, while indicating that covariate-specific lemborexant dose adjustments are not warranted.

Alliance for Sleep Clinical Practice Guideline on Switching or Deprescribing Hypnotic Medications for Insomnia

Determining the most effective insomnia medication for patients may require therapeutic trials of different medications. In addition, medication side effects, interactions with co-administered medications, and declining therapeutic efficacy can necessitate switching between different insomnia medications or deprescribing altogether. Currently, little guidance exists regarding the safest and most effective way to transition from one medication to another. Thus, we developed evidence-based guidelines to inform clinicians regarding best practices when deprescribing or transitioning between insomnia medications. Five U.S.-based sleep experts reviewed the literature involving insomnia medication deprescribing, tapering, and switching and rated the quality of evidence. They used this evidence to generate recommendations through discussion and consensus. When switching or discontinuing insomnia medications, we recommend benzodiazepine hypnotic drugs be tapered while additional CBT-I is provided. For Z-drugs zolpidem and eszopiclone (and not zaleplon), especially when prescribed at supratherapeutic doses, tapering is recommended with a 1–2-day delay in administration of the next insomnia therapy when applicable. There is no need to taper DORAs, doxepin, and ramelteon. Lastly, off-label antidepressants and antipsychotics used to treat insomnia should be gradually reduced when discontinuing. In general, offering individuals a rationale for deprescribing or switching and involving them in the decision-making process can facilitate the change and enhance treatment success.

The Comparative Effectiveness and Safety of Insomnia Drugs: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis of 153 Randomized Trials

BACKGROUND

Pharmacological treatment is common in practice and widely used for the management of insomnia. However, evidence comparing the relative effectiveness, safety, and certainty of evidence among drug classes and individual drugs for insomnia are still lacking. This study aimed to determine the relative effectiveness, safety, and tolerability of drugs for insomnia.

METHODS

In this systematic review and network meta-analysis we systematically searched PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, PsycINFO, and ClinicalTrials.gov, from inception to January 10, 2022 to identify randomized controlled trials that compared insomnia drugs with placebo or an active comparator in adults with insomnia. We conducted random-effects frequentist network meta-analyses to summarize the evidence, and used the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) approach to assess the certainty, categorize interventionsand present the findings.

RESULTS

A total of 148 articles met our eligibility criteria; these included 153 trials which enrolled 46,412 participants and assessed 36 individual drugs from eight drug classes. Compared with placebo, both subjectively and objectively measured total sleep time were significantly improved with non-benzodiazepine (subjective: mean difference [MD] 25.07, 95% confidence interval [CI] 15.49-34.64, low certainty; objective: MD 22.34, 95% CI 7.64-37.05, high certainty), antidepressants (subjective: MD 54.40, 95% CI 34.96-75.83, low certainty; objective: MD 35.64, 95% CI 13.05-58.24, high certainty), and orexin receptor antagonists (subjective: MD 21.62, 95% CI 0.84-42.40, high certainty; objective: MD 31.81, 95% CI 2.66-60.95, high certainty); of which doxepin, almorexant, suvorexant, and lemborexant were among the relatively effective drugs with relatively good tolerability and lower risks of any adverse events (AEs). Both subjectively and objectively measured sleep onset latency were significantly shortened with non-benzodiazepines (subjective: MD - 10.12, 95% CI - 13.84 to - 6.40, moderate certainty; objective: MD - 12.11, 95% CI - 19.31 to - 4.90, moderate certainty) and melatonin receptor agonists (subjective: MD - 7.73, 95% CI - 15.21 to - 0.26, high certainty; objective: MD - 7.04, 95% CI - 12.12 to - 1.95, moderate certainty); in particular, zopiclone was among the most effective drugs with a lower risk of any AEs but worse tolerability. Non-benzodiazepines could significantly decrease both subjective and objective measured wake time after sleep onset (subjective: MD - 16.67, 95% CI - 21.79 to - 11.56, moderate certainty; objective: MD - 13.92, 95% CI - 22.71 to - 5.14, moderate certainty).

CONCLUSIONS

Non-benzodiazepines probably improve total sleep time, sleep onset latency, and wake time after sleep onset. Other insomnia drug classes and individual drugs also showed potential benefits in improving insomnia symptoms. However, the choice of insomnia drugs should be based on the phenotype of insomnia presented, as well as each drug's safety and tolerability. Protocol registration PROSPERO (CRD42019138790).

Comparison of the treatment effectiveness between lemborexant and zolpidem tartrate extended-release for insomnia disorder subtypes defined based on polysomnographic findings

STUDY OBJECTIVES

Patients with chronic insomnia may respond differently to therapeutic modalities. This study examined differences in response of individuals with 2 insomnia phenotypes-short sleep duration (I-SSD; < 6 hours) and normal sleep duration (I-NSD; ≥ 6 hours) determined by polysomnography-to treatment with lemborexant and zolpidem tartrate extended-release 6.25 mg (zolpidem ER), compared with placebo.

METHODS

Study E2006-G000-304 (Study 304; SUNRISE-1; NCT02783729) was a global, randomized, double-blind, placebo, and active comparator-controlled, parallel-group study comparing lemborexant 5 and 10 mg in individuals aged ≥ 55 years with insomnia disorder. In this analysis, changes in subjective (self-reported) variables based on sleep diaries and objective variables based on polysomnographs were assessed after 1-month administration of study drugs. Data from participants with I-SSD and I-NSD were compared.

RESULTS

In the I-SSD subgroup, both lemborexant doses provided significant benefit for sleep-onset latency (SOL), total sleep time (TST), and wake after sleep onset (WASO) vs placebo; zolpidem ER also provided significant benefit for TST and WASO, but not SOL, on both measures vs placebo. In the I-NSD subgroup, lemborexant and zolpidem ER provided significant benefit for TST and WASO vs placebo objectively but not subjectively; both doses of lemborexant provided significant benefit for SOL vs placebo subjectively, but not objectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Both drugs, but lemborexant more consistently, showed subjective and objective benefits compared with placebo in participants with insomnia with objective short sleep duration. However, neither lemborexant nor zolpidem provided consistent benefits for participants with normal sleep duration on sleep-onset and sleep maintenance variables.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

Registry: ClinicalTrials.gov; Name: Study of the Efficacy and Safety of Lemborexant in Subjects 55 Years and Older With Insomnia Disorder (SUNRISE 1); URL: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/record/NCT02783729; Identifier: NCT02783729.

CITATION

Inoue Y, Nishida M, Kubota N, et al. Comparison of the treatment effectiveness between lemborexant and zolpidem tartrate extended-release for insomnia disorder subtypes defined based on polysomnographic findings. J Clin Sleep Med. 2023;19(3):519-528.

The Metabolism of the Dual Orexin Receptor Antagonist Daridorexant

Daridorexant is a dual orexin receptor antagonist developed for the treatment of insomnia disorder and has shown improvement in sleep outcomes and daytime functioning. The present work describes its biotransformation pathways in vitro and in vivo and provides a cross-species comparison between the animal species used in preclinical safety assessments and man.Daridorexant clearance is driven by metabolism along seven distinct pathways. Metabolic profiles were characterized by downstream products while primary metabolic products were of minor importance. The metabolic pattern differed between rodent species, with the rat reflecting the human pattern better than the mouse.In rodents, daridorexant is mostly excreted via the bile after extensive metabolism while urinary excretion was negligible in the rat. Only traces of parent drug were detected in urine, bile or faeces.Daridorexant has three major metabolites which are well covered in these preclinical safety species. All of them retain some residual affinity towards orexin receptors. However, none of these is considered to contribute to the pharmacological effect of daridorexant as their active concentrations in human brain are too low.

Daridorexant for the treatment of insomnia disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Daridorexant is a novel dual orexin receptor antagonist that has shown efficacy as a treatment for insomnia in multiple randomized clinical trials. However, the efficacy and safety of daridorexant for treatment of insomnia disorder has not been characterized comprehensively in the literature. Therefore, we performed a meta-analysis of available studies. We performed a meta-analysis to systematically evaluate the efficacy and safety of daridorexant for treatment of insomnia disorder.

METHODS

MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Clinicaltrials.gov for randomized controlled trials were systematically searched up to February 2022. Relative risk and standard mean difference were used to evaluate clinical outcomes.

RESULTS

We pooled 2271 patients from 4 randomized clinical trials, and evaluated efficacy endpoints. We found that 50 mg of daridorexant was superior to placebo for 4 efficacy outcomes including wake time after sleep onset, latency to persistent sleep, subjective total sleep time, and Insomnia Daytime Symptoms and Impacts Questionnaire domain score (P < .05). In addition, there were no significant differences (P > .05) in adverse events between daridorexant and placebo.

CONCLUSIONS

Different dosages of daridorexant were tested for treatment of insomnia; however, 5 and 10 mg are not available because of issues of suboptimal effectiveness. Daridorexant showed better efficacy and safety for treatment of insomnia disorder at doses of 25 and 50 mg.

Effect of a dual orexin receptor antagonist on Alzheimer's disease: Sleep disorders and cognition

Orexin is a neuropeptide produced by the lateral hypothalamus that plays an important role in regulating the sleep-wake cycle. The overexpression of the orexinergic system may be related to the pathology of sleep/wakefulness disorders in Alzheimer's disease (AD). In AD patients, the increase in cerebrospinal fluid orexin levels is associated with parallel sleep deterioration. Dual orexin receptor antagonist (DORA) can not only treat the sleep-wakefulness disorder of AD but also improve the performance of patients with cognitive behavior disorder. It is critical to clarify the role of the orexin system in AD, study its relationship with cognitive decline in AD, and evaluate the safety and efficacy of DORA.

Orexin dual receptor antagonists, zolpidem, zopiclone, eszopiclone, and cognitive research: A comprehensive dose-response meta-analysis

Background

About one-third of adults have trouble sleeping, ranging from occasional difficulty to chronic insomnia, along with difficulty maintaining sleep. Many studies reported that the long-term use of hypnotics can cause brain dysfunction and damage cognition.

Objective

The objective of the study is to evaluate whether low, medium, and high doses of orexin dual receptor antagonists (DORA), zopiclone (ZOP), eszopiclone (ESZ), and zolpidem (ZST) can impair cognition.

Methods

From the beginning through September 20, 2022, PubMed, Embase, Scopus, the Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar were searched. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) assessing the therapeutic effects of DORA, eszopiclone, and zopiclone for sleep and cognitive function were included. The primary outcomes were indices related to the cognitive profile, including memory, alertness, execution and control function, and attention and orientation. The secondary outcomes were indices related to sleep and adverse events. The standard mean difference (SMD) was generated for continuous variables. Certain data were captured from figures by GetData 2.26 and analyzed using RStudio 4.2.

Results

Finally, a total of 8,702 subjects were included in 29 studies. Compared with the placebo, the DSST (Digit Symbol Substitution Test) scores of low, medium, and high doses of DORA were SMD = 0.77; 95% CI: 0.33-1.20; SMD = 1.58; 95% CI: 1.11-2.05; and SMD = 0.85; 95% CI: 0.33-1.36, respectively. The DSST scores of zolpidem at low, medium, and high doses were SMD = -0.39; 95% CI: 0.85-0.07; SMD = -0.88, 95% CI: -2.34-0.58; and SMD = -0.12, 95% CI: -0.85-0.60, respectively. Zopiclone's DSST scale score was SMD = -0.18; 95% CI: -0.54-0.18. In addition, the total sleep time (TST) of low, medium, and high doses of DORA was SMD = 0.28, 95% CI: -0.15-0.70; SMD = 1.36, 95% CI: 0.87-1.86; and SMD = 2.59, 95% CI: 1.89-3.30, respectively. The TST of zolpidem with low, medium, and high doses was SMD = 1.01, 95% CI: 0.18-1.83; SMD = 1.94, 95% CI: 0.46-3.43; and SMD = 1.71, 95% CI: 0.86-2.56, respectively. The TST of low, medium, and high doses of eszopiclone was relatively SMD = 2.03, 95% CI: -0.21-4.27; SMD = 2.38, 95% CI: 1.35-3.42; and SMD = 1.71, 95% CI: 0.60-2.82. Zopiclone's TST was SMD = 2.47, 95% CI: 1.36-3.58.

Conclusion

We recommend DORA as the best intervention for insomnia because it is highly effective in inducing and maintaining sleep without impairing cognition. Although zolpidem has a more pronounced effect on maintaining sleep, it is best to reduce its use because of its side effects. Eszopiclone and zopiclone improved sleep quality, but their safety in cognition remains to be verified.

Orexin Receptor Antagonists in the Treatment of Depression: A Leading Article Summarising Pre-clinical and Clinical Studies

The orexin (hypocretin) system comprises two neuropeptides (orexin-A and orexin-B) and two G-protein coupled receptors (the orexin type 1 and the orexin type 2 receptor). The system regulates several biological functions including appetite, the sleep-wake cycle, the stress response, and motivation and reward processing. Dysfunction of the orexin system has been implicated in the pathophysiology of depression in human and animal studies, although the exact nature of this dysfunction remains unclear. Orexin receptor antagonists (ORAs) are a class of compounds developed for the treatment of insomnia and have demonstrated efficacy in this area. Three dual orexin receptor antagonists (DORAs) have received licences for treatment of primary insomnia and some ORAs have since been investigated as potential treatments for major depressive disorder (MDD). In this leading article, we summarise the existing literature on use of ORAs in depression, in pre-clinical and clinical studies. In rodent models of depression, investigated ORAs have included the DORA almorexant and TCS1102, the selective orexin 1 receptor antagonists SB334867 and SB674042 and the selective orexin 2 receptor antagonists LSN2424100, MK-1064 and TCS-OX2-29. These pre-clinical studies suggest a possible antidepressant effect of systemic DORA treatment, however the evidence from selective ORAs is conflicting. To date, four published RCTs (one with the DORA filorexant and three with the selective orexin 2 receptor antagonist seltorexant), have compared an ORA with placebo in the treatment of MDD. Only one of these demonstrated a statistically significant difference relative to placebo.

Comparison of polysomnography in people with Alzheimer's disease and insomnia versus non-demented elderly people with insomnia

BACKGROUND

We used baseline polysomnography (PSG) data obtained during the clinical program development for suvorexant to compare the PSG profiles of people with Alzheimer's disease and insomnia (ADI) versus age-matched elderly individuals with insomnia (EI).

METHODS

Sleep laboratory baseline PSG data from participants age 55-80 years from 2 trials in people with insomnia and a trial in people with ADI were included. ADI participants had dementia of mild-to-moderate severity. Diagnostic criteria for insomnia, exclusion for other sleep problems, PSG recording procedures, and endpoint derivations were similar across the trials. All participants underwent a night of in-laboratory PSG prior to the baseline night to allow for screening/adaptation. Participants in the EI and ADI groups were compared with regard to sleep architecture, sleep micro-structure, and quantitative EEG power spectral endpoints. The analysis was performed on a post hoc basis using propensity score matching to compare sleep parameters separately in women and men while accounting for age group and total sleep time.

RESULTS

A total of 837 EI and 239 ADI participants were included, with the majority in each population (∼65%) being women. Compared to EI, those with ADI had a lower percentage of time spent in slow wave sleep (and a corresponding higher percentage of time spent in the lighter N1 sleep), a lower number of spindles per minute of N2 sleep, and lower absolute EEG power during NREM sleep, particularly in the lower-frequency bands. Trends for lower REM sleep percentage in ADI did not reach statistical significance.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings in this large data set, in which the influence of sleep problems was effectively subtracted out (since both groups had insomnia), provide strong confirmatory support of results from previous smaller studies in indicating that AD of mild-to-moderate severity is associated with less slow wave sleep, spindles, and lower-frequency EEG power.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov, numbers NCT01097616, NCT01097629, NCT02750306.

Effectiveness of suvorexant versus benzodiazepine receptor agonist sleep drugs in reducing the risk of hip fracture: Findings from a regional population-based cohort study

Sleep drugs are often necessary to treat insomnia in older patients. Benzodiazepine receptor agonists (BZRAs) are primarily used for insomnia in these patients, but there are concerns regarding their association with delirium and bone fractures. Among sleep drugs, orexin receptor antagonists such as suvorexant have a lower risk of delirium than BZRAs, but their effectiveness in preventing hip fractures is unknown. Hip fracture is a life-threatening trauma in advanced-age patients and a social problem. Therefore, we investigated the relationship between suvorexant and hip fracture. The Shizuoka Kokuho Database was used to compare the time to hip fracture in patients who had been newly taking suvorexant and other sleep drugs such as benzodiazepines since November 2014. A proportional hazards model for hip fracture as an outcome was used to estimate the hazard ratio. Propensity scores were estimated using a logistic regression model, and the confounding factors were age, sex, several comorbidities, and each oral medication. The suvorexant group comprised 6860 patients (110 with hip fracture), and the BZRA group (benzodiazepines and Z-drugs) comprised 50,203 patients (1487 with hip fracture). In the matched cohort (6855:6855 patients), 259 and 249 patients in the suvorexant and BZRA group developed hip fractures during the observational period, respectively. The hazard ratio of the suvorexant group compared with the BZRA group was 1.48 (95% confidence interval, 1.20-1.82). In the subgroup analysis, patients in the suvorexant group had a higher risk of hip fracture if they were aged >75 years, had no diabetes, had no neurological disease, had no renal failure, had liver disease, had hypertension, were not taking alpha 1 blockers, and were not taking oral steroids. Among people in the Japanese regional population who use sleep drugs, patients taking suvorexant can be at higher risk of hip fracture than patients taking BZRAs.

Effect of discontinuation of lemborexant following long-term treatment of insomnia disorder: Secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial

Discontinuing long-term pharmacotherapy for insomnia can result in rebound insomnia or withdrawal symptoms and suboptimal treatment. Post hoc analyses evaluated rebound insomnia and withdrawal symptoms among the subset of subjects from a phase III, 12-month, global, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, parallel-group study who completed 12 or 6 months of active treatment and follow-up period. Study E2006-G000-303 (Study 303) included adults (N = 655) with subjective sleep-onset latency ≥30 min and/or subjective wake-after-sleep onset ≥60 min at least three times weekly during the 4 weeks before enrollment. Subjects were randomized 1:1:1 to lemborexant 5 mg (LEM5) or 10 mg (LEM10) or placebo for 6 months. Thereafter, for an additional 6 months, LEM5- and LEM10-treated subjects continued lemborexant and the placebo group was rerandomized 1:1 to LEM5 or LEM10. Month 12 was followed by abrupt discontinuation and a 2-week end-of-study follow-up. Using daily electronic sleep diaries, patients reported (subjective) sleep end points (sleep-onset latency, wake-after-sleep onset, sleep efficiency, and total sleep time). Withdrawal symptoms were assessed using the Tyrer Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Symptoms Questionnaire (T-BWSQ). Sleep outcome improvements with lemborexant at month 12 were generally maintained throughout the 2-week off-treatment period wherein <20% of subjects experienced significant worsening of insomnia symptoms versus screening. There was no evidence of withdrawal symptoms by T-BWSQ following lemborexant discontinuation. This analysis demonstrates rebound insomnia is unlikely to occur with lemborexant, and its effectiveness is maintained after abrupt discontinuation without placebo replacement following 6-12 months of treatment.

Sleep disturbance as a therapeutic target to improve opioid use disorder treatment

Sleep health is an important factor across several physical and mental health disorders, and a growing scientific consensus has identified sleep as a critical component of opioid use disorder (OUD), both in the active disease state and during OUD recovery. The goal of this narrative review is to collate the literature on sleep, opioid use, and OUD as a means of identifying therapeutic targets to improve OUD treatment outcomes. Sleep disturbance is common and often severe in persons with OUD, especially during opioid withdrawal, but also in persons on opioid maintenance therapies. There is ample evidence that sleep disturbances including reduced total sleep time, disrupted sleep continuity, and poor sleep quality often accompany negative OUD treatment outcomes. Sleep disturbances are bidirectionally associated with several other factors related to negative treatment outcomes, including chronic stress, stress reactivity, low positive affect, high negative affect, chronic pain, and drug craving. This constellation of outcome variables represents a more comprehensive appraisal of the quality of life and quality of recovery than is typically assessed in OUD clinical trials. To date, there are very few clinical trials or experimental studies aimed at improving sleep health in OUD patients, either as a means of improving stress, affect, and craving outcomes, or as a potential mechanistic target to reduce opioid withdrawal and drug use behaviors. As such, the direct impact of sleep improvement in OUD patients is largely unknown, yet mechanistic and clinical research suggests that therapeutic interventions that target sleep are a promising avenue to improve OUD treatment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Sleep medicine: Practice, challenges and new frontiers

Sleep medicine is an ambitious cross-disciplinary challenge, requiring the mutual integration between complementary specialists in order to build a solid framework. Although knowledge in the sleep field is growing impressively thanks to technical and brain imaging support and through detailed clinic-epidemiologic observations, several topics are still dominated by outdated paradigms. In this review we explore the main novelties and gaps in the field of sleep medicine, assess the commonest sleep disturbances, provide advices for routine clinical practice and offer alternative insights and perspectives on the future of sleep research.

Orexin Receptor Antagonists and Insomnia

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

We review recent evidence on the use of orexin receptor antagonists (ORAs) for treating insomnia. We evaluate studies on five dual ORAs and one selective ORA.

RECENT FINDINGS

Research on suvorexant in recent years gradually focus on comorbid insomnia, while lemborexant and daridorexant were still being validated in primary insomnia. Almorexant is now mainly used as a commercial specific inhibitor of the orexin system in animal studies due to safety issues. Although filorexant has also shown a certain sleep-promoting effect, there are few clinical or experimental studies on sleep-related aspects of filorexant in recent years. As for selective ORAs, orexin receptor 2 antagonist seltorexant still has not yet reached phase 3. High-quality clinical trials in insomnia populations are needed which directly compare authorized ORAs and investigate non-approved ORAs, the use of ORAs in comorbid insomnia, and the orexin signaling system pathophysiology in insomnia.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of lemborexant for treating insomnia in Japan: a model-based projection, incorporating the risk of falls, motor vehicle collisions, and workplace accidents

BACKGROUND

Lemborexant has demonstrated statistically significant improvements in sleep onset and sleep maintenance compared with placebo and zolpidem tartrate extended release, measured both objectively using polysomnography and subjectively using sleep diaries, in the phase 3 clinical trial SUNRISE 1. This study evaluated the cost-effectiveness of lemborexant compared with suvorexant, zolpidem immediate release (IR), and untreated insomnia.

METHODS

A decision-tree model was developed for falls, motor vehicle collisions, and workplace accidents associated with insomnia and insomnia treatments from a Japanese healthcare perspective and with a 6-month time horizon. The model extracted subjective sleep onset latency treatment responses and disutility values for non-responders from SUNRISE 1. Cost-effectiveness was assessed using incremental cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) gained. One-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were conducted to evaluate the impact of parameter uncertainty on the results.

RESULTS

In the base-case analysis, the mean estimated QALYs for lemborexant, suvorexant, zolpidem-IR, and untreated insomnia were 0.4220, 0.4204, 0.4113, and 0.4163, and expected medical costs were JPY 34 034, JPY 38 371, JPY 38 139, and JPY 15 383, respectively. Lemborexant saved JPY 4337 and JPY 4105 compared with suvorexant or zolpidem-IR, respectively, while conferring QALY benefits. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of lemborexant compared with that of untreated insomnia was JPY 3 220 975 /QALY. Lemborexant was dominant over suvorexant and zolpidem-IR and was cost-effective when compared with untreated insomnia. Sensitivity analyses supported the results' robustness.

CONCLUSIONS

In a Japanese clinical practice setting, lemborexant may represent a better investment for treating insomnia in the healthcare system in Japan.

Daridorexant for the treatment of insomnia disorder: findings and implications

PURPOSE

The involvement of the orexin system in the physiopathology of insomnia has been rapidly increasing in understanding. In this sense, daridorexant was the third orexin receptor antagonist approved by the FDA in January 2022. This review aims to summarize the chemistry, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, efficacy, safety, and tolerability profile of daridorexant for the treatment of insomnia disorder.

METHODS

We performed a review of daridorexant for the treatment of insomnia disorder. The search was carried out in Medline via PubMed, Embase, and clinical trials, up to March 2022.

RESULTS

Daridorexant 25 and 50 mg had more significant improvement for the wake after sleep onset (WASO), latency to persistent sleep (LPS), and subjective total sleep time (sTST) than placebo. In addition, daridorexant 50 mg was better for Insomnia Daytime Symptoms and Impacts Questionnaire (IDSIQ) than placebo. The most common adverse events were nasopharyngitis and headache.

CONCLUSION

Daridorexant was efficacious and safe. Studies that evaluate the long-term safety and compare daridorexant with benzodiazepines, benzodiazepine receptor agonists, sedative antidepressants, and other orexin receptor antagonists are required.

Effectiveness of change from suvorexant to lemborexant drug in the treatment of sleep disorders

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to examine the effects of a change in medication from suvorexant to lemborexant among patients with insomnia.

METHODS

Patients with chronic insomnia who had persistent insomnia for 3 months or longer and who had been taking suvorexant for 3 months or longer were selected. The participants were divided into two groups: the 'modified' group and the 'non-modified' group. Four sub-types of insomnia (i.e., difficulty initiating sleep, difficulty maintaining sleep, early-morning awakening, and non-restorative sleep) were investigated. Logistic regression was used to investigate improvements in both the groups after 12 weeks.

RESULTS

Among the 77 participants, 43 and 34 patients were in the modified drug group and the non-modified drug group, respectively. Comparing sleep disorders between the two groups, we found significant improvement after 12 weeks in the modified drug group in terms of difficulty initiating sleep, compared with the non-modified drug group (odds ratio = 0.036, P = 0.008, 95% CI = 0.003-0.415). However, no significant differences were found between the two groups in terms of difficulty maintaining sleep, early-morning awakening, and non-restorative sleep.

CONCLUSIONS

Sleep disorders can be treated by alleviating difficulties in initiating sleep by changing from suvorexant to lemborexant. In addition, it was confirmed that the drug change caused no serious side effects and that it was highly safe and tolerated.

Residual effects of low dose of suvorexant, zolpidem, and ramelteon in healthy elderly subjects: A randomized double‐blind study

Introduction

Methods

Result

Conclusion

Prescription Drugs Used in Insomnia

In insomnia, the subjective aspects of the sleep complaint are paramount in the diagnostic criteria. Epidemiologic studies increasingly point to a link between insomnia and somatic morbidity and mortality, but until now, only in the subgroup of objectively poor sleepers. Although pharmacologic treatment might offer some benefits to this subgroup of insomnia patients, to date, there is no evidence that hypnotics can ameliorate their health risks. Further unraveling of the neurobiology and genetics of sleep regulation and the pathophysiology of insomnia will help the development of drugs that not only improve subjective sleep complaints but also objective health outcomes.

Medications as a Trigger of Sleep-Related Eating Disorder: A Disproportionality Analysis

Sleep-related eating disorder (SRED) is a parasomnia with recurrent, involuntary, amnestic eating episodes during sleep. There is growing evidence of the association between SRED and medications. Therefore, we aimed to rank drugs showing the strongest association. VigiBase® (WHO pharmacovigilance database) was queried for all reports of “Sleep-related eating disorder”. Disproportionality analysis relied on the Reporting Odds Ratio, with its 95% Confidence Interval (CI), and the Information Component. Our VigiBase® query yielded 676 cases of drug-associated SRED. Reports mostly involved zolpidem (243, 35.9%), sodium oxybate (185, 27.4%), and quetiapine (97, 14.3%). Significant disproportionality was found for 35 medications, including zolpidem (387.6; 95%CI 331.2−453.7), sodium oxybate (204.2; 95%CI 172.4−241.8), suvorexant (67.3; 95%CI 38.0−119.2), quetiapine (53.3; 95%CI 43.0−66.1), and several psychostimulants and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). Patients treated with nonbenzodiazepines or SNRIs were significantly older (mean age: 49.0 vs. 37.5; p < 0.001) and their SRED were more likely to be serious (62.6% vs. 51.4%; p = 0.014) than patients treated with sodium oxybate or psychostimulants. Psychotropic drugs are involved in almost all reports. In patients with SRED, an iatrogenic trigger should be searched for.

Suvorexant ameliorated sleep disturbance, opioid withdrawal, and craving during a buprenorphine taper

Increased orexin/hypocretin signaling is implicated in opioid withdrawal, sleep disturbances, and drug-seeking behaviors. This study examined whether a dual-orexin receptor antagonist would improve sleep and withdrawal outcomes when compared with placebo during a buprenorphine/naloxone taper. Thirty-eight participants with opioid use disorder were recruited to a clinical research unit and maintained on 8/2 to 16/4 mg of buprenorphine/naloxone treatment for 3 days before being randomized to 20 mg of suvorexant (n = 14), 40 mg of suvorexant (n = 12), or placebo (n = 12); 26 individuals completed the study. After randomization, participants underwent a 4-day buprenorphine/naloxone taper and 4-day post-taper observation period. Total sleep time (TST) was collected nightly with a wireless electroencephalography device and wrist-worn actigraphy; opioid withdrawal symptoms were assessed via the Subjective Opiate Withdrawal Scale (SOWS); and abuse potential was assessed on a 0- to 100-point visual analog scale of "High" every morning. A priori outcomes included two-group (collapsing suvorexant doses versus placebo) and three-group comparisons of area-under-the-curve (AUC) scores for TST, SOWS, and High. In two-group comparisons, participants receiving suvorexant displayed increased TST during the buprenorphine/naloxone taper and decreased SOWS during the post-taper period. In three-group comparisons, participants receiving 20 mg of suvorexant versus placebo displayed increased AUC for TST during the buprenorphine/naloxone taper, but there was no difference in SOWS among groups. There was no evidence of abuse potential in two- or three-group analyses. The results suggest that suvorexant might be a promising treatment for sleep and opioid withdrawal in individuals undergoing a buprenorphine/naloxone taper.

The orexin story, sleep and sleep disturbances

The orexins, also known as hypocretins, are two neuropeptides (orexin A and B or hypocretin 1 and 2) produced by a few thousand neurons located in the lateral hypothalamus that were independently discovered by two research groups in 1998. Those two peptides bind two receptors (orexin/hypocretin receptor 1 and receptor 2) that are widely distributed in the brain and involved in the central physiological regulation of sleep and wakefulness, orexin receptor 2 having the major role in the maintenance of arousal. They are also implicated in a multiplicity of other functions, such as reward seeking, energy balance, autonomic regulation and emotional behaviours. The destruction of orexin neurons is responsible for the sleep disorder narcolepsy with cataplexy (type 1) in humans, and a defect of orexin signalling also causes a narcoleptic phenotype in several animal species. Orexin discovery is unprecedented in the history of sleep research, and pharmacological manipulations of orexin may have multiple therapeutic applications. Several orexin receptor antagonists were recently developed as new drugs for insomnia, and orexin agonists may be the next-generation drugs for narcolepsy. Given the broad range of functions of the orexin system, these drugs might also be beneficial for treating various conditions other than sleep disorders in the near future.

Evaluation of suvorexant for trauma-related insomnia

STUDY OBJECTIVES

Effective pharmacological treatments for sleep disturbance related to trauma with and without co-occurring posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are needed. There is debate regarding what effects on rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) would be beneficial. Suvorexant is the first dual orexin receptor antagonist (DORA) approved for the treatment of insomnia. In contrast to most psychotropic agents, DORAs can enhance REMS while reducing arousal. We evaluated 6 weeks of suvorexant treatment for trauma-related insomnia in a double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial with clinical and polysomnographic evaluation.

METHODS

Participants with insomnia that followed a traumatic event were recruited from the community. Representation of current, past-only, and never having met criteria for PTSD was similar and most participants had experienced trauma-related nightmares. Participants were randomly assigned to receive suvorexant or placebo, initially at 10 mg and increased to 20 mg after 1 week, if tolerated. Polysomnography was obtained for screening, at baseline, and at 2 weeks of treatment.

RESULTS

The thirty-seven evaluable participants had significant improvement of PTSD and insomnia symptoms, however, there were no significant interactions with treatment condition. Medication was well tolerated with only one dropout being related to side effects. Within the suvorexant group increased REM segment duration correlated with concurrent PTSD symptom reduction. Nightmares remitted in all of the participants who received suvorexant and all but one of those receiving placebo.

CONCLUSIONS

A robust placebo response undermined detecting a medication effect. Further evaluation of DORAs for trauma-related insomnia, as well as factors contributing to placebo-response, are warranted.

A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of suvorexant for the treatment of vasomotor symptom-associated insomnia disorder in midlife women

Study Objectives

The neuropeptide orexin promotes wakefulness, modulates thermoregulation, increases after menopause, and is normalized in women receiving estrogen therapy, suggesting a role for orexin antagonism as a treatment for the vasomotor symptom (VMS)-associated insomnia disorder. We tested the efficacy of the dual orexin receptor antagonist suvorexant for chronic insomnia related to nighttime VMS.

Methods

In a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 56 women with chronic insomnia associated with nighttime VMS, Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) scores ≥15, and &gt;30 min of diary-rated wake after sleep-onset (WASO) were randomized to receive oral suvorexant 10–20 mg (n = 27) or placebo (n = 29) nightly for 4 weeks. Analysis of within-person change in ISI was adjusted for baseline ISI and race.

Results

Mean baseline ISI scores were 18.1 (95% CI, 16.8 to 19.4) and 18.3 (95% CI, 17.2 to 19.5) in the suvorexant and placebo groups, respectively (p = .81). The average 4-week ISI within-person decrease from baseline was greater on suvorexant (−8.1 [95% CI, −10.2 to −6.0]) compared to placebo (−5.6 [95% CI, −7.4 to −3.9], p = .04). Compared to placebo, nighttime diary-rated VMS frequency was significantly reduced with suvorexant (p &lt; .01). While diary-rated WASO and total sleep time trended toward improvement on suvorexant, findings were not significant after adjustment for multiple comparisons. Daytime VMS and other sleep-related outcomes did not differ between groups. Suvorexant was well tolerated.

Conclusion

These results suggest that suvorexant is likely a well-tolerated and efficacious treatment for VMS-associated insomnia disorder and reduces nighttime VMS. Antagonism of orexin receptors could provide a novel therapeutic option for midlife women with VMS-associated chronic insomnia.

Clinical Trial Information

Efficacy of Suvorexant in the Treatment of Hot Flash-associated Insomnia, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03034018, ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03034018.

Effects of TS-142, a novel dual orexin receptor antagonist, on sleep in patients with insomnia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 study

RATIONALE

Novel compound with potent antagonistic activity against orexin receptors may be new treatment option for patients with insomnia.

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to investigate the efficacy and safety of single oral doses of the dual orexin receptor antagonist TS-142 in patients with insomnia.

METHODS

This multicenter, double-blind, crossover randomized clinical trial included non-elderly patients with insomnia. Patients were randomized to receive single doses of placebo and TS-142 at doses of 5, 10, and 30 mg in one of four different sequences, with a 7-day washout period between treatments. Primary efficacy endpoints were latency to persistent sleep (LPS) and wake time after sleep onset (WASO) measured by polysomnography.

RESULTS

Twenty-four patients were included (mean age 50.3 ± 10.5 years; mean duration of insomnia 5.71 ± 8.68 years). Least-squares mean differences (95% confidence interval) from placebo in LPS with 5, 10, and 30 mg TS-142 were - 42.38 (- 60.13, - 24.63), - 42.10 (- 60.02, - 24.17), and - 44.68 (- 62.41, - 26.95) minutes, respectively (all p < 0.001). Least-squares mean differences (95% confidence interval) from placebo in WASO with 5, 10, and 30 mg TS-142 were - 27.52 (- 46.90, - 8.14), - 35.44 (- 55.02, - 15.87), and - 54.69 (- 74.16, - 35.23) minutes, respectively (all p < 0.01). Self-reported aspects of sleep initiation and sleep quality, determined using the Leeds Sleep Evaluation Questionnaire (LSEQ), were also improved with TS-142 administration versus placebo. TS-142 was well tolerated; all adverse events were mild or moderate and none were serious.

CONCLUSION

Single-dose TS-142 was well tolerated and had clinically relevant effects on objective and subjective sleep parameters in patients with insomnia.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

JapicCTI173570 (www.

CLINICALTRIALS

jp); NCT04573725 (www.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov).