Field dissipation of 4-nonylphenol, 4-t-octylphenol, triclosan and bisphenol A following land application of biosolids

Simultaneous determination of the free and total forms of nonylphenol, nonylphenol monoethoxylate, and nonylphenol diethoxylate in human urine by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Nonylphenol (NP), nonylphenol monoethoxylate (NP1EO), and nonylphenol diethoxylate (NP2EO) are widely used in various daily products and have been cataloged as endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Due to their high lipophilicity and low biodegradability, these compounds remain in the environment and enter the human body through the food chain. Growing concerns regarding the potential negative effects of NP, NP1EO, and NP2EO on human health have raised the need for biomonitoring to investigate human exposure to these compounds. In this study, a simultaneous analysis method using solid-phase extraction (SPE) combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was established by controlling the background contamination of NP, NP1EO, and NP2EO, which are ubiquitous in laboratory environments. The proposed method showed proper linearity of over 0.999 and a recovery greater than 85.8% for all analytes. Accuracy and precision were verified in ranges of 92.97-116.30% and 0.65-9.29%, respectively. The detection limits for NP, NP1EO, and NP2EO were 0.0363 μg L-1, 0.0401 μg L-1, and 0.0364 μg L-1, respectively, which were suitable for determining the trace analytes in human urine. Therefore, this simple and integrated analytical method was applied to measure the free and total forms of the target analytes in 25 human urine samples collected in Korea. Overall, free NP, NP1EO, and NP2EO were detected with average contents of 3.94 ± 4.14 μg L-1, 4.63 ± 2.62 μg L-1, and 0.293 ± 0.638 μg L-1, respectively, and with total NP, NP1EO, and NP2EO contents of 6.14 ± 8.24 μg L-1, 5.99 ± 2.91 μg L-1, and 0.806 ± 1.10 μg L-1, respectively. These data showed that these compounds are prevalent in human urine, and indicate the need for further studies.

Bisphenol A is more potent than bisphenol S in influencing the physiological and pathological functions of lungs via inducing lung fibrosis and stimulating metastasis

Bisphenol A (BPA) is widely used in the production of plastics, food containers, and receipt ink globally. However, research has identified it as an endocrine disruptor, affecting the hormonal balance in living organisms. Bisphenol S (BPS), one of the alternative substances, was developed, but its effects on human health and the underlying mechanisms remain unclarified. Specifically, research on the effects of oral exposure to bisphenol on the lungs is lacking. We examined the potential differences in toxicity between these compounds in lung cells in vitro and in vivo. Our toxicity mechanism studies on MRC5 and A549 cells exposed to BPA or BPS revealed that BPA induced actin filament abnormalities and activated epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). This finding suggests an increased potential for lung fibrosis and metastasis in lung cancer. However, given that BPS was not detected at the administered dose and under the specific experimental conditions, the probability of these occurrences is considered minimal. Additionally, animal experiments confirmed that oral exposure to BPA activates EMT in the lungs. Our study provides evidence that prolonged oral exposure to BPA can lead to EMT activation in lung tissue, similar to that observed in cell experiments, suggesting the potential to induce lung fibrosis. This research emphasizes the importance of regulating the use of BPA to mitigate its associated pulmonary toxicity. Furthermore, it is significant that within the parameters of our experimental conditions, BPS did not exhibit the toxicological pathways clearly evident in BPA.

Toxicity of bisphenol A (BPA) and its derivatives in divers biological models with the assessment of molecular mechanisms of toxicity

The aim of the study was to determine totoxicity of bisphenol A (BPA) and its derivatives (bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F (BPF), and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA)) due to its high accumulation in environment. The performed analysis revealed the toxicity of the BPA, BPF, and BPS against Kurthia gibsoni, Microbacterium sp., and Brevundimonas diminuta as the most sensitive, reaching microbial toxic concentrations in the range of 0.018-0.031 mg ∙ L^-1. Moreover, the genotoxicity assay shows the ability of all tested compounds to increase in the β-galactosidase level at the concentration range 7.81-500 µM (in Escherichia coli, PQ37). In turn, the matbolic activation of tested bishpenols has caused the enhacement of the genotoxicity and cytotoxicity effect. Interestingely, the highest phytotoxicity effect was pointed for BPA and TBBPA at the concentrations of 10 mg ∙ L^-1 and 50 mg ∙ L^-1, which cause the inhibition of root growth by 58% and 45%, respectively (especially for S. alba and S. saccharatum). Furthermore, the cytotoxicity analyses show the ability of BPA, BPS, and TBBPA to significantly decrease the metabolic activity of human keratynoctes in vitro after 24 h of treatment at the micromolar concentrations. Simialry, the impact of the certain bisphenols on proliferation-, apoptosis-, and inflammation-related mRNA expression was shown in tested cell line. Summarizing, the presented results have proved that BPA and its derrivatives are able to show high negative effect on certain living orgnisms such as bacteria, plants, and human cells, which is strict related to pro-apoptotic and genotoxic mechanism of action.

An insight into bisphenol A, food exposure and its adverse effects on health: A review

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic chemical widely employed to synthesize epoxy resins, polymer materials, and polycarbonate plastics. BPA is abundant in the environment, i.e., in food containers, water bottles, thermal papers, toys, medical devices, etc., and is incorporated into soil/water through leaching. Being a potent endocrine disrupter, and has the potential to alter several body mechanisms. Studies confirmed its anti-androgen action and estrogen-like effects, which impart many negative health impacts, especially on the immune system, neuroendocrine process, and reproductive mechanism. Moreover, it can also induce mutagenesis and carcinogenesis, as per recent scientific research. This review focuses on BPA's presence and concentrations in different environments, food sources and the basic mechanisms of BPA-induced toxicity and health disruptions. It is a unique review of its type because it focuses on the association of cancer, hormonal disruption, immunosuppression, and infertility with BPA. These issues are widespread today, and BPA significantly contributes to their incidence because of its wide usage in daily life utensils and other accessories. The review also discusses researched-based measures to cope with the toxic chemical.

Effect of Separate and Combined Toxicity of Bisphenol A and Zinc on the Soil Microbiome

The research objective was established by taking into account common sources of soil contamination with bisphenol A (B) and zinc (Zn²⁺), as well as the scarcity of data on the effect of metabolic pathways involved in the degradation of organic compounds on the complexation of zinc in soil. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the spectrum of soil homeostasis disorders arising under the pressure of both the separate and combined toxicity of bisphenol A and Zn²⁺. With a broad pool of indicators, such as indices of the effect of xenobiotics (IF_X), humic acid (IF_H), plants (IF_P), colony development (CD), ecophysiological diversity (EP), the Shannon-Weaver and the Simpson indices, as well as the index of soil biological fertility (BA₂₁), the extent of disturbances was verified on the basis of enzymatic activity, microbiological activity, and structural diversity of the soil microbiome. A holistic character of the study was achieved, having determined the indicators of tolerance (IT) of Sorghum Moench (S) and Panicum virgatum (P), the ratio of the mass of their aerial parts to roots (PR), and the SPAD leaf greenness index. Bisphenol A not only failed to perform a complexing role towards Zn²⁺, but in combination with this heavy metal, had a particularly negative effect on the soil microbiome and enzymatic activity. The NGS analysis distinguished certain unique genera of bacteria in all objects, representing the phyla Actinobacteriota and Proteobacteria, as well as fungi classified as members of the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Sorghum Moench (S) proved to be more sensitive to the xenobiotics than Panicum virgatum (P).

Bisphenol A-A Dangerous Pollutant Distorting the Biological Properties of Soil

Bisphenol A (BPA), with its wide array of products and applications, is currently one of the most commonly produced chemicals in the world. A narrow pool of data on BPA–microorganism–plant interaction mechanisms has stimulated the following research, the aim of which has been to determine the response of the soil microbiome and crop plants, as well as the activity of soil enzymes exposed to BPA pressure. A range of disturbances was assessed, based on the activity of seven soil enzymes, an abundance of five groups of microorganisms, and the structural diversity of the soil microbiome. The condition of the soil was verified by determining the values of the indices: colony development (CD), ecophysiological diversity (EP), the Shannon–Weaver index, and the Simpson index, tolerance of soil enzymes, microorganisms and plants (TI_BPA), biochemical soil fertility (BA₂₁), the ratio of the mass of aerial parts to the mass of plant roots (PR), and the leaf greenness index: Soil and Plant Analysis Development (SPAD). The data brought into sharp focus the adverse effects of BPA on the abundance and ecophysiological diversity of fungi. A change in the structural composition of bacteria was noted. Bisphenol A had a more beneficial effect on the Proteobacteria than on bacteria from the phyla Actinobacteria or Bacteroidetes. The microbiome of the soil exposed to BPA was numerously represented by bacteria from the genus Sphingomonas. In this object pool, the highest fungal OTU richness was achieved by the genus Penicillium, a representative of the phylum Ascomycota. A dose of 1000 mg BPA kg⁻¹ d.m. of soil depressed the activity of dehydrogenases, urease, acid phosphatase and β-glucosidase, while increasing that of alkaline phosphatase and arylsulfatase. Spring oilseed rape and maize responded significantly negatively to the soil contamination with BPA.

Ageing affects microplastic toxicity over time: Effects of aged polycarbonate on germination, growth, and oxidative stress of Lepidium sativum

Plastic has been an environmental pollutant far longer than claimed by the first reports surfacing in 1979, meaning some plastic materials have been decaying in nature for decades. Nevertheless, the threat posed to biota is not fully understood, especially from aged microplastic. The question considered in this study was whether the adverse effects of new plastic differ from those of old plastic material. Therefore, the morphological and physiological effects on Lepidium sativum with exposure to both new and aged polycarbonate were considered against a known stressor leaching from polycarbonate with time, bisphenol-A. Exposure to new and short-term aged polycarbonate (up to 80 days) elicited the most severe effects such as germination inhibition, reduced seedling growth, decreased chlorophyll concentrations, and increased catalase activity. These adverse effects in L. sativum associated with polycarbonate exposure were reduced as a function of the ageing time applied to the polycarbonate. The chemical substances that lend new polycarbonate material its toxicity were likely leached with time during the ageing process. Based on the results obtained, temperature and humidity based artificial ageing significantly reduced the phytotoxicity of the microplastic particles.

Bisphenol A in the Canadian environment: A multimedia analysis

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial chemical that has been identified by some jurisdictions as an environmental concern. In 2010, Canada concluded that this substance posed a risk to the environment and human health, and implemented actions to reduce its concentrations in the environment. To support these activities, a multimedia analysis of BPA in the Canadian environment was conducted to evaluate spatial and temporal trends, and to infer mechanisms influencing the patterns. BPA was consistently detected in wastewater and biosolids across Canadian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and in landfill leachate. In addition, BPA concentrations were significantly higher in surface water downstream compared to upstream of WWTPs in three of five urban areas evaluated. However, application of biosolids to Canadian agricultural fields did not contribute to elevated BPA concentrations in soil, earthworms, and European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) plasma one and two years post-treatment. Spatial trends of BPA concentrations in surface water and sediment are influenced by human activity, with higher concentrations typically found downstream of industrial sources and WWTPs in urban areas. BPA was detected in bird plasma at locations impacted by WWTPs and landfills. However, spatial trends in birds were less clear and may have been confounded by metabolic biotransformation. In terms of temporal trends, BPA concentrations in surface water decreased significantly at 10 of 16 monitoring sites evaluated between 2008 and 2018. In contrast, recent temporal trends of BPA in six sediment cores were variable, which may be a result of biotransformation of the flame retardant tetrabromobisphenol A to BPA. Overall, our study provides evidence that Government of Canada actions have been generally successful in reducing BPA concentrations in the Canadian environment. Our results indicate that long-term monitoring programs using surface water are more effective than other media for tracking and understanding future environmental trends of BPA.

Occurrence, fate, and persistence of emerging micropollutants in sewage sludge treatment

Sludge generated at sewage treatment plants is of environmental concern due to the voluminous production and the presence of a high concentration of emerging contaminants (ECs). This review discusses the fate of ECs in sewage sludge treatment with an emphasis on fundamental mechanisms driving the degradation of compounds based on chemical properties of the contaminant and process operating conditions. The removal of ECs in sewage sludge through various treatment processes of sludge stabilization, such as anaerobic digestion (AD), composting, and pre-treatment methods (thermal, sonication, and oxidation) followed by AD, are discussed. Several transformation mechanisms and remediation strategies for the removal of ECs in sludge are summarized. The study concludes that pH, sludge type, and the types of functional groups are the key factors affecting the sorption of ECs to sludge. During conventional waste stabilization processes such as composting, the degradation of ECs depends on the type of feedstock (TOC, N, P, C/N, C/P) and the initial concentration of the contaminant. In AD, the degree of degradation depends on the hydrophilicity of the compound. The estrogenicity of the sludge may sometimes increase due to the conversion to estrogenic compounds. The pre-treatment techniques can increase the partitioning of ECs in the soluble fraction resulting in enhanced biodegradation up to 10-60%. However, the formation of by-products and loss of OH· to scavenging under high organic content during advanced oxidation processes can make the process uneconomical and require further research.

Micropollutant fluxes in urban environment - A catchment perspective

This study provided a holistic understanding of the sources, fate and behaviour of 142 compounds of emerging concern (CECs) throughout a river catchment impacted by 5 major urban areas. Of the incoming 169.3 kg d^-1 of CECs entering the WwTWs, 167.9 kg d^-1 were present in the liquid phase of influent and 1.4 kg d^-1 were present in the solid phase (solid particulate matter, SPM). Analysis of SPM was important to determine accurate loads of incoming antidepressants and antifungal compounds, which are primarily found in the solid phase. Furthermore, these classes and the plasticiser, bisphenol A (BPA) were the highest contributors to CEC load in digested solids. Population normalised loads showed little variation across the catchment at 154 ± 12 mg d^-1 inhabitant^-1 indicating that population size is the main driver of CECs in the studied catchment. Across the catchment 154.6 kg d^-1 were removed from the liquid phase during treatment processes. CECs discharged into surface waters from individual WwTWs contributed between 0.19 kg d^-1 at WwTW A to 7.3 kg d^-1 at WwTW E, which correlated strongly with the respective contributing populations. Spatial and temporal variations of individual CECs and their respective classes were found in WwTW influent (both solid (influent_SPM) and liquid phases (influent_AQ)) throughout the catchment, showing that different urban areas impact the catchment in different ways, with key variables being lifestyle, use of over-the-counter pharmaceuticals and industrial activity. Understanding of both spatial and temporal variation of CECs at the catchment level helped to identify possible instances of direct disposal, as in the case of carbamazepine. Analysis of surface waters throughout the catchment showed increasing mass loads of CECs from upstream of WwTW A to downstream at WwTW D, showing clear individual contributions from WwTWs. Many CECs were ubiquitous throughout the river water in the catchment. Daily loads ranged from 0.005 g d^-1 (ketamine, WwTW A) up to 1890.3 g d^-1 (metformin, WwTW C) for the 84/138 CECs that were detected downstream of the WwTWs. For metformin this represents the equivalent of ∼1,890 tablets (1,000 mg per tablet) dissolved in the river water downstream of WwTW C.

Effect of ageing process on bisphenol A sorption and retention in agricultural soils amended with biochar

The ageing of biochar and organic pollutant itself in soils can both influence the retention of organic pollutant in field soils. In this study, column experiments were adopted to determine the effect of ageing process on bisphenol A (BPA) sorption and retention in two typical Chinese agricultural soils with lychee branch biochar added. The effect of biochar ageing on soil organic matter (SOM) was specially investigated. Experimental results showed that the addition of biochar significantly increased the condensation and rigid of SOM, which could further increase with biochar ageing in soils. As a result, the addition of biochar significantly increased BPA sorption capacity (5.86 times and 3.30 times) and retention rate (13.60 times and 4.47 times) in fluvo-aquic soil and phaeozem respectively, while BPA sorption capacity and retention rate decreased obviously after biochar ageing in the two soils for 2 months as compared with the freshly incorporated biochar treatments, which may be attributed to the surface coverage and/or pore blockage of some sorption sites owning to DOC. With biochar incorporated, 2 months of BPA ageing increased BPA retention rate by about 4.50 times in both soils as compared with BPA newly spiked treatments. The results of this study could provide important parameters for prediction and control of organic pollutants such as BPA in soils.

Potential for phytoremediation of nonylphenol from sewage sludge

Nonylphenol (NP) is considered a major contaminant that must be removed to enable safe and environmentally friendly land application of sewage sludge. Phytoremediation is a technology in which plants are used to remove and/or stabilize organic and inorganic contaminants present in the soil, municipal wastewater, and sewage sludge. In this study, a 391-d large pot experiment was conducted to remove NP from sewage sludge by phytoremediation using Zea mays L. 'Yunshi-5', Lolium perenne L., and co-cropping of the two plants. The fate of NP in the soil under the sewage sludge was assessed at the same time. At the end of the experiment, the NP levels in sludge from the various treatments were as follows: control (38.60%) > L. perenne (31.27%) > Z. mays (16.25%) > co-cropping (15.28%). Degradation followed an availability-adjusted first-order kinetics with a decreasing order of half-lives as follows: control (88.2 d) > L. perenne (87.3 d) > co-cropping (66.2 d) > Z. mays (59.1 d). The results indicated that Z. mays and co-cropping could both degrade NP. The concentrations of NP in tissues of different plants differed significantly. The mean bioconcentration factors for Z. mays and L. perenne were 0.16 and 3.69, respectively. Direct removal of NP from sewage sludge by plant uptake was negligible, as was downward movement of NP in the system. Moreover, NP was not detected in soils in any treatments at harvest.

A preliminary ecological and human health risk assessment for organic contaminants in composted municipal solid waste generated in New South Wales, Australia

Land application of composted municipal solid waste (C-MSW) can divert waste from landfill but can also be a route of entry into the environment for contaminants. This study presents a preliminary human health and ecological risk assessment for organic contaminants in C-MSW generated in New South Wales, Australia, to identify and prioritise contaminants of concern. Following an initial screening assessment, terrestrial and aquatic risks were assessed by predicted soil and water concentrations, respectively. The assessment ranked contaminants as very high, high, medium or low priority. A qualitative review was then used to identify contaminants of concern, which included polybrominated diphenyl ethers, phthalates, bisphenol A and dibutyltin. Phenol was initially categorised as very high priority but due to its rapid degradation in soil, this is likely to be overly-conservative. The herbicides dicamba and MCPA were categorised as medium priority or higher but due to uncertainties in the data, these categories are also likely to be overly-conservative. A range of contaminants had concentrations below the screening criteria and were therefore considered low risk. Many contaminants were below the limit of reporting in all samples and were therefore not considered to be sufficiently distributed in the material to pose a risk. Some contaminants were detected in the material but could not be assessed as no criteria were available. The information from this study can be used by regulators when managing land application of C-MSW to ensure that the risks to human health and the environment are managed appropriately.

Amendment of municipal sewage sludge with lime and mussel shell: Effects on fate of organic matter and pharmaceutically active compounds

The deterioration in its strength from long-term degradation of organic matter and release of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) have caused adverse environmental effects in municipal sewage sludge (MSS) landfill. Lime and a mixture of lime and mussel shell were employed as potential stabilization agents for MSS in this work. Their efficacy was assessed by investigating the effects on transformation of organic matter, as well as the occurrence and fate of four PhACs (fluoxetine, gemfibrozil, triclosan and carbamazepine) over 42 days. The addition of the selected agents: (i) prevented the microbial degradation of organic matter; (ii) modified the predominant functional groups of amide groups (amide I and II) and polysaccharides to deprotonated carboxylic groups and destruction of amide groups; and (iii) shifted the abundance of organic constituents from microbial by-products to humic acid-like organics with conformational changes. The measurement method provided reliable and precise results for determining PhAC concentrations in MSS with and without amendment, although matrix effects and process effects were found to affect measurement sensitivity. Available fractions of the PhACs increased in MSS with lime addition, but decreased in the presence of the mixture of lime and mussel shell due to the strong adsorption effects of the shells. The mixture of lime and mussel shell would be recommended for stabilizing MSS prior to being landfilled. However, longer term and larger scale investigation may be needed to better evaluate the applicability of lime and mussel shell for reducing the hazards and facilitating the management of MSS.

Fate of triclocarban in agricultural soils after biosolid applications

Triclocarban [N-(4-chlorophenyl)-N-(3,4-dichlorophenyl) urea] (TCC) is an antimicrobial agent utilized in a variety of consumer products. It is commonly released into domestic wastewaters and upon treatment, it is known to accumulate in biosolids. This study examines the occurrence of TCC in biosolids and its long-term fate in biosolid-treated soils. TCC levels in the biosolids from a large waste water treatment plant (WWTP) over 2 years showed little variability at 18,800 ± 700 ng g^-1 dry wt. (mean ± SEM). Surface soil samples (top 10 cm) were collected from 26 commercial farms located in northern VA, US that had received biosolid applications from the WWTP. Samples were grouped as farms receiving no biosolids, farms with a single biosolid application, and those receiving multiple biosolid applications from 1992 to 2006. Our results illustrate that TCC soil residues remained years after biosolid application. The two most important parameters controlling TCC topsoil concentrations were the biosolid application rate and the period since the last application. No TCC removal was observed in farms where the time since biosolid application was between 7 and 9 months. TCC concentration analyzed 7 and 8 years after biosolid applications were 45.8 ± 6.1 and 72.4 ± 15.3 ng g^-1 dry wt., respectively, showing its persistence in soils and build-up upon multiple biosolid applications. A soil TCC half-life of 287.5 ± 45.5 days was estimated.

Quantitative risk assessment of antimicrobials in biosolids applied on agricultural land and potential translocation into food

The use of biosolids as a fertiliser may be an indirect route for contaminants into the food chain. One of the main concerns regarding the spreading of biosolids on agricultural land is the potential uptake of contaminants into plants which may bio-transfer into grazing animals that supply the food chain directly (e.g. meat and milk) and hence are subsequently consumed. The aim of this project was to create a quantitative risk assessment model to estimate the fate and translocation of triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban (TCC) into the feed (grass) and food chain with subsequent human exposure. The model's results indicate that TCS and TCC have low potential to transfer into milk and beef following the ingestion of contaminated grass by dairy cows. Mean estimated TCS and TCC residues in milk and beef show that TCC had the greatest concentration (mean values of 7.77×10^-6mgkg^-1 in milk and 1.36×10^-4mgkg^-1 in beef). Human exposure results show that TCC was greater for milk consumption in infants (1-4years) (mean value 1.14×10^-7mgkg^-1bwd^-1) and for beef consumption by teens (12-17years) (mean value 6.87×10^-8mgkg^-1bwd^-1). Concentrations of TCS and TCC were well below the estimated acceptable daily intake (ADI). Human health risk was estimated by evaluation of the hazard quotient (HQ), which used the NOAEL as a toxicity endpoint, combined with milk and beef human exposure estimates. HQ results show that all values were <0.01 (no existing risk). A sensitivity analysis revealed that the K_ow and initial concentration in biosolids as the parameters of greatest importance (correlation coefficients 0.91 and 0.19, respectively). This highlights the importance of physio-chemical properties of the compounds and their detection in biosolids post wastewater treatment along with their persistence in soil following application. This model is a valuable tool in which to ascertain the potential transfer of contaminants in the environment into animal forage with knock on consequences for exposure through the human food chain.

Fate of pharmaceuticals in soil after application of STPs products: Influence of physicochemical properties and modelling approach

Depurated effluents can be employed as reclaimed water for irrigation in regions with low precipitations, while nutrients-rich biosolids are usually applied as fertilizer for agricultural purposes. However, both practices may result in the accumulation of micropollutants in the soil compartment, the contamination of groundwater, and/or their biotransfer to different living organisms until they finally may reach human receptors. The fate and transport of seven pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) with different physicochemical properties was analysed for these scenarios employing two different models: the buckets model and the HYDRUS-1D software package. The results indicated that these compounds have a low potential to contaminate groundwater in the type of soil under study (silty loam), although triclosan tended to accumulate in the top layers of the soil. Similar conclusions were reached through both models, although they predicted different solute plant uptake and accumulation patterns of the evaluated compounds. Therefore, the buckets model can be considered as an adequate option to perform a screening level assessment of these compounds. However, HYDRUS-1D could provide more information on the fate of pharmaceuticals in soil, thus contributing to reduce the uncertainty already associated to PPCPs. Additionally, the significant difference of the Hazard Index (HI) obtained from a human health risk assessment performed using the estimated soil concentrations from both models also contributed to recommend the use of a model that considers all the relevant mechanisms of mass transfer to reduce overestimation of risk.

The Florence Statement on Triclosan and Triclocarban

The Florence Statement on Triclosan and Triclocarban documents a consensus of more than 200 scientists and medical professionals on the hazards of and lack of demonstrated benefit from common uses of triclosan and triclocarban. These chemicals may be used in thousands of personal care and consumer products as well as in building materials. Based on extensive peer-reviewed research, this statement concludes that triclosan and triclocarban are environmentally persistent endocrine disruptors that bioaccumulate in and are toxic to aquatic and other organisms. Evidence of other hazards to humans and ecosystems from triclosan and triclocarban is presented along with recommendations intended to prevent future harm from triclosan, triclocarban, and antimicrobial substances with similar properties and effects. Because antimicrobials can have unintended adverse health and environmental impacts, they should only be used when they provide an evidence-based health benefit. Greater transparency is needed in product formulations, and before an antimicrobial is incorporated into a product, the long-term health and ecological impacts should be evaluated. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1788.

Nonylphenol induces pancreatic damage in rats through mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress

The organic alkylphenol 4-nonylphenol (NP) is regarded to be an endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC), one of the widely diffused and stable environmental contaminants. Due to its hydrophobicity and long half-life, NP can easily accumulate in living organisms, including humans, where it displays a series of toxic effects. It has been widely reported that NP affects male reproduction. In addition, there is increasing evidence suggesting that NP is detrimental to various organs, including the pancreas. This study investigated the adverse effects of NP exposure on the pancreas. Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with different doses of NP for 90 consecutive days. The data suggested that the body weights of the rats treated with NP decreased, and the highest dose of NP treatment (180 mg kg^-1) dramatically increased water consumption by rats. Meanwhile, H&E staining and immunohistochemistry indicated that islets in the pancreases shrunk when the rats were treated with the indicated doses of NP. TUNEL staining demonstrated that NP exposure up-regulated the level of apoptosis in the pancreases in a dose-dependent manner. Besides this, NP exposure inhibited the secretion of insulin and disrupted glucose tolerance. The levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]_i) in the islets were up-regulated in the groups of rats treated with NP, but the levels of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential (MMP) were down-regulated. These results suggest that NP-induced pancreatic damage in rats occurs through mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress, which causes disruption of glucose tolerance and decrease in insulin secretion.

Low-Dose Bisphenol A Exposure: A Seemingly Instigating Carcinogenic Effect on Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is the fifth most common cause of cancer death in the world and the second most common fatal cancer in women. Epidemiological studies and clinical data have indicated that hormones, including estrogen, progesterone, and prolactin, play important roles in the initiation and progression of breast cancer. Bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the most commonly used and thoroughly studied endocrine disruptors. It can be released from consumer products and deposited in the environment, thus creating potential for human exposure through oral, inhaled, and dermal routes. Some recent reviews have summarized the known mechanisms of endocrine disruptions by BPA in human diseases, including obesity, reproductive disorders, and birth defects. However, large knowledge gaps still exist on the roles BPA may play in cancer initiation and development. Evidence from animal and in vitro studies has suggested an association between increased incidence of breast cancer and BPA exposure at doses below the safe reference doses that are the most environmentally relevant. Most current studies have paid little attention to the cancer-promoting properties of BPA at low doses. In this review, recent findings on the carcinogenic effects of low-dose BPA on breast cancer and discussed possible biologic mechanisms are summarized.

Phytotoxicity of 15 common pharmaceuticals on the germination of Lactuca sativa and photosynthesis of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Pharmaceuticals reach terrestrial environments through the application of treated wastewaters and biosolids to agricultural soils. We have investigated the toxicity of 15 common pharmaceuticals, classified as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), blood lipid-lowering agents, β-blockers and antibiotics, in two photosynthetic organisms. Twelve pharmaceuticals caused inhibitory effects on the radicle and hypocotyl elongation of Lactuca sativa seeds. The EC50 values obtained were in the range of 170-5656 mg L-1 in the case of the radicle and 188-4558 mg L-1 for the hypocotyl. Propranolol was the most toxic drug for both root and hypocotyl elongation, followed by the NSAIDs, then gemfibrozil and tetracycline. Other effects, such as root necrosis, inhibition of root growth and curly hairs, were detected. However, even at the highest concentrations tested (3000 mg L-1), seed germination was not affected. NSAIDs decreased the photosynthetic yield of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, but only salicylic acid showed EC50 values below 1000 mg L-1. The first effects detected at low concentrations, together with the concentrations found in environmental samples, indicate that the use of biosolids and wastewaters containing pharmaceuticals should be regulated and their compositions assessed in order to prevent medium- and long-term impacts on agricultural soils and crops.

Inverse modeling of the biodegradation of emerging organic contaminants in the soil-plant system

Understanding the processes involved in the uptake and accumulation of organic contaminants into plants is very important to assess the possible human risk associated with. Biodegradation of emerging contaminants in plants has been observed, but kinetical studies are rare. In this study, we analyse experimental data on the uptake of emerging organic contaminants into lettuce derived in a greenhouse experiment. Measured soil, root and leaf concentrations from four contaminants were selected within the applicability domain of a steady-state two-compartment standard plant uptake model: bisphenol A (BPA), carbamazepine (CBZ), triclosan (TCS) and caffeine (CAF). The model overestimated concentrations in most cases, when no degradation rates in plants were entered. Subsequently, biodegradation rates were fitted so that the measured concentrations were met. Obtained degradation kinetics are in the order, BPA < CAF ≈ TCS < CBZ in roots, and BPA ≈ TCS < CBZ << CAF in leaves. Kinetics determined by inverse modeling are, despite the inherent uncertainty, indicative of the dissipation rates. The advantage of the procedure that is additional knowledge can be gained from existing experimental data. Dissipation kinetics found via inverse modeling is not a conclusive proof for biodegradation and confirmation by experimental studies is needed.

Risk assessment of persistent pharmaceuticals in biosolids: Dealing with uncertainty

A screening-level risk assessment of biosolids-borne PPCPs in agricultural scenarios was developed in this work. While several of these compounds are efficiently removed in sewage treatment plants (STPs), others are recalcitrant to degradation and can be found in sludge at significant levels. As the rate of biosolids reuse for fertilising and/or amendment purposes is increasing, it is necessary to evaluate the fate in soil and possible biotransfer of this type of pollutants in the long-term. The study includes six compounds that were selected considering data availability, presence in sludge and persistence. Due to the scarce data still present in literature, a probabilistic assessment to address uncertainty was developed. A 95th percentile of the hazard index (HI) exceeding 1 was obtained, with main contributions of triclosan and carbamazepine. Although these estimates were obtained under a worst-case approach, and that they can vary depending on scenario characteristics, they change the least-concern classification associated to the presence of PPCPs in biosolids. A sensitivity analysis indicates the high influence of application rate and sludge concentration level on the results. Thus, the importance of developing new strategies of removal in advanced STPs and the establishment of a specific biosolids reuse regulation including this type of compounds acquires an added significance.

Occurrence, fate and ecological risk of five typical azole fungicides as therapeutic and personal care products in the environment: A review

Azole fungicides are widely used to treat fungal infection in human. After application, these chemicals may reach to the receiving environment via direct or indirect discharge of wastewaters, thus posing potential risks to non-target organisms. We aimed to review the occurrence, fate and toxicological effects of some representative household azole fungicides in the environment. Azole fungicides were widely detected in surface water and sediment of the aquatic environment due to their incomplete removal in wastewater treatment plants. These chemicals are found resistant to microbial degradation, but can undergo photolysis under UV irradiation. Due to different physiochemical properties, azole fungicides showed different environmental behaviors. The residues of azole fungicides could cause toxic effects on aquatic organisms such as algae and fish. The reported effects include regulation changes in expression of cytochrome P450-related genes and alteration in CYP450-regulated steroidogenesis causing endocrine disruption in fish. Further studies are essential to investigate the removal of azole fungicides by advanced treatment technologies, environmental fate such as natural photolysis, and toxic pathways in aquatic organisms.

Fate of phthalates and BPA in agricultural and non-agricultural soils of the Paris area (France)

This study (i) investigated the concentration levels of nine phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) in sludge samples originating from a French wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), (ii) studied the distribution of target compounds according to soil depth and calculated their half-lives, and (iii) compared the contamination level of the agricultural soil with those of soils with other land uses. The sludge contamination levels varied from a few hundred nanograms per gram dry weight (dw) for diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-iso-butyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), and butyl-benzyl phthalate (BBP) to a few micrograms per gram dw for diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), di-iso-nonyl phthalate (DiNP), and di-iso-decyl phthalate (DiDP). After sludge application, an 8-fold increase for DEHP level and a 3-fold increase for BPA level occurred in the surface horizon of the soil. The mean distribution of phthalates according to the depth showed a positive gradient for the low molecular weight compounds and inversely, a negative gradient for the highest ones. The half-lives in the 0-20-cm soil horizon were 64 days for DEHP and 36 days for BPA. A predictive environmental concentration (PEC) of 0.3 μg g(-1) dw was estimated for DEHP, while the experimental value was 0.16 μg g(-1) dw, suggesting degradation processes in soil and/or formation of non-extractable residues. Comparisons of contamination levels for soils from different origins (urban, rural, agricultural, and forest) showed that the urban soil remained the most contaminated one, prior to the agricultural soil after treatment.

Global Assessment of Bisphenol A in the Environment: Review and Analysis of Its Occurrence and Bioaccumulation

Because bisphenol A (BPA) is a high production volume chemical, we examined over 500 peer-reviewed studies to understand its global distribution in effluent discharges, surface waters, sewage sludge, biosolids, sediments, soils, air, wildlife, and humans. Bisphenol A was largely reported from urban ecosystems in Asia, Europe, and North America; unfortunately, information was lacking from large geographic areas, megacities, and developing countries. When sufficient data were available, probabilistic hazard assessments were performed to understand global environmental quality concerns. Exceedances of Canadian Predicted No Effect Concentrations for aquatic life were >50% for effluents in Asia, Europe, and North America but as high as 80% for surface water reports from Asia. Similarly, maximum concentrations of BPA in sediments from Asia were higher than Europe. Concentrations of BPA in wildlife, mostly for fish, ranged from 0.2 to 13 000 ng/g. We observed 60% and 40% exceedences of median levels by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in Europe and Asia, respectively. These findings highlight the utility of coordinating global sensing of environmental contaminants efforts through integration of environmental monitoring and specimen banking to identify regions for implementation of more robust environmental assessment and management programs.

A study on temporal trends and estimates of fate of Bisphenol A in agricultural soils after sewage sludge amendment

Temporal concentration trends of BPA in soils were investigated following sewage sludge application to pasture (study 1: short term sludge application; study 2: long term multiple applications over 13 years). The background levels of BPA in control soils were similar, ranging between 0.67-10.57 ng g(-1) (mean: 3.02 ng g(-1)) and 0.51-6.58 ng g(-1) (mean: 3.22 ng g(-1)) for studies 1 and 2, respectively. Concentrations in both treated and control plots increased over the earlier sampling times of the study to a maximum and then decreased over later sampling times, suggesting other sources of BPA to both the treated and control soils over the study period. In study 1 there was a significant treatment effect of sludge application in the autumn (p=0.002) although no significant difference was observed between treatment and control soils in the spring. In study 2 treated soils contained considerably higher BPA concentrations than controls ranging between 12.89-167.9 ng g(-1) (mean: 63.15 ng g(-1)). This and earlier studies indicate the long-term accumulation of multiple contaminants by multiple sewage sludge applications over a prolonged period although the effects of the presence of such contaminant mixtures have not yet been elucidated. Fugacity modelling was undertaken to estimate partitioning of Bisphenol A (soil plus sewage: pore water: soil air partitioning) and potential uptake into a range of food crops. While Bisphenol A sorbs strongly to the sewage-amended soil, 4% by mass was predicted to enter soil pore water resulting in significant uptake by crops particularly leafy vegetables (3.12-75.5 ng g(-1)), but also for root crops (1.28-31.0 ng g(-1)) with much lower uptake into cereal grains (0.62-15.0 ng g(-1)). This work forms part of a larger programme of research aimed at assessing the risks associated with the long-term application of sewage sludge to agricultural soils.

Fate of flame retardants and the antimicrobial agent triclosan in planted and unplanted biosolid-amended soils

A comprehensive understanding of the fate of contaminant-laden biosolids is needed to fully evaluate the environmental impacts of biosolid land application. The present study examined the fate of several flame retardants and triclosan in biosolid-amended soil in a 90-d greenhouse experiment. Objectives included evaluating the persistence of these compounds in soil, their phytoaccumulation potential by alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and potential degradation reactions. Concentrations of the polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners BDE-47 and BDE-209 and the antimicrobial triclosan declined significantly over time in biosolid-amended soil planted with alfalfa and then reached a steady state by day 28. In contrast, no significant losses of those analytes were observed from soil in nonvegetated pots. The amount of an analyte lost from vegetated soil ranged from 43% for the flame retardant di(2-ethylhexyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrabromophthalate to 61% for triclosan and was significantly and negatively related to the log octanol-water partition coefficient. Alfalfa roots and shoots were monitored for the compounds, but no clear evidence of phytoaccumulation was observed. Methyl triclosan formation was observed in the biosolid-amended soils during the study period, indicating in situ biotransformation of triclosan. The present study demonstrates that, although they are highly recalcitrant, PBDEs, selected alternate brominated flame retardants, and triclosan are capable of undergoing dissipation from biosolid-amended soils in the presence of plants.

Dissipation of triclosan, triclocarban, carbamazepine and naproxen in agricultural soil following surface or sub-surface application of dewatered municipal biosolids

In many jurisdictions land application of municipal biosolids is a valued source of nutrients for crop production. The practice must be managed to ensure that crops and adjacent water are not subject to contamination by pharmaceuticals or other organic contaminants. The broad spectrum antimicrobial agents triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban (TCC), the anti-epileptic drug carbamazepine (CBZ), and the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug naproxen (NAP) are widely used and are carried in biosolids. In the present study, the effect of biosolids and depth of placement in the soil profile on the rates of TCS, TCC, CBZ, and NAP dissipation were evaluated under semi-field conditions. Aggregates of dewatered municipal biosolids (DMBs) supplemented with (14)C-labeled residues were applied either on the soil surface or in the subsurface of the soil profile, and incubated over several months under ambient outdoor conditions. The dissipation of TCS, TCC and NAP was significantly faster in sub-surface than surface applied biosolid aggregates. In contrast the dissipation rate for CBZ was the same in surface applied and incorporated aggregates. Overall, the present study has determined a significant effect of depth of placement on the dissipation rate of biodegradable molecules.

Field dissipation of four personal care products in biosolids-amended soils in North China

The present study investigated the dissipation behaviors of 4 typical personal care products (PCPs)-triclocarban (TCC), triclosan (TCS), tonalide (AHTN), and galaxolide (HHCB)- in soils amended with biosolids under field conditions in North China. The results showed that the 4 target compounds were detected in all biosolids-amended soils at levels of a few nanograms per gram to thousands of nanograms per gram (dry wt). The residual concentrations of the 4 PCPs were found in the following order: TCC > TCS > AHTN > HHCB. Significant dissipation of the 4 PCPs was observed in the biosolids-amended soils, with half-lives ranging from 26 d to 133 d. Furthermore, repeated biosolids applications and a higher biosolids application rate could lead to higher accumulation of the 4 PCPs in the agricultural soils. Based on the detected concentrations in the field trial and limited ecotoxicity data, high risks to soil organisms are expected for TCC, whereas low to medium risks are expected in most cases for AHTN, HHCB, and TCS.

Transformation products and human metabolites of triclocarban and triclosan in sewage sludge across the United States

Removal of triclocarban (TCC) and triclosan (TCS) from wastewater is a function of adsorption, abiotic degradation, and microbial mineralization or transformation, reactions that are not currently controlled or optimized in the pollution control infrastructure of standard wastewater treatment. Here, we report on the levels of eight transformation products, human metabolites, and manufacturing byproducts of TCC and TCS in raw and treated sewage sludge. Two sample sets were studied: samples collected once from 14 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) representing nine states, and multiple samples collected from one WWTP monitored for 12 months. Time-course analysis of significant mass fluxes (α=0.01) indicate that transformation of TCC (dechlorination) and TCS (methylation) occurred during sewage conveyance and treatment. Strong linear correlations were found between TCC and the human metabolite 2'-hydroxy-TCC (r=0.84), and between the TCC-dechlorination products dichlorocarbanilide (DCC) and monochlorocarbanilide (r=0.99). Mass ratios of DCC-to-TCC and of methyl-triclosan (MeTCS)-to-TCS, serving as indicators of transformation activity, revealed that transformation was widespread under different treatment regimes across the WWTPs sampled, though the degree of transformation varied significantly among study sites (α=0.01). The analysis of sludge sampled before and after different unit operation steps (i.e., anaerobic digestion, sludge heat treatment, and sludge drying) yielded insights into the extent and location of TCC and TCS transformation. Results showed anaerobic digestion to be important for MeTCS transformation (37-74%), whereas its contribution to partial TCC dechlorination was limited (0.4-2.1%). This longitudinal and nationwide survey is the first to report the occurrence of transformation products, human metabolites, and manufacturing byproducts of TCC and TCS in sewage sludge.

Occurrence and dissipation of benzotriazoles and benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers in biosolid-amended soils

Benzotriazoles (BTs) and benzotriazole ultraviolet (UV) stabilizers (BUVSs) are commonly used industrial and household chemicals, but little is known about their dissipation behavior in the soil environment associated with biosolid application. The authors investigated the occurrence and dissipation of 4 BTs (BT, 5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole [5-TT], 5-chloro-1H-benzotriazole [CBT], and 5,6-dimethyl-1H-benzotriazole [XT]) and 5 BUVSs (UV-326, UV-327, UV-328, UV-329, and UV-P) in biosolid-amended soil of 3 trial sites (Zhejiang, Hunan, and Shandong) in China following 2 treatments (treatment 1: a single application of biosolid; treatment 2: repeated application of biosolid). The results showed that except for CBT and XT, the other 7 compounds could be detected in most of the biosolid and biosolid-amended soils at levels of a few to tens of nanograms per gram and that the concentrations of the 7 compounds for treatment 2 were obviously higher than those for treatment 1. In the 1-yr monitoring of the Shandong site, 2 BTs (BT and 5-TT) and 5 BUVSs (UV-326, UV-327, UV-328, UV-329, and UV-P) were significantly dissipated in the biosolid-amended soils. The field half-lives of BT and 5-TT ranged from 217 d to 345 d, while those for the BUVSs ranged between 75 d and 218 d. The field half-lives of target compounds in soil were found to be comparable to the modeling results. The results suggest the persistence of BTs and BUVSs in soil environments with quite slow dissipation rates.

Field dissipation and plant uptake of benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers in biosolid-amended soils

Benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers (BUVSs) have been commonly used in industrial and household product formulations, and have been detected in biosolids from wastewater treatment plants. However, little is known about their occurrence and dissipation behavior in the soil environment associated with biosolid application. This study investigated the occurrence and dissipation of five typical BUVSs (UV-326, UV-327, UV-328, UV-329 and UV-P) in biosolid-amended soils, and the uptake of these biocides by plants. The field trial includes two treatment groups: old groups with biosolid application at rates of 5, 10, 20 and 40 t ha(-1) every year within 5 years, and new groups with only one biosolid application. The results showed that the five BUVSs could be detected in most biosolid-amended soils at a few to tens of ng g(-1) levels, but not detected in the control soils. These chemicals were not found in the crop plants collected from the trial plots. Moreover, high biosolid application rates and repeated biosolid applications resulted in high accumulation of these BUVSs in soil. During one year monitoring, the five BUVSs were significantly dissipated in the biosolid-amended soils with their half-lives ranging from 79 to 223 days, which were comparable with the modeling results. The results from this study demonstrated the persistence of BUVSs in soil environments with quite slow dissipation rates.

Field dissipation and risk assessment of typical personal care products TCC, TCS, AHTN and HHCB in biosolid-amended soils

The antimicrobial agents triclocarban (TCC) and triclosan (TCS) and synthetic musks AHTN (Tonalide) and HHCB (Galaxolide) are widely used in many personal care products. These compounds may release into the soil environment through biosolid application to agricultural land and potentially affect soil organisms. This paper aimed to investigate accumulation, dissipation and potential risks of TCC, TCS, AHTN and HHCB in biosolid-amended soils of the three field trial sites (Zhejiang, Hunan and Shandong) with three treatments (CK: control without biosolid application, T1: single biosolid application, T2: repeated biosolid application every year). The one-year monitoring results showed that biosolids application could lead to accumulation of these four chemicals in the biosolid-amended soils, with the residual concentrations in the following order: TCC>TCS>AHTN>HHCB. Dissipation of TCC, TCS, AHTN and HHCB in the biosolid-amended soils followed the first-order kinetics model. Half-lives for TCC, TCS, AHTN and HHCB under the field conditions of Shandong site were 191, 258, 336 and 900 days for T1, and 51, 106, 159 and 83 days for T2, respectively. Repeated applications of biosolid led to accumulation of these personal care products and result in higher ecological risks. Based on the residual levels in the trial sites and limited toxicity data, high risks to soil organisms are expected for TCC and TCS, while low-medium risks for AHTN and HHCB.

Persistence of estrogenic activity in soils following land application of biosolids

Estrogenic compounds may enter the environment when biosolids are applied to land. In the present study, soil samples were collected over 4 mo from a field trial following addition of biosolids. The recombinant yeast estrogen screen bioassay identified estrogenic activity in the soil at all sampling times to concentrations up to 2.3 µg 17β-estradiol equivalency/kg. The present results indicate the potential for estrogenic compounds to persist in soil following biosolids application.

Typical azole biocides in biosolid-amended soils and plants following biosolid applications

Biosolid application on agricultural land may contaminate soils with various household chemicals and personal care products. This study investigated the occurrence and dissipation of typical azole biocides climbazole, clotrimazole, and miconazole in biosolid-amended soils as well as the uptake of these biocides by plants. The field trial includes two treatment groups: old groups with biosolid application at rates of 5, 10, 20, and 40 t/ha every year within 5 years, and new groups with only one biosolid application. The results showed that climbazole, clotrimazole, and miconazole were detected in biosolid-amended soils, but not detected in control soils. These biocides were not found in the crop plants collected from the trial plots. The dissipation half-lives for climbazole, clotrimazole, and miconazole under the field conditions were 175-179, 244, and 130-248 days, respectively. High biosolid application rates and repeated biosolid applications could lead to higher persistence of the biocides in the agricultural soils. An exposure model could effectively predict the residual concentrations of climbazole and miconazole in the biosolid-amended soils of the old treatments with different biosolid application rates. Thus, the field trial demonstrated high persistence of these three biocides in the soil environments.

Aquatic Products Determination of Nonylphenol and Octylphenol

By solid - phase extraction high performance liquid chromatography determination of nonylphenol, Octylphenol in aquatic product residues, to establish more accurate, fast, effective detection method. Sample is 3 trichloroacetic acid solution after extraction, using anion exchange solid phase extraction column purification by reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography method for determination. Column is Shim-pack VP-ODS 250mm x4.6mm, detection wavelength is225 nm, mobile phase of methanol - water ( volume ratio of 75:25), flow rate is 0.8 mL/min, injection volume is 20 ìL. Octylphenol, nonylphenol respectively in 0.14¡«97.63 ìg/mL ( R=0.9995),0.02¡«51.04 ì g/mL ( R=0.9997) concentration and peak area show a good linear relationship, octylphenol nonylphenol and the recovery is 87.9%¡«93.8%, relative standard deviation is 1.4%¡«3.8%. Solid - phase extraction high performance liquid chromatography method for determination of aquatic product of octylphenol and nonylphenol residue is accurate, rapid, high sensitivity, suitable for aquatic products of octylphenol nonylphenol and detection.

Occurrence and dissipation of three azole biocides climbazole, clotrimazole and miconazole in biosolid-amended soils

This study investigated the occurrence and dissipation of three azole biocides climbazole, clotrimazole and miconazole in biosolid-amended soils of the three sites (Zhejiang, Hunan and Shandong) in China following three treatments (CK: control without biosolid application; T1: one biosolid application; T2: biosolid application every year). The results showed that climbazole, clotrimazole and miconazole were present in the biosolid and biosolid-amended soils, but absent in the control soils. In the soils treated with biosolids, the concentrations of climbazole, clotrimazole and miconazole were mostly lower in the Zhejiang soils than in the Shandong or Hunan soils, suggesting that these three biocides are more readily dissipated under the flooding condition. During the one year monitoring, the concentrations of climbazole, clotrimazole and miconazole in the biosolid-applied soils showed only slight variations. The dissipation half-lives for miconazole calculated under the field conditions of Shandong site were 440 days for T1 and the half-lives for clotrimazole were 365 days for T2. The results suggested the persistence of these three biocides in the soil environments.

National inventory of alkylphenol ethoxylate compounds in U.S. sewage sludges and chemical fate in outdoor soil mesocosms

We determined the first nationwide inventories of alkylphenol surfactants in U.S. sewage sludges (SS) using samples from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's 2001 national SS survey. Additionally, analysis of archived 3-year outdoor mesocosm samples served to determine chemical fates in SS-amended soil. Nonylphenol (NP) was the most abundant analyte (534 ± 192 mg/kg) in SS composites, followed by its mono- and di-ethoxylates (62.1 ± 28 and 59.5 ± 52 mg/kg, respectively). The mean annual load of NP and its ethoxylates in SS was estimated at 2408-7149 metric tonnes, of which 1204-4289 is applied on U.S. land. NP compounds showed observable loss from SS/soil mixtures (1:2), with mean half-lives ranging from 301 to 495 days. Surfactant levels in U.S. SS ten-times in excess of European regulations, substantial releases to U.S. soils, and prolonged half-lives found under field conditions, all argue for the U.S. to follow Europe's move from 20 years ago to regulate these chemicals.