Biosynthesis, Bioactivity, Biosafety and Applications of Antimicrobial Peptides for Human Health

Isolation and characterization of antimicrobial peptides from Lactobacillus: Exploring mechanisms of action

The rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria necessitates the development of novel antimicrobial agents. In this study, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) were isolated from Lactobacillus sp., yielding Bioactive Peptide I (BAP I) and Bioactive Peptide III (BAP III). Purified via gel filtration chromatography (GFC), these peptides were characterized by MALDI-TOF MS and SDS-PAGE, which confirmed their molecular masses as 4168.14 Da and 8076.45 Da, respectively, and verified their high purity. Both peptides demonstrated potent antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus sanguinis, Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus aureus, with BAP I exhibiting superior efficacy. This enhanced activity is likely due to its amphipathic structure and hydrophobic C-terminal region, which promote effective bacterial membrane disruption as evidenced by FE-SEM imaging. In addition to compromising membrane integrity, both BAP I and BAP III inhibited bacterial DNA polymerase activity, as shown by reduced PCR product formation. Complementary Circular Dichroism (CD) spectroscopy analysis indicated that peptide binding induced conformational changes in Taq polymerase, reducing its α-helical and β-sheet content while increasing the proportion of random coil structures-thus enhancing the enzyme's flexibility. Molecular docking and dynamics studies further revealed stable interactions between the peptides and the enzyme, suggesting a dual mechanism of action that targets both the bacterial membrane and DNA replication processes. Collectively, these findings highlight the significant potential of BAP I and BAP III as novel antimicrobial agents against multidrug-resistant infections. Future research should focus on evaluating their safety and clinical efficacy, as well as exploring their synergistic potential with existing antibiotics to advance these peptides as therapeutic alternatives.

Genomic and Phenotypic Insight into the Probiotic Potential of Lactic Acid Bacterial spp. Associated with the Human Gut Mucosa

Commensal microbiome-based health support is gaining respect in the medical community and new human gut-associated Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) strains must be evaluated for their probiotic potential. Here we characterized the phenotype and genomes of human ileocecal mucosa-associated LAB strains using metagenomic sequencing and in vitro testing. The strains characterized belonged to the genus Enterococcus (Enterococcus lactis NPL1366, NPL1371, and Enterococcus mundtii NPL1379) and Lactobacillus (Lactobacillus paragasseri, NPL1369, NPL1370, and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum NPL1378). Genome annotation suggested bacterial adaptation to both human physiological and industrial manufacturing-related stressors. Genes for histidine kinases in enterococci and Na + /K + antiporters and F0F1 ATP synthases in Lactobacillus strains may support their tolerance to acid seen in vitro. The bile salt hydrolase (BSH) gene in Lp. plantarum and L. paragasseri may help explain their reported bile salt deconjugation and cholesterol-lowering behavior. Thioredoxin is the principal antioxidant system, and several oxidases and general stress-related proteins are found in lactobacilli, most notably in L. plantarum NPL1378. Multiple adhesion and biofilm-related genes were predicted in the LAB genomes. Adhesion and biofilm-related genes figured prominently in the genomes of enterococcal strains, especially E. lactis, corresponding to its biofilm formation capacity in vitro. Bacteriocin and secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters in the sequenced genomes of E. lactis NPL1366 and Lp. plantarum NPL1378 may explain their in vitro pathogenic antagonism. Moreover, folate producing Lp. plantarum strain holds potential to be used in therapeutics or biofortification of food. All the strains were deemed safe through in vitro and in silico analysis. This basic genetic and phenotypic information supports their contention as probiotic adjuncts to conventional medical therapy.

Antibiotic conjugates: Using molecular Trojan Horses to overcome drug resistance

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become a global health crisis due to the rapid emergence of multi-drug-resistant bacteria. The paucity of novel antibiotics in the clinical pipeline has exacerbated this issue, thereby warranting the development of new antibacterial therapies. The 'Trojan Horse' strategy entails conjugating antibiotics with bioactive components that not only facilitate the entry of antibiotic molecules into bacterial cells by circumventing the membrane barriers, but also augment the effects of conventional antibiotics against recalcitrant pathogens. These Trojan Horse elements can also serve as a promising tool for repurposing drugs with hitherto unexamined antimicrobial activity, or drugs with limited clinical utility due to considerable toxic side effects. In this review, we have discussed the current state of research on antibiotic conjugates with monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and the iron-chelating siderophores. The rationale and mechanisms of different antibiotic conjugates have been summarized, and the preclinical and clinical evidence pertaining to the activity of these conjugates against drug-resistant pathogens have been reviewed. Furthermore, the challenges associated with the clinical translation of these novel antimicrobials, and the future research directions have also been discussed. While antibiotic conjugates offer an attractive alternative to conventional antimicrobials, there are several obstacles to their clinical translation. A greater understanding of the mechanisms underlying AMR, and continuing advances in genetic engineering, synthetic biology, and bioinformatics will be crucial in designing more selective, potent, and safe antibiotic conjugates for tackling multi-drug resistant (MDR) infections.

Progress in the classification, optimization, activity, and application of antimicrobial peptides

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) come from various sources and exhibit unique antimicrobial properties. Their rapid action, effectiveness, and resistance to resistance development make them promising alternatives to combat antibiotic resistance. In addition to its excellent antibacterial properties, AMPs have superior immunomodulatory, antitumor, and antiviral activities. In recent years, the demand for AMPs has continued to increase in many fields, especially in the medical field, and the prospects are extensive. However, AMPs have the disadvantages of expensive development cost, higher hemolysis, short half-life, susceptibility to degradation by protein hydrolases, low bioavailability, toxic side effects, and other disadvantages, which seriously limit the wide application of AMPs. Therefore, fewer AMPs have been approved for marketing or are undergoing clinical trials. The review covers the period from 2001 to 2025 and provides a detailed discussion by searching databases such as Google Scholar and Web of Science. This paper reviews the progress of research on AMPs sources, structures, optimization strategies, biological activities, mechanisms of action, and applications. In general, the development approaches and the number of new AMPs have increased significantly. The improvement technologies for AMPs high hemolysis, poor stability, low bioavailability and high cost have increased significantly. The development cost of AMPs is still high, but many AMPs have been widely used in clinical, food, livestock, poultry, cosmetics and other fields. This article focuses on the commonly used optimization strategies and main activities of AMPs, aiming to effectively respond to challenges and provide a theoretical basis for expanding their application range.

Carbon cycle of polyhydroxyalkanoates (CCP): Biosynthesis and biodegradation

Carbon neutrality of bioactive materials is vital in promoting sustainable development for human society. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) is a class of typical carbon-cycle bio-polyesters synthesized by microorganisms using sugars, organic acids, and even carbon dioxide. PHAs first degrade into 3-hydroxybutyrate (3HB) before further breaking down into carbon dioxide and water, aligning with carbon-neutral goals. Due to their diverse molecular structures and material properties, excellent biocompatibility, and controlled biodegradability, PHAs have found widespread applications in environmental protection and biomedicine. However, challenges persist in achieving cost-effective PHA production and reusing degradation products. Additionally, understanding the carbon pathways in PHA synthesis and degradation remains limited. In this review, we first introduce the concept of the Carbon Cycle of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (CCP) and describe the biosynthetic pathways of aromatic monomers, carbon conversion processes, and PHA degradation in compost, soil, and marine environments. This will help us fully understand the sustainable utilization value of PHA as a biomaterial. Future trends point to integrating synthetic biology with emerging technologies to produce low-cost, high-value PHAs, supporting global green and low-carbon development.

Deep Learning for Antimicrobial Peptides: Computational Models and Databases

Antimicrobial peptides are a promising strategy to combat antimicrobial resistance. However, the experimental discovery of antimicrobial peptides is both time-consuming and laborious. In recent years, the development of computational technologies (especially deep learning) has provided new opportunities for antimicrobial peptide prediction. Various computational models have been proposed to predict antimicrobial peptide. In this review, we focus on deep learning models for antimicrobial peptide prediction. We first collected and summarized available data resources for antimicrobial peptides. Subsequently, we summarized existing deep learning models for antimicrobial peptides and discussed their limitations and challenges. This study aims to help computational biologists design better deep learning models for antimicrobial peptide prediction.

Optimization of enzymatic production of anti-skin aging biopeptides from white sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench] grain

Recently, kafirins from white sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench] grain have shown promise as a source of biopeptides with anti-skin aging effects (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and inhibition of photoaging-associated enzymes). This study employed response surface methodology (RSM) to optimize the extraction and enzymatic hydrolysis of kafirins (KAF) for the production of peptides with anti-skin aging properties. The optimization of conditions (reaction time and enzyme/substrate ratio) for liquefaction with α-amylase and hydrolysis of KAF with alcalase was performed using 32 complete factorial designs. Subsequently, ultrafiltered peptide extracts were obtained with molecular weights of 1-3 kDa (KAF-UF3) and lower than 1 kDa (KAF-UF1), which mainly contain hydrophobic amino acids (proline, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, and valine) and peptide fractions with molecular weights of 0.69, 1.14, and 1.87 kDa. Consequently, the peptide extracts protected immortalized human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) from ultraviolet B radiation (UVB)-induced damage by preventing the decrease and/or restoring the activity of antioxidant enzymes [superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px)]. Furthermore, KAF-UF3 and KAF-UF1 inhibited (20-29%) elastase and collagenase overactivity in UVB-exposed murine fibroblasts (3T3 cells). Thus, KAF-UF3 and KAF-UF1 exhibited behavior similar to that observed with glutathione (GSH), suggesting their potential as functional peptide ingredients in skincare products.

Plant Antimicrobial Peptides and Their Main Families and Roles: A Review of the Literature

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are constituent molecules of the innate defense system and are naturally produced by all organisms. AMPs are characterized by a relatively low molecular weight (less than 10 kDa) and a variable number of cysteine residues that form disulfide bonds and contribute to the stabilization of the tertiary structure. In addition, there is a wide repertoire of antimicrobial agents against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa that can provide a large number of prototype peptides for study and biochemical manipulation. In this sense, plant AMPs stand out because they have a wide range of biological functions against microorganisms and potential applications in medicine and agriculture. Herein, we describe a mini-review of the principal AMP families, such as defensins, lipid transfer proteins (LTPs), thionins, heveins, and cyclotides. The objective of this work was to present the main discoveries regarding the biological activities of these plant AMP families, especially in the last 20 years. We also discuss the current knowledge of their biological activities, gene expression, and possible uses as antimicrobial molecules and in plant biotechnology.

Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate)-based microspheres as a sustained platform for Huperzine A delivery for alzheimer's disease therapy

Huperzine A (HupA) is used in Alzheimer's disease (AD) therapy for its effective inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and enhancement of cholinergic neuronal function. However, direct oral administration and injection of HupA cause side effects like nausea, anorexia, and rapid metabolism. Using a tripolymer, poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate (PBVHx), from the polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) family synthesized via synthetic biology, we present a novel AD therapy strategy with peritoneally administered PBVHx microspheres loaded with HupA (HupA-PBVHxMs). This approach extends HupA's metabolic duration in the blood and brain, enhancing AChE inhibition efficacy. Uniformly sized HupA-PBVHxMs, created using microfluidics and rotary evaporation, show up to 70.4 % drug encapsulation efficiency, sustained HupA release for 40 days, reduced neurotoxicity from Aβ25-35, and maintained in vivo HupA supply and AChE inhibition for over 20 days. In cognitive tests, HupA-PBVHxMs improved function in AD mice. Thus, PBVHx microspheres with slower HupA release and lower biotoxicity offer a superior platform for sustained AChE inhibitor release, outperforming commercial PLGA microspheres.

LL-37_Renalexin hybrid peptide exhibits antimicrobial activity at lower MICs than its counterpart single peptides

An alarming global public health and economic peril has been the emergence of antibiotic resistance resulting from clinically relevant bacteria pathogens, including Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species constantly exhibiting intrinsic and extrinsic resistance mechanisms against last-resort antibiotics like gentamycin, ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, colistin, and standard ampicillin prescription in clinical practices. The discovery and applications of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with antibacterial properties have been considered and proven as alternative antimicrobial agents to antibiotics. In this study, we have designed, produced, and purified a recombinant novel multifunctional hybrid antimicrobial peptide LL-37_Renalexin for the first time via the application of newly designed flexible GS peptide linker coupled with the use of our previously characterized small metal-binding proteins SmbP and CusF3H+ as carrier proteins that allow for an enhanced bacterial expression, using BL21(DE3) and SHuffle T7(DE3) Escherichia coli strains, and purification of the hybrid peptide via immobilized metal affinity chromatography. The purified tag-free LL-37_Renalexin hybrid peptide exhibited above 85% reduction in bacteria colony-forming units and broad-spectrum antimicrobial effects against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteria clinical isolates at a lower minimum inhibition concentration level (10-33 μM) as compared to its counterpart single-AMPs LL-37 and Renalexin (50-100 μM). KEY POINTS: • The hybrid antimicrobial peptide LL-37_Renalexin has been designed using a GS linker. • The peptide was expressed with the carrier proteins SmbP and CusF3H+. • The hybrid peptide shows antibacterial potency against clinical bacterial isolates.

Amphiphilic Oligonucleotide Derivatives-Promising Tools for Therapeutics

Recent advances in genetics and nucleic acid chemistry have created fundamentally new tools, both for practical applications in therapy and diagnostics and for fundamental genome editing tasks. Nucleic acid-based therapeutic agents offer a distinct advantage of selectively targeting the underlying cause of the disease. Nevertheless, despite the success achieved thus far, there remain unresolved issues regarding the improvement of the pharmacokinetic properties of therapeutic nucleic acids while preserving their biological activity. In order to address these challenges, there is a growing focus on the study of safe and effective delivery methods utilising modified nucleic acid analogues and their lipid bioconjugates. The present review article provides an overview of the current state of the art in the use of chemically modified nucleic acid derivatives for therapeutic applications, with a particular focus on oligonucleotides conjugated to lipid moieties. A systematic analysis has been conducted to investigate the ability of amphiphilic oligonucleotides to self-assemble into micelle-like structures, as well as the influence of non-covalent interactions of such derivatives with serum albumin on their biodistribution and therapeutic effects.

Recent approaches in the application of antimicrobial peptides in food preservation

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are small peptides existing in nature as an important part of the innate immune system in various organisms. Notably, the AMPs exhibit inhibitory effects against a wide spectrum of pathogens, showcasing potential applications in different fields such as food, agriculture, medicine. This review explores the application of AMPs in the food industry, emphasizing their crucial role in enhancing the safety and shelf life of food and how they offer a viable substitute for chemical preservatives with their biocompatible and natural attributes. It provides an overview of the recent advancements, ranging from conventional approaches of using natural AMPs derived from bacteria or other sources to the biocomputational design and usage of synthetic AMPs for food preservation. Recent innovations such as structural modifications of AMPs to improve safety and suitability as food preservatives have been discussed. Furthermore, the active packaging and creative fabrication strategies such as nano-formulation, biopolymeric peptides and casting films, for optimizing the efficacy and stability of these peptides in food systems are summarized. The overall focus is on the spectrum of applications, with special attention to potential challenges in the usage of AMPs in the food industry and strategies for their mitigation.

Advances in medical polyesters for vascular tissue engineering

Blood vessels are highly dynamic and complex structures with a variety of physiological functions, including the transport of oxygen, nutrients, and metabolic wastes. Their normal functioning involves the close and coordinated cooperation of a variety of cells. However, adverse internal and external environmental factors can lead to vascular damage and the induction of various vascular diseases, including atherosclerosis and thrombosis. This can have serious consequences for patients, and there is an urgent need for innovative techniques to repair damaged blood vessels. Polyesters have been extensively researched and used in the treatment of vascular disease and repair of blood vessels due to their excellent mechanical properties, adjustable biodegradation time, and excellent biocompatibility. Given the high complexity of vascular tissues, it is still challenging to optimize the utilization of polyesters for repairing damaged blood vessels. Nevertheless, they have considerable potential for vascular tissue engineering in a range of applications. This summary reviews the physicochemical properties of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), polycaprolactone (PCL), poly-lactic acid (PLA), and poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), focusing on their unique applications in vascular tissue engineering. Polyesters can be prepared not only as 3D scaffolds to repair damage as an alternative to vascular grafts, but also in various forms such as microspheres, fibrous membranes, and nanoparticles to deliver drugs or bioactive ingredients to damaged vessels. Finally, it is anticipated that further developments in polyesters will occur in the near future, with the potential to facilitate the wider application of these materials in vascular tissue engineering.

Thermosensitive Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxane Hybrid Hydrogel Enhances the Antibacterial Efficiency of Erythromycin in Bacterial Keratitis

Bacterial keratitis is a serious ocular infection that can impair vision or even cause blindness. The clinical use of antibiotics is limited due to their low bioavailability and drug resistance. Hence, there is a need to develop a novel drug delivery system for this infectious disease. In this study, erythromycin (EM) was encapsulated into a bifunctional polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (BPOSS) with the backbone of the poly-PEG/PPG urethane (BPEP) hydrogel with the aim of improving the drug efficiency in treating bacterial keratitis. A comprehensive characterization of the BPEP hydrogel was performed, and its biocompatibility was assessed. Furthermore, we carried out the evaluation of the antimicrobial effect of the BPEP-EM hydrogel in S. aureus keratitis using in vivo mouse model. The BPEP hydrogel exhibited self-assembling and thermogelling properties, which assisted the drug loading of drug EM and improved its water solubility. Furthermore, the BPEP hydrogel could effectively bind with mucin on the ocular surface, thereby markedly prolonging the ocular residence time of EM. In vivo testing confirmed that the BPEP-EM hydrogel exerted a potent therapeutic action in the mouse model of bacterial keratitis. In addition, the hydrogel also exhibited an excellent biocompatibility. Our findings demonstrate that the BPEP-EM hydrogel showed a superior therapeutic effect in bacterial keratitis and demonstrated its potential as an ophthalmic formulation.

Research on Food Preservation Based on Antibacterial Technology: Progress and Future Prospects

The nutrients present in food are not only prone to a series of physicochemical reactions but also provide conditions for the growth and reproduction of foodborne microorganisms. In recent years, many innovative methods from different fields have been introduced into food preservation, which extends the shelf life while maximizing the preservation of the original ingredients and properties of food. In this field, there is a lack of a systematic summary of new technologies emerging. In view of this, we overview the innovative methods applied to the field of food preservation in recent 3 years, focusing on a variety of technological approaches such as antimicrobial photodynamic therapy based on nanotechnology, electromagnetic radiation sterilization based on radiation technology, and antimicrobial peptides based on biomolecules. We also discuss the preservation mechanism and the application of the different methods to specific categories of products. We evaluated their advantages and limitations in the food industry, describing their development prospects. In addition, as microorganisms are the main causes of food spoilage, our review also has reference significance for clinical antibacterial treatment.

Antimicrobial Peptides towards Clinical Application-A Long History to Be Concluded

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are molecules with an amphipathic structure that enables them to interact with bacterial membranes. This interaction can lead to membrane crossing and disruption with pore formation, culminating in cell death. They are produced naturally in various organisms, including humans, animals, plants and microorganisms. In higher animals, they are part of the innate immune system, where they counteract infection by bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites. AMPs can also be designed de novo by bioinformatic approaches or selected from combinatorial libraries, and then produced by chemical or recombinant procedures. Since their discovery, AMPs have aroused interest as potential antibiotics, although few have reached the market due to stability limits or toxicity. Here, we describe the development phase and a number of clinical trials of antimicrobial peptides. We also provide an update on AMPs in the pharmaceutical industry and an overall view of their therapeutic market. Modifications to peptide structures to improve stability in vivo and bioavailability are also described.

Double crosslinking decellularized bovine pericardium of dialdehyde chondroitin sulfate and zwitterionic copolymer for bioprosthetic heart valves with enhanced antithrombogenic, anti-inflammatory and anti-calcification properties

Due to the increasing aging population and the advancements in transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR), the use of bioprosthetic heart valves (BHVs) in patients diagnosed with valvular disease has increased substantially. Commercially available glutaraldehyde (GA) cross-linked biological valves suffer from reduced durability due to a combination of factors, including the high cell toxicity of GA, subacute thrombus, inflammation and calcification. In this study, oxidized chondroitin sulfate (OCS), a natural polysaccharide derivative, was used to replace GA to cross-link decellularized bovine pericardium (DBP), carrying out the first crosslinking of DBP to obtain OCS-BP. Subsequently, the zwitterion radical copolymerization system was introduced in situ to perform double cross-linking to obtain double crosslinked BHVs with biomimetic modification (P(APM/MPC)-OCS-BP). P(APM/MPC)-OCS-BP presented enhanced mechanical properties, collagen stability and enzymatic degradation resistance due to double crosslinking. The ex vivo AV-shunt assay and coagulation factors test suggested that P(APM/MPC)-OCS-BP exhibited excellent anticoagulant and antithrombotic properties due to the introduction of P(APM/MPC). P(APM/MPC)-OCS-BP also showed good HUVEC-cytocompatibility due to the substantial reduction of its residual aldehyde group. The subcutaneous implantation also demonstrated that P(APM/MPC)-OCS-BP showed a weak inflammatory response due to the anti-inflammatory effect of OCS. Finally, in vivo and in vitro results revealed that P(APM/MPC)-OCS-BP exhibited an excellent anti-calcification property. In a word, this simple cooperative crosslinking strategy provides a novel solution to obtain BHVs with good mechanical properties, and HUVEC-cytocompatibility, anti-coagulation, anti-inflammatory and anti-calcification properties. It might be a promising alternative to GA-fixed BP and exhibited good prospects in clinical applications.

Directed osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells via sustained release of BMP4 from PBVHx-based nanoparticles

Bone Morphogenetic Protein 4 (BMP4) is crucial for bone and cartilage tissue regeneration, essential in medical tissue engineering, cosmetology, and aerospace. However, its cost and degradation susceptibility pose significant clinical challenges. To enhance its osteogenic activity while reducing dosage and administration frequency, we developed a novel long-acting BMP4 delivery system using poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) (PBVHx) nanoparticles with soybean lecithin-modified BMP4 (sBP-NPs). These nanoparticles promote directed osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs) through sustained BMP4 release. sBP-NPs exhibited uniform size (100-200 nm) and surface charges, with higher BMP4 entrapment efficiency (82.63 %) compared to controls. After an initial burst release within 24 h, sBP-NPs achieved 80 % cumulative BMP4 release within 20 days, maintaining levels better than control BP-NPs with unmodified BMP4. Co-incubation and nanoparticle uptake experiments confirmed excellent biocompatibility of sBP-NPs, promoting hBMSC differentiation towards osteogenic lineage with increased expression of type I collagen, calcium deposition, and ALP activity (> 20,000 U/g protein) compared to controls. Moreover, hBMSCs treated with sBP-NPs exhibited heightened expression of osteogenic genetic markers, surpassing control groups. Hence, this innovative strategy of sustained BMP4 release from sBP-NPs holds potential to revolutionize bone regeneration in minimally invasive surgery, medical cosmetology or space environments.

Antimicrobial Hydrogels: Potential Materials for Medical Application

Microbial infections based on drug-resistant pathogenic organisms following surgery or trauma and uncontrolled bleeding are the main causes of increased mortality from trauma worldwide. The prevalence of drug-resistant pathogens has led to a significant increase in medical costs and poses a great threat to the normal life of people. This is an important issue in the field of biomedicine, and the emergence of new antimicrobial materials hydrogels holds great promise for solving this problem. Hydrogel is an important material with good biocompatibility, water absorption, oxygen permeability, adhesion, degradation, self-healing, corrosion resistance, and controlled release of drugs as well as structural diversity. Bacteria-disturbing hydrogels have important applications in the direction of surgical treatment, wound dressing, medical device coating, and tissue engineering. This paper reviews the classification of antimicrobial hydrogels, the current status of research, and the potential of antimicrobial hydrogels for one application in biomedicine, and analyzes the current research of hydrogels in biomedical applications from five aspects: metal-loaded hydrogels, drug-loaded hydrogels, carbon-material-loaded hydrogels, hydrogels with fixed antimicrobial activity and biological antimicrobial hydrogels, and provides an outlook on the high antimicrobial activity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, injectability, clinical applicability and future development prospects of hydrogels in this field.

Nitric oxide releasing novel amino acid-derived polymeric nanotherapeutic with anti-inflammatory properties for rapid wound tissue regeneration

Endogenous gasotransmitter nitric oxide (NO) is a central signalling molecule that modulates wound healing by maintaining homeostasis, collagen formation, wound contraction, anti-microbial action and accelerating tissue regeneration. The optimum delivery of NO using nanoparticles (NPs) is clinically challenging; hence, it is drawing significant attention in wound healing. Herein, a novel polymeric nanoplatform loaded with sodium nitroprusside (SP) NPs was prepared and used for wound healing to obtain the sustained release of NO in therapeutic quantities. SP NPs-induced excellent proliferation (∼300%) of mouse fibroblast (L929) cells was observed. With an increase in the SP NPs dose at 200 μg mL-1 concentration, a 200% upsurge in proliferation was observed along with enhanced migration, and only 17.09 h were required to fill the 50% gap compared to 37.85 h required by the control group. Further, SP NPs showed an insignificant impact on the coagulation cascade, revealing safe wound-healing treatment when tested in isolated rat RBCs. Additionally, SP NPs exhibited excellent angiogenic activity at a 10 μg mL-1 dose. Moreover, the formulated SP nanoformulation is non-irritant, non-toxic, and does not produce any skin sensitivity reaction on the rat's skin. Further, an in vivo wound healing study revealed that within 11 days of treatment with SP nanoformulation, 99.2 ± 1.0% of the wound was closed, while in the control group, only 45.5 ± 3.8% was repaired. These results indicate that owing to sustained NO release, the SP NP and SP nanoformulations are paramount with enormous clinical potential for the regeneration of wound tissues.

Evaluation of physicochemical, textural, and microbial characteristics of probiotic soy cheese during storage: Generation and isolation of bioactive peptides

The purpose of this study was to ascertain how probiotic culture affected the physicochemical, textural, and microbiological characteristics of probiotic soy cheese during storage. Moreover, the release of bioactive peptides during fermentation and storage was examined. Each cheese sample was made from one of the probiotic cultures of Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lacticaseibacillus casei, and Bifidobacterium lactis. Peptide extracts were prepared from these samples and fractionated using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The sample containing L. acidophilus had the highest dry matter and hardness. The samples with L. acidophilus and B. lactis, respectively, had the highest concentrations of lactic acid and acetic acid. During storage the acidity, dry matter, lactic acid, acetic acid, and hardness of the samples increased but the pH, springiness, and cohesiveness reduced (P < 0.05). All samples had a probiotic count greater than 107 CFU/g at the end of the storage. Antibacterial and antioxidant properties were found in the peptide fractions that were extracted from the samples. T2F4 (the fourth fraction separated from L. casei sample) had the greatest functional properties. Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis revealed the existence of peptide with a molecular mass of 5-10 kDa. Therefore, produced cheese is regarded as a suitable source of potentially bioactive peptides which can be utilized in food industry.

Charged Fibrous Dressing to Promote Diabetic Chronic Wound Healing

Diabetic chronic wounds cause a significant amount of pain to patients because of their low cure rates and high recurrence rates. Traditional approaches to treating diabetic chronic wounds often involve the delivery of drugs or cytokines that regulate the microenvironment and eliminate bacterial infection in the wound area, but they are passive in controlling cell behaviors and may lead to drug resistance. Emerging drug-free wound treatments are important for convenient, effective, and safe treatment strategies. However, the current approaches cannot fully promote tissue regeneration or prevent bacterial infections. Here, the efficacy of a negatively charged fiber dressing in promoting diabetic chronic wound healing is investigated. The negatively charged fiber dressing can generate reactive oxygen species to inhibit bacterial reproduction with the assistance of ultrasound during the inflammatory phase. Furthermore, the dressing provides an electrostatic field that regulates cellular behavior during the inflammatory and proliferative phases. In particular, the dressing can promote fibroblast migration and induce macrophage polarization and neovascularization without any additional drugs. It is demonstrated that this strategy enables the healing of diabetic chronic wounds in a mouse model, achieving effective wound closure over a 12-day treatment cycle and providing a drug-free therapeutic strategy for diabetic chronic wound care.

Design of biodegradable polyurethanes and post-modification with long alkyl chains via inhibiting biofilm formation and killing drug-resistant bacteria for the treatment of wound bacterial infection

The development of cationic polymers that simulate antimicrobial peptides to treat bacterial infections has received much research interest. In order to obtain polymers that can not only eradicate bacteria but also inhibit biofilm formation, without inducing bacterial drug resistance, a series of cationic polymers have been developed. Despite recent progress, the chemical structures of these polymers are stable, making them recalcitrant to biodegradation and metabolism within organisms, potentially inducing long-term toxicity. To overcome this limitation, herein, a novel strategy of designing biodegradable polyurethanes with tertiary amines and quaternary ammonium salts via condensation polymerization and post-functionalizing them is reported. These polymers were found to exhibit potent antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, effectively prevent the formation of Staphylococcus aureus biofilms, act quickly and effectively against bacteria and display no resistance after repeated use. In addition, the potent in vivo antibacterial effects of these antimicrobial polyurethanes in a mouse model with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infection are demonstrated.

Self-Penetrating Oligonucleotide Derivatives: Features of Self-Assembly and Interactions with Serum and Intracellular Proteins

Lipophilic oligonucleotide derivatives are a potent approach to the intracellular delivery of nucleic acids. The binding of these derivatives to serum albumin is a determinant of their fate in the body, as its structure contains several sites of high affinity for hydrophobic compounds. This study focuses on the features of self-association and non-covalent interactions with human serum albumin of novel self-penetrating oligonucleotide derivatives. The study revealed that the introduction of a triazinyl phosphoramidate modification bearing two dodecyl groups at the 3' end region of the oligonucleotide sequence has a negligible effect on its affinity for the complementary sequence. Dynamic light scattering verified that the amphiphilic oligonucleotides under study can self-assemble into micelle-like particles ranging from 8 to 15 nm in size. The oligonucleotides with dodecyl groups form stable complexes with human serum albumin with a dissociation constant of approximately 10-6 M. The oligonucleotide micelles are simultaneously destroyed upon binding to albumin. Using an electrophoretic mobility shift assay and affinity modification, we examined the ability of DNA duplexes containing triazinyl phosphoramidate oligonucleotides to interact with Ku antigen and PARP1, as well as the mutual influence of PARP1 and albumin or Ku antigen and albumin upon interaction with DNA duplexes. These findings, together with the capability of dodecyl-containing derivatives to effectively penetrate different cells, such as HEK293 and T98G, indicate that the oligonucleotides under study can be considered as a platform for the development of therapeutic preparations with a target effect.

Bioorthogonal Guided Activation of cGAS-STING by AIE Photosensitizer Nanoparticles for Targeted Tumor Therapy and Imaging

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) leverage reactive oxygen species (ROS) and control local hyperthermia by photosensitizer to perturb intracellular redox equilibrium, inducing DNA damage in both mitochondria and nucleus, activating the cGAS-STING pathway, ultimately eliciting antitumor immune responses. However, current photosensitizers are encumbered by limitations such as suboptimal tumor targeting, aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ), and restricted excitation and emission wavelengths. Here, this work designs novel nanoparticles based on aggregation-induced emission (AIE) photosensitizer (BODTPE) for targeted tumor therapy and near-infrared II fluorescence imaging (NIR-II FLI) with enhanced PDT/PTT effects. BODTPE is employed as a monomer, dibenzocyclooctyne (DBCO)-PEG2k -amine serving as an end-capping polymer, to synthesize a BODTPE-containing polymer (DBD). Further, through self-assembly, DBD and mPEG-DSPE2k combined to form nanoparticles (NP-DBD). Notably, the DBCO on the surface of NP-DBD can react with azide groups on cancer cells pretreated with Ac4 ManNAz through a copper-free click reaction. This innovative formulation led to targeted accumulation of NP-DBD within tumor sites, a phenomenon convincingly demonstrated in murine tumor models subjected to N-azidoacetylmannosamine-tetraacylated (Ac4 ManNAz) pretreatment. Significantly, NP-DBD exhibits a multifaceted effect encompassing PDT/PTT/NIR-II FLI upon 808 nm laser irradiation, thereby better activating the cGAS-STING pathway, culminating in a compelling tumor inhibition effect augmented by robust immune modulation.

A three-in-one nanoplatform with photo/chemodynamic activities combined with glutathione depletion for treating bacterial infections

The misuse of antibiotics leading to bacterial multidrug resistance is responsible for severe infectious diseases and a significant cause of mortality worldwide, resulting in numerous human disasters. Photodynamic antibacterial therapy (PDAT) is a promising strategy against multiantibiotic-resistant bacteria, but its antibacterial activity is greatly limited by reduced glutathione (GSH) in bacteria. In this study, we constructed a nanoplatform through the formation of metal chelating complexes (FeP) between ferric and pyrophosphate ions, with subsequent adsorption of the photosensitizer ZnPc(COOH)8 (octa-carboxyl substituted zinc phthalocyanine) mediated by polylysine (PL) on the surface. The nanocomplexes FeP@PL:ZnPc(COOH)8 exhibited the capacity of GSH depletion and chemodynamic activity, which synergistically enhanced PDAT efficacy. FeP@PL:ZnPc(COOH)8 possessed the excellent antibacterial activity in vivo and in vitro, which might be attributed to the increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), reduced GSH level in bacteria, improved bacterial uptake, and enhanced destruction of the bacterial outer membrane. Moreover, FeP@PL:ZnPc(COOH)8 exhibited accelerated wound healing efficacy and the ability to recognize bacteria-infected wounds, rendering it an effective theranostic nanoplatform for bacterial infections. The construction strategy of nanocomplexes in this study holds theoretical and practical significance for high-efficiency synergistic photodynamic and chemodynamic antibacterial therapy.

Enhancing the Antimicrobial Properties of Peptides through Cell-Penetrating Peptide Conjugation: A Comprehensive Assessment

Combining antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) has shown promise in boosting antimicrobial potency, especially against Gram-negative bacteria. We examined the CPP-AMP interaction with distinct bacterial types based on cell wall differences. Our investigation focused on AMPs incorporating penetratin CPP and dihybrid peptides containing both cell-penetrating TAT protein fragments from the human immunodeficiency virus and Antennapedia peptide (Antp). Assessment of the peptides TAT-AMP, AMP-Antp, and TAT-AMP-Antp revealed their potential against Gram-positive strains (Staphylococcus aureus, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and Bacillus cereus). Peptides TAT-AMP and AMP-Antp using an amyloidogenic AMP from S1 ribosomal protein Thermus thermophilus, at concentrations ranging from 3 to 12 μM, exhibited enhanced antimicrobial activity against B. cereus. TAT-AMP and TAT-AMP-Antp, using an amyloidogenic AMP from the S1 ribosomal protein Pseudomonas aeruginosa, at a concentration of 12 µM, demonstrated potent antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and MRSA. Notably, the TAT-AMP, at a concentration of 12 µM, effectively inhibited Escherichia coli (E. coli) growth and displayed antimicrobial effects similar to gentamicin after 15 h of incubation. Peptide characteristics determined antimicrobial activity against diverse strains. The study highlights the intricate relationship between peptide properties and antimicrobial potential. Mechanisms of AMP action are closely tied to bacterial cell wall attributes. Peptides with the TAT fragment exhibited enhanced antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, MRSA, and P. aeruginosa. Peptides containing only the Antp fragment displayed lower activity. None of the investigated peptides demonstrated cytotoxic or cytostatic effects on either BT-474 cells or human skin fibroblasts. In conclusion, CPP-AMPs offer promise against various bacterial strains, offering insights for targeted antimicrobial development.

Photothermal antibacterial materials to promote wound healing

Wound healing is a crucial process that restores the integrity and function of the skin and other tissues after injury. However, external factors, such as infection and inflammation, can impair wound healing and cause severe tissue damage. Therefore, developing new drugs or methods to promote wound healing is of great significance. Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising technique that uses photothermal agents (PTAs) to convert near-infrared radiation into heat, which can eliminate bacteria and stimulate tissue regeneration. PTT has the advantages of high efficiency, controllability, and low drug resistance. Hence, nanomaterial-based PTT and its related strategies have been widely explored for wound healing applications. However, a comprehensive review of PTT-related strategies for wound healing is still lacking. In this review, we introduce the physiological mechanisms and influencing factors of wound healing, and summarize the types of PTAs commonly used for wound healing. Then, we discuss the strategies for designing nanocomposites for multimodal combination treatment of wounds. Moreover, we review methods to improve the therapeutic efficacy of PTT for wound healing, such as selecting the appropriate wound dressing form, controlling drug release, and changing the infrared irradiation window. Finally, we address the challenges of PTT in wound healing and suggest future directions.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates: the natural biopolyester for future medical innovations

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are a family of natural microbial biopolyesters with the same basic chemical structure and diverse side chain groups. Based on their excellent biodegradability, biocompatibility, thermoplastic properties and diversity, PHAs are highly promising medical biomaterials and elements of medical devices for applications in tissue engineering and drug delivery. However, due to the high cost of biotechnological production, most PHAs have yet to be applied in the clinic and have only been studied at laboratory scale. This review focuses on the biosynthesis, diversity, physical properties, biodegradability and biosafety of PHAs. We also discuss optimization strategies for improved microbial production of commercial PHAs via novel synthetic biology tools. Moreover, we also systematically summarize various medical devices based on PHAs and related design approaches for medical applications, including tissue repair and drug delivery. The main degradation product of PHAs, 3-hydroxybutyrate (3HB), is recognized as a new functional molecule for cancer therapy and immune regulation. Although PHAs still account for only a small percentage of medical polymers, up-and-coming novel medical PHA devices will enter the clinical translation stage in the next few years.

Effective Healing of Staphylococcus aureus-Infected Wounds in Pig Cathelicidin Protegrin-1-Overexpressing Transgenic Mice

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are promising alternatives to existing treatments for multidrug-resistant bacteria-infected wounds. Therefore, the effect of protegrin-1 (PG1), a potent porcine AMP with broad-spectrum activity, on wound healing was evaluated. PG1-overexpressing transgenic mice were used as an in vivo model to evaluate its healing efficiency against Staphylococcus aureus-infected (10⁶ colony forming units) wounds. We analyzed the wounds under four specific conditions in the presence or absence of antibiotic treatment. We observed the resolution of bacterial infection and formation of neo-epithelium in S. aureus-infected wounds of the mice, even without antibiotic treatment, whereas all wild-type mice with bacterial infection died within 8 to 10 days due to uncontrolled bacterial proliferation. Interestingly, the wound area on day 7 was smaller (p < 0.01) in PG1 transgenic mice than that in the other groups, including antibiotic-treated mice, suggesting that PG1 exerts biological effects other than bactericidal effect. Additionally, we observed that the treatment of primary epidermal keratinocytes with recombinant PG1 enhanced cell migration in in vitro scratch and cell migration assays. This study contributes to the understanding of broad-spectrum endogenous cathelicidins with potent antimicrobial activities, such as PG1, on wound healing. Furthermore, our findings suggest that PG1 is a potent therapeutic candidate for wound healing.

Improving effect of soy whey-derived peptide on the quality characteristics of functional yogurt

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of bioactive peptides isolated from soy whey on the physicochemical, sensory, and microbiological characteristics of yogurt during storage. Trypsin was utilized to hydrolyze soy whey protein at 45°C for 4 h. Then, the resulting protein hydrolysate was fractionated using reversed phase-high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Since the F7 fraction showed the best antioxidant and antibacterial capabilities, different levels (6.5, 13, and 17 mg/mL) of this peptide fraction were added to yogurt. A control sample (without the bioactive peptide) was also prepared. Yogurt samples were stored for 3 weeks. With the increase in peptide concentration, the antioxidant activity of yogurt increased while viscosity and syneresis decreased (p < .05). During storage, yogurt acidity, syneresis, and viscosity increased while pH and antioxidant activity declined (p < .05). The addition of bioactive peptide reduced the quantity of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in yogurt during storage (p < .05), and the reduction in bacterial quantity was stronger as the peptide content was increased. The sample containing the largest concentration of peptide (17 mg/mL) got the lowest overall acceptability score. The level of 13 mg/mL of the peptide was chosen as the best concentration for yogurt fortification in terms of overall acceptance and functional properties. Therefore, soy whey-derived peptide can be utilized as a functional component as well as a natural preservative in yogurt.

Improving the Sustainability of Processing By-Products: Extraction and Recent Biological Activities of Collagen Peptides

Society and consumers are increasingly concerned about food safety and the sustainability of food production systems. A significant amount of by-products and discards are generated during the processing of aquatic animals, which still needs to be fully utilized by the food industry. The management and sustainable use of these resources are essential to avoiding environmental pollution and resource waste. These by-products are rich in biologically active proteins, which can be converted into peptides by enzymatic hydrolysis or fermentation treatment. Therefore, exploring the extraction of collagen peptides from these by-products using an enzymatic hydrolysis technology has attracted a wide range of attention from numerous researchers. Collagen peptides have been found to possess multiple biological activities, including antioxidant, anticancer, antitumor, hypotensive, hypoglycemic, and anti-inflammatory properties. These properties can enhance the physiological functions of organisms and make collagen peptides useful as ingredients in food, pharmaceuticals, or cosmetics. This paper reviews the general methods for extracting collagen peptides from various processing by-products of aquatic animals, including fish skin, scales, bones, and offal. It also summarizes the functional activities of collagen peptides as well as their applications.

Diversity of Antimicrobial Peptides in Silkworm

Antimicrobial resistance is a phenomenon that the present-day world is witnessing that poses a serious threat to global health. The decline in the development of novel therapeutics over the last couple of decades has exacerbated the situation further. In this scenario, the pursuit of new alternative therapeutics to commonly used antibiotics has gained predominance amongst researchers across the world. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) from natural sources have drawn significant interest in the recent years as promising pharmacological substitutes over the conventional antibiotics. The most notable advantage of AMPs is that microorganisms cannot develop resistance to them. Insects represent one of the potential sources of AMPs, which are synthesized as part of an innate immune defence against invading pathogens. AMPs from different insects have been extensively studied, and silkworm is one of them. Diverse classes of AMPs (including attacins, cecropins, defensins, enbocins, gloverins, lebocins and moricins) were identified from silkworm that exhibit antimicrobial property against bacteria, fungi and viruses, indicating their potential therapeutic benefits. This review briefs about the immune responses of silkworm to invading pathogens, the isolation of AMPs from silkworms, AMPs reported in silkworms and their activity against various microorganisms.

Biomimetic natural biomaterials for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine: new biosynthesis methods, recent advances, and emerging applications

Biomimetic materials have emerged as attractive and competitive alternatives for tissue engineering (TE) and regenerative medicine. In contrast to conventional biomaterials or synthetic materials, biomimetic scaffolds based on natural biomaterial can offer cells a broad spectrum of biochemical and biophysical cues that mimic the in vivo extracellular matrix (ECM). Additionally, such materials have mechanical adaptability, microstructure interconnectivity, and inherent bioactivity, making them ideal for the design of living implants for specific applications in TE and regenerative medicine. This paper provides an overview for recent progress of biomimetic natural biomaterials (BNBMs), including advances in their preparation, functionality, potential applications and future challenges. We highlight recent advances in the fabrication of BNBMs and outline general strategies for functionalizing and tailoring the BNBMs with various biological and physicochemical characteristics of native ECM. Moreover, we offer an overview of recent key advances in the functionalization and applications of versatile BNBMs for TE applications. Finally, we conclude by offering our perspective on open challenges and future developments in this rapidly-evolving field.

Soluble mediators of innate immunity in annelids and bivalve mollusks: A mini-review

Annelids and mollusks, both in the superphylum of Lophotrochozoa (Bilateria), are important ecological groups, widespread in soil, freshwater, estuarine, and marine ecosystems. Like all invertebrates, they lack adaptive immunity; however, they are endowed with an effective and complex innate immune system (humoral and cellular defenses) similar to vertebrates. The lack of acquired immunity and the capacity to form antibodies does not mean a lack of specificity: invertebrates have evolved genetic mechanisms capable of producing thousands of different proteins from a small number of genes, providing high variability and diversity of immune effector molecules just like their vertebrate counterparts. This diversity allows annelids and mollusks to recognize and eliminate a wide range of pathogens and respond to environmental stressors. Effector molecules can kill invading microbes, reduce their pathogenicity, or regulate the immune response at cellular and systemic levels. Annelids and mollusks are "typical" lophotrochozoan protostome since both groups include aquatic species with trochophore larvae, which unite both taxa in a common ancestry. Moreover, despite their extensive utilization in immunological research, no model systems are available as there are with other invertebrate groups, such as Caenorhabditis elegans or Drosophila melanogaster, and thus, their immune potential is largely unexplored. In this work, we focus on two classes of key soluble mediators of immunity, i.e., antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and cytokines, in annelids and bivalves, which are the most studied mollusks. The mediators have been of interest from their first identification to recent advances in molecular studies that clarified their role in the immune response.

Exploring Active Peptides with Antimicrobial Activity In Planta against Xylella fastidiosa

Xylella fastidiosa (Xf) is a xylem-limited quarantine plant bacterium and one of the most harmful agricultural pathogens across the world. Despite significant research efforts, neither a direct treatment nor an efficient strategy has yet been developed for combatting Xylella-associated diseases. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been gaining interest as a promising sustainable tool to control pathogens due to their unique mechanism of action, broad spectrum of activity, and low environmental impact. In this study, we disclose the bioactivity of nine AMPs reported in the literature to be efficient against human and plant pathogen bacteria, i.e., Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, against Xf, through in vitro and in vivo experiments. Based on viable-quantitative PCR (v-qPCR), fluorescence microscopy (FM), optical density (OD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) assays, peptides Ascaphin-8 (GF19), DASamP1 (FF13), and DASamP2 (IL14) demonstrated the highest bactericidal and antibiofilm activities and were more efficient than the peptide PB178 (KL29), reported as one of the most potent AMPs against Xf at present. Furthermore, these AMPs showed low to no toxicity when tested on eukaryotic cells. In in planta tests, no Xf disease symptoms were noticed in Nicotiana tabacum plants treated with the AMPs 40 days post inoculation. This study highlighted the high antagonistic activity of newly tested AMP candidates against Xf, which could lead to the development of promising eco-friendly management of Xf-related diseases.

Advances in modified hyaluronic acid-based hydrogels for skin wound healing

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a natural linear anionic polysaccharide with many unique characteristics such as excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability, native biofunctionality, hydrophilicity, and non-immunoreactivity. HA plays crucial roles in numerous biological processes, including the inflammatory response, cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, differentiation, angiogenesis, and tissue regeneration. All these properties and biological functions of HA make it an appealing material for the synthesis of biomedical hydrogels for skin wound healing. Since HA is not able to be gelate alone, it must be processed and functionalized through chemical modifications and crosslinking to generate versatile HA-based hydrogels. In recent years, different physical and chemical crosslinking strategies for HA-based hydrogels have been developed and designed, such as radical polymerization, Schiff-base crosslinking, enzymatic crosslinking, and dynamic covalent crosslinking, and they have broad and promising applications in skin wound healing and tissue engineering. In this review, we focus on chemical modification and crosslinking strategies for HA-based hydrogels, aiming to provide an overview of the latest advances in the development of HA-based hydrogels for skin wound healing. We summarize and propose feasible measures for the application of HA-based hydrogels for skin treatment, and discuss future application trends, which may ultimately promote HA-based hydrogels as a promising biomaterial for clinical applications.