Differential bioleaching of copper by mesophilic and moderately thermophilic acidophilic consortium enriched from same copper mine water sample

A review on recent advancements in recovery of valuable and toxic metals from e-waste using bioleaching approach

This review is intent on the environmental pollution generated from printed circuit boards and the methods employed to retrieve valuable and hazardous metals present in the e-wastes. Printed circuit boards are the key components in the electronic devices and considered as huge e-pollutants in polluting our surroundings and the environment as a whole. Composing of toxic heavy metals, it causes serious health effects to the plants, animals and humans in the environment. A number of chemical, biological and physical approaches were carried out to recover the precious metals and to remove the hazardous metals from the environment. Chemical leaching is one of the conventional PCBs recycling methods which was carried out by using different organic solvents and chemicals. Need of high cost for execution, generation of secondary wastes in the conventional methods, forces to discover the advanced recycling methods such as hydrometallurgical, bio-metallurgical and bioleaching processes to retrieve the valuable metals generate through e-wastes. Among them, bioleaching process gain extra priority due to its higher efficiency of metal recovery from printed circuit boards. There are different classes of microorganisms have been utilized for precious metal recovery from the PCBs through bioleaching process such as chemolithoautotrophy, heterotrophy and different fungal species including Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp. The current status and scope for further studies in printed circuit boards recycling are discussed in this review.

Towards the Biobeneficiation of PGMs: Reviewing the Opportunities

Conventional beneficiation of the Platinum Group of Metals (PGMs) relies on the use of inorganic chemicals. With the depreciation of high grade deposits, these conventional processes are becoming less economically viable. Furthermore, the use of chemicals has serious negative impacts on the environment. To address the challenges of conventional PGM beneficiation, biobeneficiation has been proposed. In conventional flotation, the flotation behavior of the associated sulphides determines overall PGM recovery. The same principle may also be applied for the bio-beneficiation of PGMs. Therefore, this paper discusses the biobeneficiation behavior of sulphides closely associated with PGMs with the aim of postulating the bio-beneficiation behavior of PGMs associated with the same base metal sulphides. Conventional PGM processes are briefly discussed, as bio-beneficiation of PGMs is governed by similar underlying principles. Potential microorganisms for the biobeneficiation of PGMs are highlighted, as well as the corresponding conditions for their effectiveness. The use of both single cultures and mixed cultures is discussed. Depending on conditions, PGMs associated with pyrite and/or chalcopyrite were projected to be biofloatable with B. polymyxa, P. polymyxa, A. ferrooxidans, L. ferrooxidans, B. pumilus, B. subtilis, halophilic bacteria, Alicyclobacillus ferrooxidans, sulphate reducing bacteria, and mixed cultures of A. ferrooxidans, A. thiooxidans and L. ferrooxidans. Pyrite-associated PGMsare expected to be generally prone to biodepression, whereas chalcopyrite-associated PGMs are expected to be generally recovered as the floatable phase. Sulphate-reducing bacteria were reported to have a dual role on the bioflotation of sulphide ores (flotation and depression), depending on the conditions. Therefore, this type of microorganism may serve as both a depressant or a collector in the recovery of PGMs. Based on the bioflotation response of pyrrhotite to L. ferrooxidans, it is anticipated that pyrrhotite-associated PGMS can be biodepressed using L. ferrooxidans. In terms of bioflocculation, PGMs associated with chalcopyrite may be recovered using L. ferrooxidans, whereas A. ferrooxidans, A. thiooxidans, B. polyxyma and B. subtilis can be used in the bioflocculation of pyrite-associated PGMs. M. phlei can be employed in the reverse bioflocculation of pyrite-associated PGMs. Although no information was found on the biobeneficiation of pentlandite, postulations were made based on other sulphide minerals. It was postulated that biobeneficiation (biodepression and bioflotation) with pentlandite-associated PGMs should be possible using A. ferrooxidans. It is also projected that sulphate-reducing bacteria will be suitable for the bioflotation of PGMs associated with pentlandite. The removal of gangue species such as silicates and chromites associated with PGM concentrates was also discussed. A. ferrooxidans, P. polymyxa and B. mucilaginous are candidates for the removal of gangue species. Furthermore, the need to control process conditions was highlighted. The most suitable conditions for biobeneficiation of the various base metal sulphide minerals associated with PGMs are presented in the paper. Most of the challenges associated with biobeneficiation of PGMs are already common to conventional methods, and the means of circumventing them are already well established. Developments in genetic engineering and the advent of new data science techniques are tools that could make the biobeneficiation of PGMs a possibility.

Low concentration of Tween-20 enhanced the adhesion and biofilm formation of Acidianus manzaensis YN-25 on chalcopyrite surface

Although Tween-20 was used as an important catalyst to increase chalcopyrite bioleaching rate by acidophiles, the effect of Tween-20 on initial adhesion and biofilm development of acidophiles on chalcopyrite has not been explored until now. Herein, the role of Tween-20 in early attachment behaviors and biofilm development by Acidianus manzaensis strain YN-25 were investigated by adhesion experiments, adhesion force measurement, visualization of biofilm assays and a series of analyses including extended Derjaguin Landau Verwey Overbeek (DLVO) theory, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The bacterial adhesion experiments showed that 2 mg/L of Tween-20 increased the adhesion percentage (by 8%) of A. manzaensis YN-25. Tween-20 could promote the early adhesion of A. manzaensis YN-25 by changing the Lewis acid-base interaction and electrostatic force to increase total interaction energy and adhesion force. Besides, the functional groups on the surface of cells (carboxyl, hydroxyl and amino functional groups) contributed to the adhesion of A. manzaensis YN-25 on chalcopyrite. Furthermore, the promotion of biofilm formation by Tween-20 was mainly attributed to the reduction of S⁰ passivation layer formation and complexing more Fe³⁺ on chalcopyrite surface, contributing to the erosion of chalcopyrite and creating more corrosion pits. Live/dead staining showed low live/dead ratio (ranged from 0.35 to 1.32) during the biofilm development process. This report offers a better understanding of the effects of Tween-20 on attachment and biofilm development of acidophilic microorganisms and would lay a theoretical foundation for the better application of catalyst in bioleaching.

Effects of sulfur dosage and inoculum size on pilot-scale thermophilic bioleaching of heavy metals from sewage sludge

Land application of sewage sludge has received significant attention in recent years but the presence of elevated heavy metals in the sludge limits its land application. The purposes of this study were to investigate the effects of sulfur dosage and inoculum size on the thermophilic bioleaching of heavy metals from sewage sludge in a pilot-scale bioreactor. The microbial communities in this thermophilic bioleaching process were also identified using real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR). The results showed that the oxidation of sulfur and metal solubilization decreased with the increasing sulfur dosage. When the sulfur dosage was greater than 2% (w/v), the sulfur oxidation and metal solubilization rates decreased, indicating that the thermophilic bioleaching was hindered by high levels of substrate. However, it was found that the efficiency of metal solubilization and solid degradation was increased with the increase of inoculum size in the range from 5% to 20%. At the end of bioleaching, the efficiency of Mn, Zn, Ni, Cu and Cr from the sewage sludge reached 73-100%, 51-60%, 38-52%, 17-43% and 1-38%, respectively, while SS and VSS were degraded by 33-48% and 47-67%, respectively. Based on the analysis of real-time PCR, Sulfobacillus acidophilus was observed to be the predominant species (13-67% of total bacteria), whereas the populations of Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidans and Acidithiobacillus caldus were accounted relatively low (<1%).

Osmotic Imbalance, Cytoplasm Acidification and Oxidative Stress Induction Support the High Toxicity of Chloride in Acidophilic Bacteria

In acidophilic microorganisms, anions like chloride have higher toxicity than their neutrophilic counterparts. In addition to the osmotic imbalance, chloride can also induce acidification of the cytoplasm. We predicted that intracellular acidification produces an increase in respiratory rate and generation of reactive oxygen species, and so oxidative stress can also be induced. In this study, the multifactorial effect as inducing osmotic imbalance, cytoplasm acidification and oxidative stress in the iron-oxidizing bacterium Leptospirillum ferriphilum DSM 14647 exposed to up to 150 mM NaCl was investigated. Results showed that chloride stress up-regulated genes for synthesis of potassium transporters (kdpC and kdpD), and biosynthesis of the compatible solutes (hydroxy)ectoine (ectC and ectD) and trehalose (otsB). As a consequence, the intracellular levels of both hydroxyectoine and trehalose increased significantly, suggesting a strong response to keep osmotic homeostasis. On the other hand, the intracellular pH significantly decreased from 6.7 to pH 5.5 and oxygen consumption increased significantly when the cells were exposed to NaCl stress. Furthermore, this stress condition led to a significant increase of the intracellular content of reactive oxygen species, and to a rise of the antioxidative cytochrome c peroxidase (CcP) and thioredoxin (Trx) activities. In agreement, ccp and trx genes were up-regulated under this condition, suggesting that this bacterium displayed a transcriptionally regulated response against oxidative stress induced by chloride. Altogether, these data reveal that chloride has a dramatic multifaceted effect on acidophile physiology that involves osmotic, acidic and oxidative stresses. Exploration of the adaptive mechanisms to anion stress in iron-oxidizing acidophilic microorganisms may result in new strategies that facilitate the bioleaching of ores for recovery of precious metals in presence of chloride.

Waste Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Recycling Techniques

With the development of technologies and the change of consumer attitudes, the amount of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is increasing annually. As the core part of WEEE, the waste printed circuit board (WPCB) is a dangerous waste but at the same time a rich resource for various kinds of materials. In this work, various WPCB treatment methods as well as WPCB recycling techniques divided into direct treatment (landfill and incineration), primitive recycling technology (pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, biometallurgy and primitive full recovery of NMF-non metallic fraction), and advanced recycling technology (mechanical separation, direct use and modification of NMF) are reviewed and analyzed based on their advantages and disadvantages. Also, the evaluation criteria are discussed including economic, environmental, and gate-to-market ability. This review indicates the future research direction of WPCB recycling should focus on a combination of several techniques or in series recycling to maximize the benefits of process.

Effects of pyrite and sphalerite on population compositions, dynamics and copper extraction efficiency in chalcopyrite bioleaching process

This study used an artificial microbial community with four known moderately thermophilic acidophiles (three bacteria including Acidithiobacillus caldus S1, Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidans ST and Leptospirillum ferriphilum YSK, and one archaea, Ferroplasma thermophilum L1) to explore the variation of microbial community structure, composition, dynamics and function (e.g., copper extraction efficiency) in chalcopyrite bioleaching (C) systems with additions of pyrite (CP) or sphalerite (CS). The community compositions and dynamics in the solution and on the ore surface were investigated by real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR). The results showed that the addition of pyrite or sphalerite changed the microbial community composition and dynamics dramatically during the chalcopyrite bioleaching process. For example, A. caldus (above 60%) was the dominant species at the initial stage in three groups, and at the middle stage, still dominated C group (above 70%), but it was replaced by L. ferriphilum (above 60%) in CP and CS groups; at the final stage, L. ferriphilum dominated C group, while F. thermophilum dominated CP group on the ore surface. Furthermore, the additions of pyrite or sphalerite both made the increase of redox potential (ORP) and the concentrations of Fe³⁺ and H⁺, which would affect the microbial community compositions and copper extraction efficiency. Additionally, pyrite could enhance copper extraction efficiency (e.g., improving around 13.2% on day 6) during chalcopyrite bioleaching; on the contrary, sphalerite restrained it.

Integrated bioleaching of copper metal from waste printed circuit board-a comprehensive review of approaches and challenges

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (e-waste) is the most rapidly growing waste stream in the world, and the majority of the residues are openly disposed of in developing countries. Waste printed circuit boards (WPCBs) make up the major portion of e-waste, and their informal recycling can cause environmental pollution and health risks. Furthermore, the conventional disposal and recycling techniques-mechanical treatments used to recover valuable metals, including copper-are not sustainable in the long term. Chemical leaching is rapid and efficient but causes secondary pollution. Bioleaching is a promising approach, eco-friendly and economically feasible, but it is slower process. This review considers the recycling potential of microbes and suggests an integrated bioleaching approach for Cu extraction and recovery from WPCBs. The proposed recycling system should be more effective, efficient and both technically and economically feasible.

Genomic Analysis Unravels Reduced Inorganic Sulfur Compound Oxidation of Heterotrophic Acidophilic Acidicaldus sp. Strain DX-1

Although reduced inorganic sulfur compound (RISC) oxidation in many chemolithoautotrophic sulfur oxidizers has been investigated in recent years, there is little information about RISC oxidation in heterotrophic acidophiles. In this study, Acidicaldus sp. strain DX-1, a heterotrophic sulfur-oxidizing acidophile, was isolated. Its genome was sequenced and then used for comparative genomics. Furthermore, real-time quantitative PCR was performed to identify the expression of genes involved in the RISC oxidation. Gene encoding thiosulfate: quinone oxidoreductase was present in Acidicaldus sp. strain DX-1, while no candidate genes with significant similarity to tetrathionate hydrolase were found. Additionally, there were genes encoding heterodisulfide reductase complex, which was proposed to play a crucial role in oxidizing cytoplasmic sulfur. Like many heterotrophic sulfur oxidizers, Acidicaldus sp. strain DX-1 had no genes encoding enzymes essential for the direct oxidation of sulfite. An indirect oxidation of sulfite via adenosine-5′-phosphosulfate was proposed in Acidicaldus strain DX-1. However, compared to other closely related bacteria Acidiphilium cryptum and Acidiphilium multivorum, which harbored the genes encoding Sox system, almost all of these genes were not detected in Acidicaldus sp. strain DX-1. This study might provide some references for the future study of RISC oxidation in heterotrophic sulfur-oxidizing acidophiles.

Insights to the effects of free cells on community structure of attached cells and chalcopyrite bioleaching during different stages

The effects of free cells on community structure of attached cells and chalcopyrite bioleaching by Acidithiobacillus sp. during different stages were investigated. The attached cells of Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans owned the community advantage from 14thd to the end of bioprocess in the normal system. The community structure of attached cells was greatly influenced in the free cells-deficient systems. Compared to A. thiooxidans, the attached cells community of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans had a higher dependence on its free cells. Meanwhile, the analysis of key biochemical parameters revealed that the effects of free cells on chalcopyrite bioleaching in different stages were diverse, ranging from 32.8% to 64.3%. The bioleaching contribution of free cells of A. ferrooxidans in the stationary stage (8-14thd) was higher than those of A. thiooxidans, while the situation was gradually reversed in the jarosite passivation inhibited stage (26-40thd). These results may be useful in guiding chalcopyrite bioleaching.

Immobilization of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans on cotton gauze for biological oxidation of ferrous ions in a batch bioreactor

The ability of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans to oxidize ferrous iron has been extensively studied in bioleaching to recover metal resources. Although immobilization of A. ferrooxidans is of great importance to achieve high bioleaching performance in practical application, the reported approaches of immobilization of A. ferrooxidans are still limited. This paper is attempting to develop a novel method to immobilize A. ferrooxidans by a less-costly effective carrier from zeolite, activated carbon, and cotton gauze. The results showed that cotton gauze was the most suitable carrier to immobilize A. ferrooxidans cells in comparison with zeolite and activated carbon. Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans immobilized on the cotton gauze by gravity dehydration could achieve an average ferrous iron oxidation rate of 0.73 g/(L·h). Furthermore, the ferrous iron oxidation ratio attained in the bioreactor under batch operation was maintained above 97.83%. All results indicated that cotton gauze could be an efficient carrier for immobilizing A. ferrooxidans cells for the biooxidation of ferrous ions.

Bioleaching of Chalcopyrite by Thermophilic Archaea

Bioleaching and biooxidation of sulfidicores and concentrates generate very high acidities and a great of heat, which rise the temperature in the reactors or heaps, and accumulate the sulfur on the surface of the ores. Extremely thermoacidophilic archaea, mainly from the genus ofAcidianus, Sulfolobus,Metallosphaeraandsulfurisphaera, have great potential to contribute to biomining processes for their inherent tolerance for low pH, high temperature, and high-soluble metal concentrations. Species of the genusMetallosphaeratypically grow by aerobic respiration on CO2with S0, tetrathionate (S4O62+), and Fe2+as electron donors, particularly suitble for metal extraction under high temperature by their iron- and sulfur-oxidation ability. Several species fromMetallosphaeraandAcidianusgenerawere investigated for their ability and conditions to dissolve various ores under a range of conditions. All of them showed good performance in copper extraction from chalcopyrite, with strainM.cuprinaAr-4 displaying higher activity than others. Surface analysis of chalcopyrite leached with the strain showed the leaching products accumulated on the ores. Our study will cover new understandings on the application of these thermoacidophilic archaea in biomining.

Improved chalcopyrite bioleaching by Acidithiobacillus sp. via direct step-wise regulation of microbial community structure

A direct step-wise regulation strategy of microbial community structure was developed for improving chalcopyrite bioleaching by Acidithiobacillus sp. Specially, the initial microbial proportion between Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans was controlled at 3:1 with additional 2 g/L Fe(2+) for faster initiating iron metabolism. A. thiooxidans biomass was fed via a step-wise strategy (8-12th d) with the microbial proportion 1:1 for balancing community structure and promoting sulfur metabolism in the stationary phase. A. thiooxidans proportion was further improved via another step-wise feeding strategy (14-18th d) with the microbial proportion 1:2 for enhancing sulfur metabolism and weakening jarosite passivation in the later phase. With the community structure-shift control strategy, biochemical reaction was directly regulated for creating a better balance in different phases. Moreover, the final copper ion was increased from 57.1 to 93.2 mg/L, with the productivity 2.33 mg/(Ld). The novel strategy may be valuable in optimization of similar bioleaching process.

The application of pneumatic jigging in the recovery of metallic fraction from shredded printed wiring boards

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is one of the fastest growing waste streams worldwide with volumes increasing by 40% each year. WEEE has attracted increasing concern worldwide due to its high metal content and the potential environmental threat which results from uncontrolled recycling practices. Innovative physical separation techniques for WEEE recycling are preferential compared with chemical methods because of the reduction of energy and chemical consumption as well as potential environmental threats. Pneumatic jigging is a dry separation process capable of achieving good separation of coarse material within a very narrow density range, which makes it suitable as a pretreatment process for WEEE recycling. The work presented in this paper investigates the potential application of pneumatic jigging in metal recovery from WEEE. A pilot scale pneumatic jig has been developed by University of Nottingham Ningbo to separate shredded printed wiring boards into two streams: a light fraction (mainly non-metallic fraction consisting of glass fiber, fluffs, and plastic pieces) and dense fraction (metallic fraction). The novelty of work presented in this paper is the application of a dry separation technique in WEEE recycling for metal recovery. Compared with conventional wet separation processes involved in WEEE recycling industry, dry separation has the advantage of zero secondary pollution. The results of this experimental program show pneumatic jigging to be an effective and environmental friendly technique as a pretreatment process for the recovery of the metallic fraction from shredded WEEE.

Waste printed circuit board recycling techniques and product utilization

E-waste, in particular waste PCBs, represents a rapidly growing disposal problem worldwide. The vast diversity of highly toxic materials for landfill disposal and the potential of heavy metal vapors and brominated dioxin emissions in the case of incineration render these two waste management technologies inappropriate. Also, the shipment of these toxic wastes to certain areas of the world for eco-unfriendly "recycling" has recently generated a major public outcry. Consequently, waste PCB recycling should be adopted by the environmental communities as an ultimate goal. This article reviews the recent trends and developments in PCB waste recycling techniques, including both physical and chemical recycling. It is concluded that the physical recycling techniques, which efficiently separate the metallic and nonmetallic fractions of waste PCBs, offer the most promising gateways for the environmentally-benign recycling of this waste. Moreover, although the reclaimed metallic fraction has gained more attention due to its high value, the application of the nonmetallic fraction has been neglected in most cases. Hence, several proposed applications of this fraction have been comprehensively examined.

Novel integration strategy for enhancing chalcopyrite bioleaching by Acidithiobacillus sp. in a 7-L fermenter

An integrated strategy (additional energy substrate-three stage pH control-fed batch) was firstly proposed for efficiently improving chalcopyrite bioleaching by Acidithiobacillus sp. in a 7-L fermenter. The strain adaptive-growing phase was greatly shortened from 8days into 4days with the supplement of additional 2g/L Fe(2+)+2g/L S(0). Jarosite passivation was effectively weakened basing on higher biomass via the three-stage pH-stat control (pH 1.3-1.0-0.7). The mineral substrate inhibition was attenuated by fed-batch fermentation. With the integrated strategy, the biochemical reaction was promoted and achieved a better balance. Meanwhile, the domination course of A. thiooxidans in the microbial community was shortened from 14days to 8days. As the results of integrated strategy, the final copper ion and productivity reached 89.1mg/L and 2.23mg/(Ld), respectively, which was improved by 52.8% compared to the uncontrolled batch bioleaching. The integrated strategy could be further exploited for industrial chalcopyrite bioleaching.

Community dynamics of attached and free cells and the effects of attached cells on chalcopyrite bioleaching by Acidithiobacillus sp

The community dynamics of attached and free cells of Acidithiobacillus sp. were investigated and compared during chalcopyrite bioleaching process. In the mixed strains system, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans was the dominant species at the early stage while Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans owned competitive advantage from the middle stage to the end of bioprocess. Meanwhile, compared to A. ferrooxidans, more significant effects of attached cells on free biomass with A. thiooxidans were shown in either the pure or mixed strains systems. Moreover, the effects of attached cells on key chemical parameters were also studied in different adsorption-deficient systems. Consistently, the greatest reduction of key chemical ion was shown with A. thiooxidans and the loss of bioleaching efficiency was high to 50.5%. These results all demonstrated the bioleaching function of attached cells was more efficient than the free cells, especially with A. thiooxidans. These notable results would help us to further understand the chalcopyrite bioleaching.

A moderately thermophilic mixed microbial culture for bioleaching of chalcopyrite concentrate at high pulp density

Three kinds of samples (acid mine drainage, coal mine wastewater, and thermal spring) derived from different sites were collected in China. Thereafter, these samples were combined and then inoculated into a basal salts solution in which different substrates (ferrous sulfate, elemental sulfur, and chalcopyrite) served as energy sources. After that, the mixed cultures growing on different substrates were pooled equally, resulting in a final mixed culture. After being adapted to gradually increasing pulp densities of chalcopyrite concentrate by serial subculturing for more than 2 years, the final culture was able to efficiently leach the chalcopyrite at a pulp density of 20% (wt/vol). At that pulp density, the culture extracted 60.4% of copper from the chalcopyrite in 25 days. The bacterial and archaeal diversities during adaptation were analyzed by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and constructing clone libraries of the 16S rRNA gene. The results show that the culture consisted mainly of four species, including Leptospirillum ferriphilum, Acidithiobacillus caldus, Sulfobacillus acidophilus, and Ferroplasma thermophilum, before adapting to a pulp density of 4%. However, L. ferriphilum could not be detected when the pulp density was greater than 4%. Real-time quantitative PCR was employed to monitor the microbial dynamics during bioleaching at a pulp density of 20%. The results show that A. caldus was the predominant species in the initial stage, while S. acidophilus rather than A. caldus became the predominant species in the middle stage. F. thermophilum accounted for the greatest proportion in the final stage.

Optimizing mixed culture of two acidophiles to improve copper recovery from printed circuit boards (PCBs)

In the previous research, the effects of different addition time and amount of printed circuit boards (PCBs) on cells growth and metals recovery in separated and mixed culture of Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans and Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans were investigated. This paper aimed to optimize mixed culture of both acidophiles for maximizing PCBs addition amounts and copper leaching percentage simultaneously. Initially, influences of inoculums ratio between two acidophiles on their cells growth were studied. Then, initial medium pH and concentrations of FeSO4 · 7H2O and elemental sulfur (S(0)) were optimized by response surface methodology (RSM) to improve copper recovery. Finally, multiple-point PCBs addition was tested to determine maximal amounts. Results showed that with initial inoculums ratio (Af:At) 1:2, pH 1.56, FeSO4 · 7H2O and S(0) at 16.88 and 5.44 g/L, and PCBs addition 28.8 g/L, copper recovery reached 92.6% after 240 h cultivation. It was indicated that copper could be efficiently leached out from increased PCBs addition amount and FeSO4 · 7H2O was remarkably reduced from 22.1 to 16.88 g/L.

Two step meso-acidophilic bioleaching of chalcopyrite containing ball mill spillage and removal of the surface passivation layer

Meso-acidophilic bacterial leaching of ball mill spillage (containing chalcopyrite >80%) was carried out in an innovative two-step bioleaching method. The major drawback of meso-acidophilic bioleaching limiting industrial application is the passivation phenomenon over the ore surfaces in iron-sulfur rich environments. In the present study, we present a novel wash solution that efficiently removed the passivation layer. FTIR characterization of the bioleached sample indicated that the residues could be further leached to recover extra copper after wash solution application. XRD study indicated accumulation of sulfates (SO(4)(-)) of Na, K, Fe and oxy hydroxides of iron [FeO(OH)] in the form of jarosite outlining the passivation layer. SEM, FESEM-EDS studies indicated severe corrosion effects of the wash solution on the passivation layer. Two step bioleaching of the ore sample yielded 32.6% copper in 68days in the first interlude and post wash solution application yielded 10.8% additional copper.

A novel and highly efficient system for chalcopyrite bioleaching by mixed strains of Acidithiobacillus

An integrated bioleaching system (stable pH-silver ion-chloride ion) was firstly proposed to for improving the efficiency of chalcopyrite bioleaching by mixed strains of Acidithiobacillus. The individual effects of stable pH, silver ion, and chloride ion on bioleaching were respectively studied. The highest copper ion concentrations in each system were 45.8, 50.2, and 45.2 mg/l, respectively, when it was only 28.0 mg/l the blank system. Compared with the individual stable pH, silver or chloride ion systems, the relevance of biological and chemical reactions achieved a better balance in the integrated system (stable pH 1.3, 2.0 mg/l silver ion, and 2.5 g/l chloride ion). Moreover, the highest ferrous and sulfate ion concentrations implied less production of S0 membrane and jarosite precipitation. It was also demonstrated by the highest copper ion concentration 55.5 mg/l. These results all indicated that this system was a novel and believable strategy for effectively operating chalcopyrite bioleaching.

Bio-processing of copper from combined smelter dust and flotation concentrate: a comparative study on the stirred tank and airlift reactors

To scrutinize the influence of the design and type of the bioreactors on the bioleaching efficiency, the bioleaching were evaluated in a batch airlift and a batch stirred tank bioreactors with mixed mesophilic and mixed moderately thermophilic bacteria. According to the results, maximum copper recoveries were achieved using the cultures in the stirred tank bioreactors. It is worth noting that the main phase of the flotation concentrate was chalcopyrite (as a primary sulphide), but the smelter dust mainly contained secondary copper sulphides such as Cu(2)S, CuS, and Cu(5)FeS(4).Under optimum conditions, copper dissolution from the combined flotation concentrate and smelter dust (as an environmental hazard) reached 94.50% in the STR, and 88.02% in the airlift reactor with moderately thermophilic, after 23 days. Also, copper extractions calculated for the bioleaching using mesophilic bacteria were 48.73% and 37.19% in the STR (stirred tank reactor) and the airlift bioreactor, respectively. In addition, the SEM/EDS, XRD, chemical, and mineralogical analyses and studies confirmed the above results.

Bioleaching of chalcopyrite by defined mixed moderately thermophilic consortium including a marine acidophilic halotolerant bacterium

A defined mixed moderately thermophilic consortium including three terrestrial microorganisms (Leptospirillum ferriphilum, Acidithiobacillus caldus and Ferroplasma thermophilum) and a marine acidophilic halotolerant bacterium (Sulfobacillus sp. TPY) was constructed to evaluate its ability for bioleaching of chalcopyrite with the addition of sodium chloride (NaCl), and the community dynamics was monitored by real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR). It was found that Sulfobacillus sp. TPY was able to tolerate 2% (w/v) NaCl, while other three microorganisms were suppressed when the concentration of NaCl was higher than 0.35%. The results suggested that NaCl below certain concentration could improve copper extraction by using pure cultures or the consortium to bioleach chalcopyrite. Community dynamics analysis during bioleaching at 0.1% NaCl showed that Sulfobacillus sp. TPY was predominant species during the whole bioleaching process, L. ferriphilum and A. caldus were less at any time compared with Sulfobacillus sp. TPY. F. thermophilum had never been dominant species even in the final stage.

Investigation of energy gene expressions and community structures of free and attached acidophilic bacteria in chalcopyrite bioleaching

In order to better understand the bioleaching mechanism, expression of genes involved in energy conservation and community structure of free and attached acidophilic bacteria in chalcopyrite bioleaching were investigated. Using quantitative real-time PCR, we studied the expression of genes involved in energy conservation in free and attached Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans during bioleaching of chalcopyrite. Sulfur oxidation genes of attached A. ferrooxidans were up-regulated while ferrous iron oxidation genes were down-regulated compared with free A. ferrooxidans in the solution. The up-regulation may be induced by elemental sulfur on the mineral surface. This conclusion was supported by the results of HPLC analysis. Sulfur-oxidizing Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans and ferrous-oxidizing Leptospirillum ferrooxidans were the members of the mixed culture in chalcopyrite bioleaching. Study of the community structure of free and attached bacteria showed that A. thiooxidans dominated the attached bacteria while L. ferrooxidans dominated the free bacteria. With respect to available energy sources during bioleaching of chalcopyrite, sulfur-oxidizers tend to be on the mineral surfaces whereas ferrous iron-oxidizers tend to be suspended in the aqueous phase. Taken together, these results indicate that the main role of attached acidophilic bacteria was to oxidize elemental sulfur and dissolution of chalcopyrite involved chiefly an indirect bioleaching mechanism.

Effect of sodium chloride on sulfur speciation of chalcopyrite bioleached by the extreme thermophile Acidianus manzaensis

The influence of sodium chloride on dissolution of chalcopyrite and surface sulfur speciation during bioleaching of chalcopyrite with the extreme thermophile Acidianus manzaensis YN-25 was studied. The addition of sodium chloride accelerated the dissolution of chalcopyrite by reducing the accumulation of elemental sulfur layers on the mineral surface, resulting in an increase in the concentration of copper ions from 2.37g/L to 2.67g/L. Jarosite and elemental sulfur were found in the bioleached residues, while the amount of elemental sulfur accumulating on the mineral surface decreased drastically from 25.4% to 3.0% when 0.66g/L of sodium chloride was present during bioleaching. Therefore, the accumulation of elemental sulfur on the mineral surface is likely mainly responsible for the slowdown in the dissolution rate. The results indicated that bioleaching chalcopyrite with extreme thermophiles possessing high sulfur oxidation activity likely enhances dissolution of chalcopyrite by effectively removing elemental sulfur accumulating on the mineral surface.

Bioleaching of metal concentrates of waste printed circuit boards by mixed culture of acidophilic bacteria

Metal concentrates of printed circuit boards (PCBs) are the residue valuable metals from which non-metallic components are removed. The non-metallic components show bacterial toxicity in bioleaching process and can be recycled as well. In this study, the effects of initial pH, initial Fe(II) concentration, metal concentrate dosage, particle size, and inoculation quantity on the bioleaching were investigated so as to determine the optimum conditions and evaluate the feasibility of bioleaching of metal concentrates of PCBs by mixed culture of acidophilic bacteria (MCAB). The results showed that the initial pH and Fe(II) concentration played an important role in copper extraction and precipitate formation. Under the optimized conditions of initial pH 2.00, 12g/L initial Fe(II), 12g/L metal concentrate dosage, 10% inoculation quantity, and 60-80 mesh particle size, 96.8% the copper leaching efficiency was achieved in 45h, and aluminum and zinc 88.2% and 91.6% in 98h, respectively. All findings demonstrated that metals could be efficiently leached from metal concentrates of waste PCBs by using the MCAB, and the leaching period was shorten from about 8 days to 45h.

Sulfur oxidation activities of pure and mixed thermophiles and sulfur speciation in bioleaching of chalcopyrite

The sulfur oxidation activities of four pure thermophilic archaea Acidianus brierleyi (JCM 8954), Metallosphaera sedula (YN 23), Acidianus manzaensis (YN 25) and Sulfolobus metallicus (YN 24) and their mixture in bioleaching chalcopyrite were compared. Meanwhile, the relevant surface sulfur speciation of chalcopyrite leached with the mixed thermophilic archaea was investigated. The results showed that the mixed culture, with contributing significantly to the raising of leaching rate and accelerating the formation of leaching products, may have a higher sulfur oxidation activity than the pure cultures, and jarosite was the main passivation component hindering the dissolution of chalcopyrite, while elemental sulfur seemed to have no influence on the dissolution of chalcopyrite. In addition, the present results supported the former speculation, i.e., covellite might be converted from chalcocite during the leaching experiments, and the elemental sulfur may partially be the derivation of covellite and chalcocite.

Bioleaching of copper from waste printed circuit boards by bacterial consortium enriched from acid mine drainage

The objectives of this study were to evaluate the solubility of copper in waste printed circuit boards (PCBs) by bacterial consortium enriched from natural acid mine drainage, and to determine optimum conditions of bioleaching copper from PCBs. The results indicated that the extraction of copper was mainly accomplished indirectly through oxidation by ferric ions generated from ferrous ion oxidation bacteria. The initial pH and Fe(2+) concentration played an important role in copper extraction and precipitate formation. The leaching rate of copper was generally higher at lower PCB powder dosage. Moreover, a two-step process was extremely necessary for bacterial growth and obtaining an appropriate Fe(2+) oxidation rate; a suitable time when 6.25 g/L of Fe(2+) remained in the solution was suggested for adding PCB powder. The maximum leaching rate of copper was achieved 95% after 5 days under the conditions of initial pH 1.5, 9 g/L of initial Fe(2+), and 20 g/L of PCB powder. All findings demonstrated that copper could be efficiently solubilized from waste PCBs by using bacterial consortium, and the leaching period was shortened remarkably from about 12 days to 5 days.