Bioaccumulation and translocation of polyhalogenated compounds in rice (Oryza sativa L.) planted in paddy soil collected from an electronic waste recycling site, South China

Uptake, Subcellular Distribution, and Metabolism of Decabromodiphenyl Ethane in Vegetables under Different Exposure Scenarios

Decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), a key alternative to deca-BDE (BDE-209), has been ubiquitous in the receiving ecosystem. However, little is known about its uptake process and fate in plants. Here, the plant absorption, distribution, and metabolism of 14C-DBDPE under two distinct exposure pathways (i.e., soil-root and airborne dust-leaf) were investigated with three vegetables (cherry radish, water spinach, and eggplant). DBDPE was absorbed and primarily accumulated in directly exposed roots and leaves, with translocation factors to other tissues of 0.04-0.77 and 0.73-12.80 × 10-3, respectively. DBDPE in exposed leaves was more difficult to transport as most DBDPE did not enter the interior of the leaves but was stored in waxes (>90%). Furthermore, DBDPE within leaves was found to enter mostly through waxy layer penetration (>97%). The majority of 14C-DBDPE was localized in cell walls (52.6 and 75.6%, respectively) and organelles (22.7 and 45.5%, respectively) of exposed tissues, substantially restricting its in-plant translocation. Debrominated products were detected in exposed roots, but barely found in exposed leaves, as most DBDPE was blocked by the waxy layer. Moreover, DBDPE was stable in soils and dust without degradation. Our findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the environmental fate of DBDPE in soil-plant and airborne dust-plant systems.

Lipid removal by countercurrent chromatography in co-current mode in trace analysis of polyhalogenated compounds in fish

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are ubiquitously present in food and environmental samples. Accompanied by similar compounds like halogenated natural products (HNPs), their regular monitoring in fish and their predators is an important task. While different procedures have been developed, the removal of the lipid matrix, mainly carried out by treatment with sulfuric acid or by gel permeation chromatography (GPC), is an indispensable step during sample preparation. Here, we present an alternative, non-destructive method using countercurrent chromatography operated in the co-current mode (ccCCC) for the removal of lipids from the fraction of polyhalogenated compounds in fish. The final method was developed using various POP and HNP standards as well as the most critical lipid compound, i.e. free docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The recovery rates of polyhalogenated compounds ranged between 79 and 117 %. Applied to six herring (Clupea harengus) fillet samples from the North, the Baltic, and the Norwegian Seas, the results obtained with the new (using ccCCC for lipid removal) method agreed well with those determined with an established method using GPC. The quantitative results indicated that fish from contaminated areas is still a major source in the human uptake of POPs. HNP levels were on average only ∼two times lower than POPs which underscores that they should be monitored on a more regular basis.

Global occurrence and environmental behavior of novel brominated flame retardants in soils: Current knowledge and future perspectives

Since polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are on the list of regulated chemicals, novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) have been produced as alternatives and extensively used since the end of the 19th century. A comprehensive assessment of the environmental burden of NBFRs, which are emerging contaminants with bio-toxic and carcinogenic properties, is urgently needed. Given that soil is a major sink for organic pollutants, this study systematically reviewed global data on NBFRs in soil for the period of 1990-2024 via a bibliometric analysis of 70 publications from the Web of Science Core Collection, reaching the following achievements. (1) NBFRs in soils have been reported in 17 countries or regions worldwide, ranging from not detected to 8.46 × 104 ng/g dw, showing an increasing trend over time, with severe contamination in Asia and Australia. (2) NBFR concentrations varied significantly across land use types: manufacturing land > electronic waste disposal areas > urban soil > farmland > forest > remote areas. (3) NBFRs with log KOA > 10 tend to settle from the air into the soil, where they may be absorbed by plant roots and bioaccumulate in the food chain. (4) Organism dietary habits and metabolism, along with the hydrophobicity and molecular weight of NBFRs, contribute to bioaccumulation differences. (5) Successive reductive debromination is the primary degradation pathway for NBFRs, and microorganisms such as the white-rot fungus P. ostreatus show potential for remediating NBFR-contaminated soil. This review clarifies the pollution status of soil NBFRs and provides a solid reference to develop management policies. Future research should focus on studying the transport mechanisms of NBFRs between soil and other media, and assessing the cumulative effects of high trophic level organisms on NBFRs.

Field study on the uptake pathways and their contributions to the accumulation of organophosphate esters, phthalates, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in upland rice

Plant uptake of organic contaminants generally occurs through either root, gas-phase foliar, or particle-phase foliar uptake. Understanding these pathways is essential for food-system practitioners to reduce human exposures, and to clean contaminated-sites with phytoremediation. Herein, we conducted a field-based experiment using an improved specific exposure chamber to elucidate the uptake pathways of organophosphate esters, phthalates, and polycyclic aromatic compounds, and quantitatively assessed their contributions to organic contaminant accumulations in field-grown rice. For most target compounds, all three uptake pathways (root, foliar gas, and foliar particle uptakes) contributed substantially to the overall contaminant burden in rice. Compounds with lower octanol-water partition coefficients (Kow) were more readily translocated from roots to leaves, and compounds with higher octanol-air partition coefficients (Koa) tended to enter rice leaves mostly through particle deposition. Most compounds were mostly stored in the inner leaves (55.3-98.2 %), whereas the relatively volatile compounds were more readily absorbed by the waxy layer and then transferred to the inner leaves. Air particle desorption was a key process regulating foliar uptake of low-volatility compounds. The results can help us to better understand and predict the environmental fate of those contaminants, and develop more effective management strategies for reducing their human exposure through food ingestion.

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in rice (Oryza sativa L.) plant through wastewater irrigation

The present investigation focuses on the identification of popular PhACs in roots, leaves and rice grains, which are cultivated in soil irrigated with waters and wastewater. The present study reveals the presence of PhACs in rice grains from different brands which are available in the current market, which has thus motivated these experiments. The rice plants were cultivated in garden containers and irrigated with three different water sources. All PhAC compounds were recovered within an 89-111 % range using the extraction technique, reproducibility, and sensitivity (LOQ <25 µg/g). Further, PhAC compounds were identified using liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QqTOF-MS). Interestingly, several PhAC compounds were detected in rice grains, aligning with hypotheses and findings from published literature. A total of ten (10) PhACs were found in the root, leaf, and rice grain of the 20 popular PhACs that were targeted. The annual exposure and medical dose equivalent for individual PhACs was negligible. According to our knowledge, this study is the first to show the accumulation of several categories (cocktail) of PhACs in rice grains and show the approximate human health risk assessment by its consumption. The study's results provide valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and agricultural practitioners working on sustainable agriculture and public health.

Geochemistry and the optics of geospatial analysis as a preposition of water quality on a macroscale

The water treatment depends exclusively on the identification of residues containing toxic chemical elements accumulated in NPs (nanoparticles), and ultrafine particles sourced from waste piles located at old, abandoned sulfuric acid factories containing phosphogypsum requires global attention. The general objective of this study is to quantify and analyze the hazardous chemical elements present in the leachate of waste from deactivated sulfuric acid factories, coupled in NPs and ultrafine particles, in the port region of the city of Imbituba, Santa Catarina, Brazil. Samples were collected in 2020, 2021, and 2022. Corresponding images from the Sentinel-3B OLCI satellite, taken in the same general vicinity, detected the levels of absorption coefficient of Detritus and Gelbstoff (ADG443_NN) in 443 m-1, chlorophyll-a (CHL_NN (m-3)), and total suspended matter (TSM_NN (g m-3) at 72 points on the marine coast of the port region. The results of inductively coupled plasma atomic-emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) demonstrate that the leaching occurring in waste piles at the port area of Imbituba was the likely source of hazardous chemical elements (e.g., Mg, Sr, Nd, and Pr) in the environment. These leachates were formed due to the presence of coal pyrite and Fe-acid sulfates in said waste piles. The mobility of hazardous chemical elements potentiates changes in the marine ecosystem, in relation to ADG443_NN (m-1), CHL_NN (m-3), and TSM NN (g m-3), with values greater than 20 g m-3 found in 2021 and 2022. This indicated changes in the natural conditions of the marine ecosystem up to 30 km from the coast in the Atlantic Ocean, justifying public initiatives for water treatment on a global scale.

Uptake and translocation of brominated flame retardants in tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L.): Results from a standard soil-based biotest

The uptake and translocation of four polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and four novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) in tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L.) were investigated via the RHIZOtest, a standard soil-based biotest, optimized for organic compounds. Tomato plants were exposed to soil samples spiked with 0 (i.e. control), 5.00 or 50.00 ng g-1dw of each compound. Compared of those of the control, exposure to increasing spiking concentrations resulted in average reductions of 13% and 26% (w/w) in tomato plant biomass. Higher concentrations of NBFRs were analyzed both in roots, ranging from 0.23 to 8.01 ng g-1dw for PBDEs and from 1.25 to 18.51 ng g-1dw for NBFRs, and in shoots, ranging from 0.09 to 5.58 ng g-1dw and from 0.47 to 7.78 ng g-1dw for PBDEs and NBFRs, respectively. This corresponded to an average soil uptake of 5% for PBDEs and 9% for NBFRs at the lower soil-spiking level, and 3% for PBDEs and 6% for NBFRs at the higher soil spiking level. Consequently, among both initial spiking levels, the soil-root concentration factor (RCF) values were lower on average for PBDEs (0.13 ± 0.05 g dw soil g-1dw roots) than for NBFRs (0.33 ± 0.16 g dw soil g-1dw roots). Conversely, nondifferent values of the root-shoot transfer factor (TF) were calculated for both PBDEs (0.54 ± 0.13 g dw roots g-1dw shoots) and NBFRs (0.49 ± 0.24 g dw roots g-1dw shoots). The differences and similarities reported in the RCF and TF between and within the two groups of compounds can be explained by their properties. The calculated RCF and TF values of the PBDEs exhibited a decreasing trend as the number of bromine atoms increased. Additionally, a robust negative linear correlation was observed between RCF values and the respective logKow values for the PBDEs, at both soil-spiking levels. The root uptake of NBFRs exhibited a negative correlation with their hydrophobicity; however, this was not observed in the context of root-to-shoot transfer. The presence of a second aromatic ring appears to be the key factor influencing the observed variations in NBFRs, with biphenyl NBFRs (BTBPE and DBDPE) characterized by lower uptake and reduced translocation potential than monophenyl PBEB and HBB. Understanding the transfer of these compounds to crops, especially near plastic recycling waste sites, is crucial for understanding the risks of their potential inclusion in the human food chain.

Congener-specific uptake and accumulation of bisphenols in edible plants: Binding to prediction of bioaccumulation by attention mechanism multi-layer perceptron machine learning model

Plant accumulation of phenolic contaminants from agricultural soils can cause human health risks via the food chain. However, experimental and predictive information for plant uptake and accumulation of bisphenol congeners is lacking. In this study, the uptake, translocation, and accumulation of five bisphenols (BPs) in carrot and lettuce plants were investigated through hydroponic culture (duration of 168 h) and soil culture (duration of 42 days) systems. The results suggested a higher bioconcentration factor (BCF) of bisphenol AF (BPAF) in plants than that of the other four BPs. A positive correlation was found between the log BCF and the log Kow of BPs (R2carrot = 0.987, R2lettuce = 0.801, P < 0.05), while the log (translocation factor) exhibited a negative correlation with the log Kow (R2carrot = 0.957, R2lettuce = 0.960, P < 0.05). The results of molecular docking revealed that the lower binding energy of BPAF with glycosyltransferase, glutathione S-transferase, and cytochrome P450 (-4.34, -4.05, and -3.52 kcal/mol) would be responsible for its higher accumulation in plants. Based on the experimental data, an attention mechanism multi-layer perceptron (AM-MLP) model was developed to predict the BCF of eight untested BPs by machine learning, suggesting the relatively high BCF of bisphenol BP, bisphenol PH, and bisphenol TMC (BCFcarrot = 1.37, 1.50, 1.03; BCFlettuce = 1.02, 0.98, 0.67). The prediction of BCF for ever-increasing varieties of BPs by machine learning would reduce repetitive experimental tests and save resources, providing scientific guidance for the production and application of BPs from the perspective of priority pollutants.

Novel Insights into Uptake, Translocation, and Transformation Mechanisms of 2,2',4,4'-Tetra Brominated Diphenyl Ether (BDE-47) in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.): Implication by Compound-Specific Stable Isotope and Transcriptome Analysis

The uptake, translocation, and transformation of 2,2',4,4'-tetra brominated diphenyl ether (BDE-47) in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) were comprehensively investigated by hydroponic experiments using compound-specific stable isotope analysis (CSIA) and transcriptome analysis. The results indicated that BDE-47 was quickly adsorbed on epidermis of wheat roots and then absorbed in roots via water and anion channels as well as an active process dependent on energy. A small fraction of BDE-47 in roots was subjected to translocation acropetally, and an increase of δ13C values in shoots than roots implied that BDE-47 in roots had to cross at least one lipid bilayer to enter the vascular bundle via transporters. In addition, accompanied by the decreasing concentrations, δ13C values of BDE-47 showed the increasing trend with time in shoots, indicating occurrence of BDE-47 transformation. OH-PBDEs were detected as transformation products, and the hydroxyl group preferentially substituted at the ortho-positions of BDE-47. Based on transcriptome analysis, genes encoding polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE)-metabolizing enzymes, including cytochrome P450 enzymes, nitrate reductases, and glutathione S-transferases, were significantly upregulated after exposure to BDE-47 in shoots, further evidencing BDE-47 transformation. This study first reported the stable carbon isotope fractionation of PBDEs during translocation and transformation in plants, and application of CSIA and transcriptome analysis allowed systematically characterize the environmental behaviors of pollutants in plants.

Two halogenated flame retardants and cadmium in the soil-rice system: sorption, root uptake, and translocation

The migration and transformation of Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), DechloranePlus (DP), and cadmium in soil-rice system was investigated, and the influence on the quality of two varieties of rice was studied. The degradation half-lives of TBBPA, BBPAs, syn-DP, and anti-DP were 23.18 ~ 26.36 days, 30.14 ~ 36.10 days, 72.96-81.55 days, and 169.06-198.04 days in the soil. TBBPA was gradually degraded to tri-BBPA, di-BBPA, mono-BBPA, and bisphenol A by the debromination. TBBPA and its bromide metabolites could be bioaccumulated in different tissues of rice; mono-BBPA and bisphenol A was easy to accumulate in the stems, and bisphenol A was easy to bioaccumulate in the grain. Comparing with single and compound pollution, there was no significant difference in bioaccumulation factors of two rice species. The grain of NO7 had stronger bioaccumulation ability to mono-BBPA and BPA than NO1, and there is no significant difference in TBBPA. Residual level of DP in the rice: roots > stems > grain; there was no significant difference in bioaccumulation of two varieties of rice. Cadmium was easily bioaccumulated in the roots of rice and translocated to the rice stems and grains. NO7 rice had stronger bioaccumulation and transport capacity than NO1. The effects of the three pollutants on the quality of two varieties of rice varied significantly; cadmium had the greatest effect on the iodine blue value (BV) and amylase activity of the grain. This study proved that selecting rice varieties with low bioaccumulation to polluters can effectively reduce the risk of the food chain harming human health.

Analysis of tetrabromobisphenol A and bisphenol A in plant sample-method optimization and identification of the derivatives

Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is the most abundant brominated flame retardant and bisphenol A (BPA) is often identified as the metabolic product of TBBPA. Both of them are highly bioconcentrated and show serious biological toxicity. In this study, an analytical method was optimized to simultaneously determine TBBPA and BPA in plant samples. Moreover, the uptake and metabolism of TBBPA in maize were investigated through hydroponic exposure experiment. The whole analysis procedure included ultrasonic extraction, lipid removal, purification by solid-phase extraction cartridge, derivatization, and detection by GC/MS. Optimizations were conducted for each pretreatment step above. After improvement, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) was chosen as the extraction solvent; the lipid removal was conducted by repartition between organic solvent and alkaline solution. The best suitable pH condition is 2-2.5 for the inorganic solvent before used for further purification by HLB and silica column with the optimized elute solvent of acetone and mixtures of acetone and hexane (1:1), respectively. The recoveries of TBBPA and BPA spiked in maize samples were 69±4% and 66±4% with the relative standard deviation less than 5%, respectively, for the entire treatment procedure. Limits of detections were 4.10 ng/g and 0.13 ng/g for TBBPA and BPA in plant samples, respectively. In the hydroponic exposure experiment (100 μg/L, 15 d), the concentrations of TBBPA in maize cultivated in pH 5.8 and pH 7.0 Hoagland solutions were 1.45 and 0.89 μg/g in roots and 8.45 and 6.34 ng/g in stems, while they were all below the detection limit for leaves, respectively. The distribution of TBBPA in different tissues was as the following order: root>>stem>leaf, illustrating the accumulation in the root and the translocation to the stem. The uptake variations under different pH conditions were attributed to the change of TBBPA species, now that it shows greater hydrophobicity at lower pH condition as a kind of ionic organic contaminant. Monobromobisphenol A and dibromobisphenol A were identified as metabolisms products of TBBPA in maize. The efficiency and simplicity of the method that we proposed characterize its potential application as a screening tool for environmental monitoring and contribute to a comprehensive study of the environmental behavior of TBBPA.

The derivation of soil generic assessment criteria for polychlorinated biphenyls under the agricultural land scenario in Pearl and Yangtze River Delta regions, China

The agricultural soils in China are suffered from serious polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) contamination, however, the valid management standards for farmland are absent to efficiently control the health risks of PCBs exposure. This study analyzed the contamination characteristics and main composition of PCBs in agricultural soils of the southeastern China from the published literature over the past 20 years, and derived the regional generic assessment criteria (GAC) using an exposure modelling approach for individual and total PCBs (∑PCBs) via multiple exposure pathways such as ingestion of soil and dust, consumption of vegetables, dermal contact with soil and dust, ingestion of soil attached to vegetables, and inhalation of soil vapour and soil-derived dust outdoors under the agricultural land scenario. It is identified that the averaged ∑PCBs concentration of 80.03 ng g^-1 under the 95 % lower confidence limit with an unacceptable health risk of 4.8 × 10^-6 has significantly exceeded the integrated generic assessment criteria (expressed as GAC_int) of 16.5 ng g^-1. Accordingly, the exposure pathways from the consumption of agricultural produces and indirect ingestion of soil attached to vegetables contributed up to 62 %-88 % of the total exposure, followed by 11 %-33 % of the soil ingestion and 2 %-6 % of dermal contact. The derived GAC_int for ∑PCBs is extremely valuable to effectively assess and manage the PCBs contamination in agricultural soils of China.

Uptake, translocation, bioaccumulation, and bioavailability of organophosphate esters in rice paddy and maize fields

Rice and maize are two main crops with different growth habits in Northeast China. To investigate the uptake, translocation, and accumulation of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in those two crops, we measured the OPE concentrations in their agricultural soil-crop systems during different growing seasons. OPE concentrations were higher in paddy (221 ± 62.0 ng/g) than in maize (149 ± 31.6 ng/g) soil, with higher OPE levels in the rhizosphere than in bulk soil for rice, and the opposite in maize. Two-step extractions were used to obtain the labile and stable adsorption components of OPEs. The stable-adsorbed OPEs were activated to be more bioavailable by root exudates as rice grew. OPEs in rice increased linearly with the growing period. The uptake and translocation processes of OPEs by crops were not well-explained by logK_ow alone, indicating other processes such as growth dilution are significant for understanding OPE levels in plant. The translocation factors of OPEs from nutritive to reproductive organs indicated that OPEs in rice seeds may follow the translocation from root to leaf and then transfer to grains. Two genera, Sphingomonas and Geobacter, associated with degradation of organophosphorus compounds were enriched in rhizosphere soils, indicating enhanced OPE degradation.

Accumulation and translocation of traditional and novel organophosphate esters and phthalic acid esters in plants during the whole life cycle

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) and phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are widespread contaminants in the environment. The variations of these chemicals in plants throughout their life cycle is little known. In this study, OPEs, OPE metabolites, and PAEs in peanut and corn grown under field conditions, soil, and air were measured to understand the uptake and translocation, distributions in the plant compartments, and metabolism in the plants. The soil concentrations showed an enrichment effect of OPEs onto the rhizosphere soil but a depletion effect of PAEs on rhizosphere soils. The PAE concentrations between peanut (with a mean of 1295 ng/g dw) and corn (3339 ng/g dw) were significantly different, but the OPE concentrations were not significantly different (with means of 15.6 and 19.2 ng/g dw, respectively). OPE metabolites were also detected in the plants, with lower concentrations and detection rates. Similarities and differences in the temporal variations of the concentrations of traditional OPEs, novel OPEs, and PAEs in plants during their growth were observed. The variations were dependent on both plant species and particular tissues. The leaf compartment is the most important reservoir of OPEs and PAEs (but not OPE metabolites) for both species, highlighting the importance of an aerial uptake pathway. The chemicals have a low potential to be translocated into peanut and corn kernels, reducing their risks via food consumption. Less hydrophobic compounds have higher root concentration factors in this study. These observations differ from those of previous hydroponic experiments.

Distribution, behavior, and risk assessment of chlorinated paraffins in paddy plants throughout whole growth cycle

Paddy plants provide staple food for 3 billion people worldwide. This study explores the environmental fate and behavior of a high-volume production emerging contaminants chlorinated paraffins (CPs) in the paddy ecosystem. Very-short-, short-, medium-, and long-chain CPs (vSCCPs, SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs, respectively) were analyzed in specific tissue of paddy plants at four main growth stages and soils from the Yangtze River Delta, China throughout a full rice growing season. The total CP concentrations in the paddy roots, stalks, leaves, panicles, hulls, rice, and soils ranged from 181 to 1.74 × 10³, 21.7-383, 19.6-585, 108-332, 245-470, 59.6-130, and 99.6-400 ng/g dry weight, respectively. The distribution profile indicated the translocation of SCCPs and MCCPs from soils to paddy tissue, highlighting their elevated bioaccumulative potential. The evolution of CP level/mass/pattern during the whole growth cycle suggested atmospheric CPs deposition on leaves and hulls, as well as stalk-rice transfer. CSOIL plant uptake model well predicted the level, distribution pattern, and bioconcentration factors (BCFs) of SCCPs and MCCPs in paddy shoot and recognized the soil-air-shoot pathway as the major contributor. Moreover, risk evaluation indicated that MCCPs intake and subsequent risks dominated the total exposure to CPs via rice ingestion. This is the first report on the occurrence, fate and risk assessment of all CPs classes in paddy ecosystems, and the results underline the potential health effects caused by the in-use MCCPs via rice ingestion.

Aerobic Degradation Characteristics of Decabromodiphenyl ether through Rhodococcus ruber TAW-CT127 and Its Preliminary Genome Analysis

Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209), a polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) homolog, seriously threatens human health. In this study, a Rhodococcus ruber strain with high BDE-209 degradation activity, named TAW-CT127, was isolated from Tong’an Bay, Xiamen. Under laboratory conditions, the strain’s optimal growth temperature, pH, and salinity are 45 °C, 7.0, and 0–2.5%, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis shows that TAW-CT127 is damaged when grown in manual marine culture (MMC) medium with BDE-209 as the sole carbon source instead of eutrophic conditions. In the dark, under the conditions of 28 °C, 160 rpm, and 3 g/L (wet weight) TAW-CT127, the degradation rate of 50 mg/L BDE-209 is 81.07%. The intermediate metabolites are hexabromo-, octabromo-, and nonabromo-diphenyl ethers. Through whole-genome sequencing, multiple dehalogenases were found in the genome of TAW-CT127; these may be involved in the production of lower-brominated diphenyl ethers. Additionally, biphenyl-2,3-dioxygenase (BDO) in TAW-CT127 may catalyze the debromination reaction of BDE-209. Our research provides a new high-efficiency strain for bioremediation of BDE-209 pollution, and lays the foundation for the preliminary exploration of genes associated with BDE-209 degradation.

Plant accumulation and transformation of brominated and organophosphate flame retardants: A review

Plants can take up and transform brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) from soil, water and the atmosphere, which is of considerable significance to the geochemical cycle of BFRs and OPFRs and their human exposure. However, the current understanding of the plant uptake, translocation, accumulation, and metabolism of BFRs and OPFRs in the environment remains very limited. In this review, recent studies on the accumulation and transformation of BFRs and OPFRs in plants are summarized, the main factors affecting plant accumulation from the aspects of root uptake, foliar uptake, and plant translocation are presented, and the metabolites and metabolic pathways of BFRs and OPFRs in plants are analyzed. It was found that BFRs and OPFRs can be taken up by plants through partitioning to root lipids, as well as through gaseous and particle-bound deposition to the leaves. Their microscopic distribution in roots and leaves is important for understanding their accumulation behaviors. BFRs and OPFRs can be translocated in the xylem and phloem, but the specific transport pathways and mechanisms need to be further studied. BFRs and OPFRs can undergo phase I and phase II metabolism in plants. The identification, quantification and environmental fate of their metabolites will affect the assessment of their ecological and human exposure risks. Based on the issues mentioned above, some key directions worth studying in the future are proposed.

Emerging Brominated Flame Retardants 2-Ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (EHTBB) and Bis(2-ethylhexyl)-tetrabromophthalate (BEH-TEBP) in Chinese Food and Their Health Implications

2-Ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (EHTBB) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) tetrabromophthalate (BEH-TEBP) have been frequently detected in the environment, whereas studies in food are scare. The European Food Safety Authority has requested data for their risk assessment. Herein, dietary exposure and hazard quotient (HQ) were studied based on the 5th (2009-2012) and 6th (2015-2018) Chinese total diet studies (TDSs). EHTBB was found in 61.1 and 75.9% of the two TDS sample sets, respectively. The concentrations of EHTBB in animal-derived food were higher than those in plant-derived food. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) were 1.33 and 0.97 ng/kg bw/day, and vegetables contributed to 48.5 and 39.2% of the EDIs based on the 5th and 6th TDS, respectively. The dietary exposure to EHTBB was similar to that to hexabromocyclododecane, brominated diphenyl ether-209, and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA). The HQ for EHTBB was similar to that for decabromodiphenyl ethane and surpassed that for TBBPA. Therefore, EHTBB warrants further study in food.

Molecular Modifications and Control of Processes to Facilitate the Synergistic Degradation of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Soil by Plants and Microorganisms Based on Queuing Scoring Method

In this paper, a combination of modification of the source and regulation of the process was used to control the degradation of PBDEs by plants and microorganisms. First, the key proteins that can degrade PBDEs in plants and microorganisms were searched in the PDB (Protein Data Bank), and a molecular docking method was used to characterize the binding ability of PBDEs to two key proteins. Next, the synergistic binding ability of PBDEs to the two key proteins was evaluated based on the queuing integral method. Based on this, three groups of three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship (3D-QSAR) models of plant-microbial synergistic degradation were constructed. A total of 30 PBDE derivatives were designed using BDE-3 as the template molecule. Among them, the effect on the synergistic degradation of six PBDE derivatives, including BDE-3-4, was significantly improved (increased by more than 20%) and the environment-friendly and functional evaluation parameters were improved. Subsequently, studies on the synergistic degradation of PBDEs and their derivatives by plants and microorganisms, based on the molecular docking method, found that the addition of lipophilic groups by modification is beneficial to enhance the efficiency of synergistic degradation of PBDEs by plants and microorganisms. Further, while docking PBDEs, the number of amino acids was increased and the binding bond length was decreased compared to the template molecules, i.e., PBDE derivatives could be naturally degraded more efficiently. Finally, molecular dynamics simulation by the Taguchi orthogonal experiment and a full factorial experimental design were used to simulate the effects of various regulatory schemes on the synergistic degradation of PBDEs by plants and microorganisms. It was found that optimal regulation occurred when the appropriate amount of carbon dioxide was supplied to the plant and microbial systems. This paper aims to provide theoretical support for enhancing the synergistic degradation of PBDEs by plants and microorganisms in e-waste dismantling sites and their surrounding polluted areas, as well as, realize the research and development of green alternatives to PBDE flame retardants.

Concentration-dependent enantioselective accumulation of chiral polychlorinated biphenyls in Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. root from contaminative sediment

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (lotus) roots were collected from contaminated sediments which were artificially adding different concentrations of chiral polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) to investigate the effect of concentration on the accumulation characteristics and chiral signatures of PCBs in lotus root during its growth period of 150 days. Under high PCB exposure concentration, the biota-sediment accumulation factors (BSAFs) of PCBs 91, 95, and 136 in the lotus root were up to 0.25-0.46 and 8.10-10.5 times higher than those under low-exposure concentration (0.024-0.052). The BSAFs of PCBs 149, 176, and 183 under high-exposure concentration were up to 0.24-0.44, while they were undetected at low concentration. The significant difference observed in the BSAFs based on different concentrations indicates that the lotus root accumulation efficiency toward chiral PCBs increases with the contaminate concentration. Although the (-)-enantiomers of PCBs 91, 95, and 136 were all preferentially accumulated in lotus root under two exposure concentrations, the extent of the preferential accumulation of (-)-PCB 95 decreased with increasing exposure concentration throughout the whole growth period (30-150 days). In addition, the (-)-enantiomers of PCBs 91 and 136 also showed the same tendency during most of the growth period. Conclusively, the exposure concentrations are an important influence factor on the enantioselective accumulation of chiral PCBs in lotus root.

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) in wetland soil and Suaeda salsa from intertidal Laizhou Bay, North China: Levels, distribution, and soil-plant transfer model

Wetlands have attracted much attention due to releases of organophosphate esters (OPEs) and other emerging contaminants into this particular environment. Here, Suaeda salsa plants and wetland soils collected from Laizhou Bay, North China, were analyzed to investigate the levels, distribution, and soil-plant transfer of OPEs in these ecosystems. The Σ₁₈OPEs concentrations ranged from 137 to 386 ng/g dry weight (dw), whereas in rhizosphere the concentrations were between 99.8 and 198 ng/g dw. Suaeda salsa rhizosphere could promote the absorption of OPEs in wetlands, and Suaeda salsa root presents a greater rate of absorption. The Σ₁₈OPEs concentrations ranged from 32.9 to 56.8 ng/g dw in roots, 3.93 to 7.51 ng/g dw in stems, and 2.79 to 4.06 ng/g dw in leaves. Log RCFs, log TF_r-s and log TF_s-l showed no significant correlations with their log K_OW, indicating the complexity of uptake and translocation in the natural environment. Predictive model for the OPEs availability to Suaeda salsa was established from the experimental data. The field-based BCFs of all OPEs were dependent on K_OW, decreased with increasing K_OW. This study provides important insights into the phytoremediation potential of OPEs using Suaeda salsa as an effective strategy and their role in environmental risk assessment of OPEs in wetlands.

Field study on bioaccumulation and translocation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the sediment-plant system of a national nature reserve, North China

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are the ubiquitous contaminants in the coastal wetlands, with high persistence and toxicity. Environmental behaviors of PBDEs in sediment-plant system is a hot research area, where much uncertainties still occurred in field environment. In this study, the sediments and Suaeda heteroptera were synchronously collected to investigate the bioaccumulation and translocation of PBDEs in Liaohe coastal wetland. Mean concentrations of PBDEs in sediments, roots, stems and leaves were 8.37, 6.64, 2.42 and 1.40 ng/g d.w., respectively. Tissue-specific accumulation of PBDEs were detected in Suaeda heteroptera, with predominant accumulation in roots. Congener patterns of PBDEs were similar between sediments and roots, demonstrating root uptake as the key pathway of PBDE bioaccumulation. The proportions of lower brominated congeners increased from roots to leaves, implying the congener-specific translocation. Meanwhile, the lower brominated congeners exhibited higher sediment-tissue bioaccumulation (AFs) and translocation factors (TFs) compared to higher brominated congeners in Suaeda heteroptera, further verifying their preferential translocation. AFs and TFs of PBDEs were both not correlated with their log K_ow, which was inconsistent with those of laboratory studies, reflecting the complicated behaviors of PBDEs in field environment. This is the first comprehensive report on bioaccumulation and translocation of PBDEs within Suaeda heteroptera in Liaohe coastal wetland.

Accumulation and translocation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers into plant under multiple exposure scenarios

Plant foliar uptake is an essential part of the overall biogeochemical cycling of semivolatile organic compounds. Chambers were therefore designed to expose wheat to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) via various combinations of exposure routes (i.e., soil, air and particle). Under the simulated scenarios, most of PBDEs in wheat leaves originated from foliar uptake (including gaseous and particle-bound depositions) rather than translocation from root uptake. Our results further revealed that higher brominated PBDEs (h-PBDEs; i.e. hepta- through deca-BDEs) were inclined to enter wheat leaves via particle-bound deposition while gaseous deposition could not be ignored for less-brominated PBDEs (l-PBDEs; i.e., tri- through hexa-BDEs). Sequential extraction of wheat leaf displayed that the transfer velocities of h-PBDEs were lagged behind l-PBDEs during their deposition to leaf cuticle and subsequent erosion to mesophyll, where a large fraction of the target chemicals were ultimately stored (29-93% of total PBDEs burden). Applying McLachlan's framework to our data suggested that the uptake of PBDEs was controlled primarily by kinetically limited gaseous deposition for l-PBDEs and by particle-bound deposition for h-PBDEs. The combined use of exposure chamber measurement and framework provides a robust tool for interpreting the behaviors of PBDEs between the atmosphere and plant foliage.

Uptake of halogenated organic compounds (HOCs) into peanut and corn during the whole life cycle grown in an agricultural field

Here, we elucidated the uptake and translocation of numerous halogenated organic compounds (HOCs) into corn and peanut throughout their life cycle cultivated in an agricultural field of an electronic waste recycling area, where plants were simultaneously exposed to contaminants in soil and ambient air. The geometric mean concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were 22.3 and 11.9 ng/g in peanut and 16.6 and 13.6 ng/g in corn, respectively. Decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE, 6.07 ng/g) and dechlorane plus (DPs, 6.22 ng/g) also showed significant concentrations in peanuts. The plant uptake was initiated from root absorption at the emergence stage but it was subsequently surpassed by leaves absorption from the air since the late seedling stage or early reproductive stage. There was a rapid uptake of lower halogenated HOCs at the early vegetative stages in both species. However, robust uptake of highly halogenated compounds at the reproductive stages suggests a delayed accumulation of them by the plants. PBDE and PCB congener profiles suggest more noticeable tendency for inter-compartment translocation in peanut than in corn during the plant development. The DP and HBCD isomeric compositions in peanut (enriched with syn-DP and γ-HBCD) were different from those in the rhizosphere soils and air, suggesting a more stereoisomer-selective uptake and/or biotransformation in this species compared to corn. The bioaccumulation factors for root-soil and stem-root of these HOCs in most cases were <1. The tissue-distributions demonstrated that leaves serve as a significant reservoir of absorbed HOCs under the field conditions, whereas the low concentrations in peanut and corn kernels indicated translocation of most HOCs into this compartment was significantly hindered (especially for highly halogenated compounds).

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and alternative halogenated flame retardants in mangrove plants from Futian National Nature Reserve of Shenzhen City, South China

Halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) are ubiquitous in the environment, but little information is available about the bioaccumulation of HFRs in mangrove plants. In this study, three mangrove plant species were collected from Futian National Nature Reserve of Shenzhen City, South China to investigate the bioaccumulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and several alternative halogenated flame retardants (AHFRs), including decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE), hexabromobenzene (HBB), pentabromotoluene (PBT), tetrabromop-xylene (pTBX), pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB) and dechlorane plus (DP). The mean concentrations of PBDEs, DBDPE, BTBPE, pTBX, PBT, PBEB, HBB and DP in mangrove plant species were 2010, 1870, 36.2, 18.7, 40.1, 17.8, 9.68 and 120 pg g^-1 dry weight, respectively. PBDEs were the dominant HFRs in mangrove plant tissues, followed by DBDPE. The relative abundance of BDE 209 in three mangrove plant tissues were much lower than those in sediments. Significant negative relationships between log root bioaccumulation factors and log K_ow, and between log TF_r-s (from root to stem) and log K_ow were observed, indicating that HFRs with low hydrophobicity were easily absorbed by mangrove roots and stems. A positive correlation between log TF_s-l (from stem to leaf) and log K_ow were found, suggesting that air-leaf exchange may occur in mangrove plants. This study highlights the uptake of HFRs by mangrove plants, which can be used as remediation for HFRs contamination in the environment.

Polychlorinated biphenyls in the soil-crop-atmosphere system in e-waste dismantling areas in Taizhou: Concentrations, congener profiles, uptake, and translocation

Samples of soil, air, and locally grown crops from around an old e-waste dismantling area (Fengjiang) and a new e-waste dismantling area (Binhai) in Taizhou were analyzed to investigate the behavior of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) released during e-waste dismantling in the soil-crop-atmosphere system. The results indicated that PCB pollution is still widespread in the study area. The PCB concentrations were clearly higher in soil from FJ than in soil from BH, and the concentrations in the functional zones decreased strongly in the order industry park > residential area > farmland. Historical and current emissions during e-waste dismantling processes are probably the main sources of PCBs to soil because PCB production and use are banned. The long half-lives of PCBs have caused the target congener concentrations in soil not to decrease markedly over 10 years. The "halo effect" may have caused PCBs in soil in the heavily polluted FJ area to diffuse into the surrounding area. Soil-air exchange of PCBs in heavily contaminated FJ area may supply PCBs to air because the temperatures in Taizhou are often high. PCBs can accumulate in crops through various pathways. Less-chlorinated PCBs (mainly including Tri-PCBs) can enter crops by root uptake and translocated to the aerial tissues, and more-chlorinated PCBs (including Penta-PCBs and Hexa-PCBs) at high concentrations in soil can enter underground crop tissues through passive transport. More-chlorinated PCBs in underground tissues cannot be transferred to aboveground tissues of tall crops but may be transferred to aboveground tissues of short crops through the root-to-stem pathway and through soil dust being transferred to aboveground external surfaces.

The health concern of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in a notorious e-waste recycling site

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) remain a relatively high level in e-waste recycling regions 3 decades after ban on use. Illegal recycling activities cunningly moved under the environmental law enforcement. Here, we analyzed PCBs in soils and plants from Guiyu, China (one of the world's largest recycling areas) to understand the relationship between PCBs pollution and the transition of recycling activities (locations and techniques). High concentrations of PCBs were found in soil and plant samples from emerging recycling sites, up to 234 ng g^-1 and 236 ng g^-1 (dry weight), respectively. The recycling activities, specifically the open burning process, would obviously aggravate the PCB pollution levels in its environment. The calculated values of estimated daily intake and hazard ratios of PCBs in dietary routes showed that health risks should be taken seriously.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the environment and human external and internal exposure in China: A review

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are widely used as brominated flame retardants. Because of their toxicity and persistence, some PBDEs were restricted under the Stockholm Convention in 2009. Since then, many studies have been carried out on PBDEs in China and in many other countries. In the present review, the occurrences and contamination of PBDEs in air, water, sediment, soil, biota and daily food, human blood, hair, and other human tissues in China are comprehensively reviewed and described. The human exposure pathways and associated health risks of PBDEs are summarized. The data showed no obvious differences between North and South China, but concentrations from West China were generally lower than in East China, which can be mainly attributed to the production and widespread use of PBDEs in eastern regions. High levels of PBDEs were generally observed in the PBDE production facilities (e.g., Jiangsu Province and Shandong Province, East China) and e-waste recycling sites (Taizhou City, Zhejiang Province, East China, and Guiyu City and Qingyuan City, both located in Guangdong Province, South China) and large cities, whereas low levels were detected in rural and less-developed areas, especially in remote regions such as the Tibetan Plateau. Deca-BDE is generally the major congener. Existing problems for PBDE investigations in China are revealed, and further studies are also discussed and anticipated. In particular, non-invasive matrices such as hair should be more thoroughly studied; more accurate estimations of human exposure and health risks should be performed, such as adding bioaccessibility or bioavailability to human exposure assessments; and the degradation products and metabolites of PBDEs in human bodies should receive more attention. More investigations should be carried out to evaluate the quantitative relationships between internal and external exposure so as to provide a scientific basis for ensuring human health.

A Review of Environmental Occurrence, Fate, and Toxicity of Novel Brominated Flame Retardants

Use of legacy brominated flame retardants (BFRs), including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), has been reduced due to adverse effects of these chemicals. Several novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs), such decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) and bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), have been developed as replacements for PBDEs. NBFRs are used in various industrial and consumer products, which leads to their ubiquitous occurrence in the environment. This article reviews occurrence and fate of a select group of NBFRs in the environment, as well as their human exposure and toxicity. Occurrence of NBFRs in both abiotic, including air, water, dust, soil, sediment and sludge, and biotic matrices, including bird, fish, and human serum, have been documented. Evidence regarding the degradation, including photodegradation, thermal degradation and biodegradation, and bioaccumulation and biomagnification of NBFRs is summarized. The toxicity data of NBFRs show that several NBFRs can cause adverse effects through different modes of action, such as hormone disruption, endocrine disruption, genotoxicity, and behavioral modification. The primary ecological risk assessment shows that most NBFRs exert no significant environmental risk, but it is worth noting that the result should be carefully used owing to the limited toxicity data.

Uptake, translocation and subcellular distribution of pesticides in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa var. chinensis)

The extensive application of pesticides in agricultural activities has raised increasing concerns on crop contamination by pesticide residues. Vegetables seem more susceptible to pesticide contamination given the high-intensive application of pesticides during their entire growth, while information about transfer and cell diffusion characteristics of pesticides in vegetables is currently insufficient. Here, we investigated the uptake, translocation and subcellular distribution behaviors of four commonly used pesticides in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa var. chinensis) under laboratory hydroponic conditions. Root uptake of pesticides followed the order of fenbuconazole > avermectin > thiamethoxam > spirotetramat. Thiamethoxam was more readily to be translocated from vegetable root to shoot, while spirotetramat, fenbuconazole and avermectin preferentially accumulated in vegetable root. Cell soluble components were the dominant storage compartment for thiamethoxam. The majority of spirotetramat, fenbuconazole and avermectin were partitioned into the cell walls. Hopefully, results of this study would extend the current knowledge of pesticide bioconcentration behavior in food-crops and assist in properly evaluating the threats of pesticide residues to human health via food chain.

Bioaccumulation and translocation of tetrabromobisphenol A and hexabromocyclododecanes in mangrove plants from a national nature reserve of Shenzhen City, South China

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) such as tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) are of ecological concern due to their ubiquitous presence and adverse effects. There is a paucity of data on environmental fate of such compounds in mangrove wetlands, which are unique ecosystems in coastal intertidal areas and act as natural sinks for many pollutants. In this study, mangrove plants and sediments were collected from an urban nature reserve in South China to investigate bioaccumulation and translocation of TBBPA and HBCDs. The mean (range) concentrations of TBBPA and ΣHBCD in roots, stems and leaves were 67 (<MDL-999), 174 (0.73-1105) and 20 (0.59-250) pg/g dry weight (dw), and 329 (15.6-2234), 766 (32.9-3255) and 298 (19.9-1520) pg/g dw, respectively. Tissue-specific accumulations were observed, varying with plant species and compounds. HBCD diastereoisomer patterns were similar for all plant species. γ-HBCD was the major diastereoisomer in roots, while α-HBCD dominated in stems and leaves. The predominance of α-HBCD in aboveground tissues may be ascribed to diastereoisomer-specific translocation, isomerization and/or metabolization in mangrove plants. Preferential enrichment of (-)-α-, (-)-β- and (+)-γ-HBCDs was found in all mangrove plant tissues, suggesting the enantioselectivity for HBCDs in mangrove plants. Translocation factors (log TF, root to stem) of HBCD diastereoisomers and log K_ow were negatively correlated (p = 0.03), indicating passive translocation of HBCDs, driven by water movement during transpiration. Sediment-root bioaccumulation factors and log TFs (stem to leaf) both showed no obvious correlation with log K_ow of HBCD diastereoisomers. These results reflected the complex behavior of HBCDs in mangrove plants, which have not been sufficiently captured in laboratory-based studies of plant contaminant accumulation.

Trace metals in e-waste lead to serious health risk through consumption of rice growing near an abandoned e-waste recycling site: Comparisons with PBDEs and AHFRs

Despite the endeavour to eradicate informal e-waste recycling, remediation of polluted sites is not mandatory in many developing countries and thus the hazard of pollutants remaining in soil is often overlooked. It is noteworthy that a majority of previous studies only analysed a few pollutants in e-waste to reflect the impact of informal e-waste recycling. However, the actual impact may have been largely underestimated since e-waste contains various groups of pollutants and the effect of some emerging pollutants in e-waste remains unexplored. Thus, this study examined the contamination of metals, PBDEs and AHFRs in the vicinity of an abandoned e-waste recycling site. The accumulation and translocation of these pollutants in rice plants cultivated at the nearby paddy field were measured to estimate the health risk through rice consumption. We revealed that the former e-waste burning site was still seriously contaminated with some metals (e.g. Sn, Sb and Ag, I_geo > 5), PBDEs (I_geo > 3) and AHFRs (I_geo > 3), which can disperse to the nearby paddy field and stream. The rice plants can effectively absorb some metals (e.g. Mo, Cr and Mn, BCF > 1), but not PBDEs and AHFRs (BCF < 0.15), from soil and translocate them to the leaves. Alarmingly, the health risk through rice consumption was high primarily due to Sb and Sn (HQ > 20), whereas PBDEs and AHFRs had limited contribution (HQ < 0.08). Our results imply that abandoned e-waste recycling sites still act as the pollution source, jeopardising the surrounding environment and human health. Since some trace metals (e.g. Sb and Sn) are seldom monitored, the impact of informal e-waste recycling would be more notorious than previously thought. Remediation work should be conducted promptly in abandoned e-waste recycling sites to protect the environment and human health.

Polychlorinated biphenyls in apple snails from an abandoned e-waste recycling site, 2010-2016: A temporal snapshot after the regulatory efforts and the bioaccumulation characteristics

The rudimentary recycling of electronic waste (e-waste) has been banned in China since the late 2000s, leaving many abandoned e-waste sites. However, knowledge is limited on the concentrations and fates of the e-waste derived contaminants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in these abandoned sites. In this work, we assessed the temporal trend of PCB concentrations in the year 2010, 2012, and 2016 at an abandoned e-waste site in South China, using apple snail as a bioindicator. The mean ∑PCBs concentrations in apple snails sampled in 2016 (53.2 ng/g dry weight) was approximately 11-fold higher than that (4.68 ng/g dry weight) in apple snails from a reference site. The result suggested that the abandoned e-waste recycling site was still heavily polluted by PCBs, despite of the fact that crude e-waste recycling processes have been prohibited for nearly 10 years. The concentrations of ∑PCBs were significantly decreased in 2016 compared to those in 2010 (mean: 115 ng/g dry weight) and 2012 (mean: 92.3 ng/g dry weight), but there were no significant differences in the concentrations between 2010 and 2012. Regarding the congener profiles, the contributions of lower chlorinated congeners (tri- and tetra-PCBs) in the snails tended to be higher over the years. The ∑PCBs in snails were significantly correlated with those in soils. Additionally, PCB profiles in snails resembled those in soils. These results suggested that apple snails can be used as an ideal bioindicator for PCBs in the paddy soils. Field determined biota-soil accumulation factors (BSAFs) for PCBs ranged from 0.31 to 1.9, with most of the values being 1-2; indicating that theoretical BSAFs can be used to predict the bioaccumulation of PCBs in the snails with a reasonable degree of certainty.

Concentration, uptake and human dietary intake of novel brominated flame retardants in greenhouse and conventional vegetables

The possible adverse effects of organic pollutants entering vegetables have attracted increasing attention in recent years. However, research on the behavior of novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) in soil-vegetable systems is still limited. This work was initiated to investigate the uptake of seven representative NBFRs by vegetables from bulk soil and suspended soil particles under greenhouse and conventional conditions. The mean concentrations of the sum of seven NBFRs (Σ₇ NBFRs) were 2.8 and 3.8 ng g^-1 dw in greenhouse tomatoes and cucumbers, respectively, and 1.1 and 1.7 ng g^-1 dw in conventional tomatoes and cucumbers, respectively. Greenhouse vegetables had higher concentrations of Σ₇ NBFRs than conventional vegetables. The root bioaccumulation factors (RBCFs) of tomatoes and cucumbers in response to NBFRs ranged from 0.6 to 6.3. The range of fruit bioaccumulation factors (FBCFs) was 0.3-7.0. The bioaccumulation factors (BCFs) in greenhouse vegetables were significantly higher than those in conventional vegetables, indicating that greenhouses increased the uptake of NBFRs by vegetables. To address human dietary exposure to NBFRs, the estimated dietary intake (EDI) and the amounts available for human absorption (EDI_ba) were calculated using vegetable consumption and gastrointestinal absorption, respectively. The mean EDI values of NBFRs from greenhouse and conventional tomato consumption were 344 ng d^-1 and 109 ng d^-1, respectively. The mean EDI values of NBFRs from greenhouse and conventional cucumber consumption were 445 ng d^-1 and 217 ng d^-1, respectively. The higher EDI values of NBFRs implied that consuming greenhouse vegetables was associated with higher health risks than consuming conventional vegetables. The mean EDI_ba values of the DBDPEs were 68 ng d^-1 and 46 ng d^-1 for tomatoes and cucumbers, respectively, and were significantly different from the EDI values due to lower bioaccessibility. Gastrointestinal absorption should not be neglected during risk assessments of human exposure to pollutants.

Dechlorane plus in greenhouse and conventional vegetables: Uptake, translocation, dissipation and human dietary exposure

In an attempt to evaluate the behavior of Dechlorane plus (DP) in soil-vegetable systems, this work investigated the uptake and translocation of DP by vegetables and the dissipation of DP in soil under greenhouse and conventional conditions. To address human dietary exposure to DP, estimated dietary intake via vegetable consumption was calculated. The uptake potential indexes of DP from soil into root for tomato and cucumber cultivated under different conditions ranged from 0.089 to 0.71. The ranges of uptake potential indexes of DP from resuspended soil particles into stem, leaf and fruit were 0.68-0.78, 0.27-0.42 and 0.39-0.75, respectively. The uptake potential indexes in greenhouse vegetables were generally higher than those in conventional vegetables when the vegetables had been planted in contaminated soil, indicating that greenhouse enhanced the uptake of DP with a high soil concentration by vegetables. The translocation factor (TF) values of DP in vegetables were in the range of 0.022-0.17, indicating that DP can be transported from root to fruit even though it has a high octanol water partition coefficient (K_OW). The half-lives of DP dissipation in soil ranged from 70 to 102 days. The dissipation of DP in greenhouse soil was slightly slower than that in conventional soil. Higher estimated dietary intake (EDI) values of DP via greenhouse vegetables were observed due to the higher concentration of DP in greenhouse vegetables than conventional vegetables. These results suggested that greenhouses should not be adopted for vegetable production in contaminated regions.

Translocation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers from field-contaminated soils to an edible plant

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), recognised emerging contaminants, widely exist and persist in the environment. Samples were taken from a heavily contaminated farm in Taiwan located near a factory known to regularly use PBDEs. Sweet potato vines (Ipomoea batatas L., a commonly consumed vegetable in Asia) growing in the surrounding farmlands were found to contain a high concentration of PBDEs of 19.36 ng/g. The possibility of PBDEs translocation into sweet potato vines from soil samples was evaluated. To prevent the PBDEs from air through that factory, the pot experiments were performed in a greenhouse, which showed that the PBDEs concentration of 24 congeners (tri- through deca-BDE) in the sweet potato vine after 14-days cultivation was 29.90 ng/g, 40-times higher than that in the contaminated soil. After another 14-days, the PBDE concentration decreased to 12.30 ng/g as high-brominated PBDEs were transformed to medium- and/or low-brominated PBDEs in the sweet potato vine. The bioconcentration factor (BCF) values exceeded 20.0 for most of the deca-, nona-, and octa-BDEs but BCFs were below 18.9 for the rest of the medium- and low-brominated PBDEs. Our results demonstrate that high-brominated PBDEs can translocate into leafy vegetables from soils, and sweet potato vines tend to accumulate high-brominated PBDEs into their edible parts.

Bioaccumulation of Persistent Halogenated Organic Pollutants in Insects: Common Alterations to the Pollutant Pattern for Different Insects during Metamorphosis

Few studies have examined the accumulation and fate of persistent halogenated organic pollutants (HOPs) in insects. We measured HOPs, including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs), polychlorinated biphenyls, and halogenated flame retardants, in insects from four taxonomic groups collected from an e-waste site. Dragonfly larvae collected from a pond contained the highest concentrations of all chemicals except DDTs, while the litchi stinkbugs contained the lowest. Different insect taxa exhibited different contaminant patterns which could be attributed to their habitats and feeding strategies. Bioaccumulation factors for dragonfly larvae and biomagnification factors for moth and grasshopper larvae were significantly positively correlated with the octanol-water partition coefficient of the chemicals (log K_OW < 8). Common nonlinear correlations between the ratio of larval to adult concentrations and log K_OW were observed for all taxa studied. The ratio of concentrations decreased with increasing values of log K_OW (log K_OW < 6-6.5), then increased (6 < log K_OW < 8) and decreased again (log K_OW > 8). This result implies that the mechanism that regulates organic pollutants in insects during metamorphosis is common to all the taxa studied.

Critical review of soil contamination by polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs); concentrations, sources and congener profiles

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been used in a broad array of polymeric materials such as plastics, foams, resins and adhesives to inhibit the spread of fires since the 1970s. The widespread environmental contamination and well documented toxic effects of PBDEs have led to bans and voluntary withdrawals in many jurisdictions. Replacement novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) have, however, exhibited many of the same toxic characteristics as PBDEs and appear to share similar environmental fate. This paper presents a critical review of the scientific literature regarding PBDE and NBFR contamination of surface soils internationally, with the secondary objective of identifying probable pollution sources. An evaluation of NBFR distribution in soil was also conducted to assess the suitability of the newer compounds as replacements for PBDEs, with respect to their land contamination potential. Principle production of PBDEs and NBFRs and their consequent use in secondary polymer manufacture appear to be processes with strong potential to contaminate surrounding soils. Evidence suggests that PBDEs and NBFRs are also released from flame retarded products during disposal via landfill, dumping, incineration and recycling. While the land application of sewage sludge represents another major pathway of soil contamination it is not considered in this review as it is extensively covered elsewhere. Both PBDEs and NBFRs were commonly detected at background locations including Antarctica and northern polar regions. PBDE congener profiles in soil were broadly representative of the major constituents in Penta-, Octa- and Deca-BDE commercial mixtures and related to predicted market place demand. BDE-209 dominated soil profiles, followed by BDE-99 and BDE-47. Although further research is required to gain baseline data on NBFRs in soil, the current state of scientific literature suggests that NBFRs pose a similar risk to land contamination as PBDEs.

Occurrence and Source Effect of Novel Brominated Flame Retardants (NBFRs) in Soils from Five Asian Countries and Their Relationship with PBDEs

This paper presents the first comprehensive survey of 19 novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) in soil samples collected among five Asian countries. High variability in concentrations of all NBFRs was found in soils with the geometric mean (GM) values ranging from 0.50 ng/g dry weight (dw) in Vietnam to 540 ng/g dw in the vicinity of a BFR manufacturer in China. In urban, rural, and background locations, the GM concentrations of ∑₁₉NBFRs decreased in the order of Japan > South Korea > China > India > Vietnam. Correlations among different NBFR compounds were positive and statistically significant (p < 0.05), suggesting that they originate from similar sources. Evidence for simultaneous application between polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and NBFRs were also noted. Principal component analysis of NBFR concentrations revealed specific pollution sources for different NBFRs coming from urban, BFR-related industrial, and e-waste sites. For the first time, this study demonstrates a "point source fractionation effect" for NBFRs and PBDEs. The concentrations of all NBFRs and PBDEs were negatively and significantly correlated with the distance from BFR-related industrial and e-waste regions. Positive and significant correlation between population density and NBFR concentrations in soils was identified. Our study revealed that the primary sources effects were stronger than the secondary sources effects in controlling the levels and distribution of NBFRs and PBDEs in soils in these five Asian countries.

Occurrence, composition, source, and regional distribution of halogenated flame retardants and polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxin/dibenzofuran in the soils of Guiyu, China

Guiyu, China, is well-known for the crude disposal of electronic waste (EW) and severe persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Therefore, in this study, the occurrence, composition, and source of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexabromobiphenyl (BB153), some novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs), Dechlorane Plus (DP) and polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PBDD/Fs) in farmland soils covering Guiyu were studied. In EW disposal area soils, PBDEs were the most abundant FRs, with concentrations of 13-1014 ng g^-1. The primary PBDE sources were technical Penta- and Deca-BDE mixtures in northern and southern Guiyu, respectively. The levels of BB153 were relatively low, possibly because it has been banned in the 1970s. The concentrations of hexabromobenzene (HBB) were 0.048-3.3 ng g^-1, while pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB) was almost not detected in the soils. Two alternatives to commercial PBDEs, decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) and 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), were the primary NBFRs, with concentrations of 1.8-153 ng g^-1 and 0.43-15 ng g^-1, respectively. DP was another primary FR, with concentrations of 0.57-146 ng g^-1. Moreover, syn-DP and anti-DP isomers were not stereoselectively decomposed during the EW disposal process and were therefore present in their original fractions in the soils. The levels of PBDD/Fs in EW disposal area soils were 2.5-17 pg TEQ g^-1. 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpBDF and OBDF were the dominant congeners, mainly derived from processing, pyrolysis and combustion of BFRs. The regional distribution of pollutants was shown to be related to the disposal manner of EW, with their open thermal disposal tending to release more highly brominated compounds such as BDE209, DBDPE, and 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpBDF. Additionally, some riverbank sites were heavily polluted because of nearby point sources, downwind Simapu (SMP) town without EW disposal activity was also contaminated by these pollutants.

Occurrence, distribution and bioaccumulation behaviour of hydrophobic organic contaminants in a large-scale constructed wetland in Singapore

This study involved a field-based investigation to assess the occurrence, distribution and bioaccumulation behaviour of hydrophobic organic contaminants in a large-scale constructed wetland. Samples of raw leachate, water and wetland plants, Typha angustifolia, were collected for chemical analysis. Target contaminants included polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCP), as well as several halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) and personal care products (triclosan and synthetic musks). In addition to PCBs and OCPs, synthetic musks, triclosan (TCS) and dechlorane plus stereoisomers (syn- and anti-DPs) were frequently detected. Root concentration factors (log RCF L/kg wet weight) of the various contaminants ranged between 3.0 and 7.9. Leaf concentration factors (log LCF L/kg wet weight) ranged between 2.4 and 8.2. syn- and anti-DPs exhibited the greatest RCF and LCF values. A strong linear relationship was observed between log RCF and octanol-water partition coefficient (log K_OW). Translocation factors (log TFs) were negatively correlated with log K_OW. The results demonstrate that more hydrophobic compounds exhibit higher degrees of partitioning into plant roots and are less effectively transported from roots to plant leaves. Methyl triclosan (MTCS) and 2,8-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (DCDD), TCS degradation products, exhibited relatively high concentrations in roots and leaves., highlighting the importance of degradation/biotransformation. The results further suggest that Typha angustifolia in this constructed wetland can aid the removal of hydrophobic organic contaminants present in this landfill leachate. The findings will aid future investigations regarding the fate and bioaccumulation of hydrophobic organic contaminants in constructed wetlands.

Uptake and translocation of imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and difenoconazole in rice plants

Uptake and translocation of imidacloprid (IMI), thiamethoxam (THX) and difenoconazole (DFZ) in rice plants (Oryza sativa L.) were investigated with a soil-treated experiment at two application rates: field rate (FR) and 10*FR under laboratory conditions. The dissipation of the three compounds in soil followed the first-order kinetics and DFZ showed greater half-lives than IMI and THX. Detection of the three compounds in rice tissues indicated that rice plants could take up and accumulate these pesticides. The concentrations of IMI and THX detected in leaves (IMI, 10.0 and 410 mg/kg dw; THX, 23.0 and 265 mg/kg dw) were much greater than those in roots (IMI, 1.37 and 69.3 mg/kg dw; THX, 3.19 and 30.6 mg/kg dw), which differed from DFZ. The DFZ concentrations in roots (15.6 and 79.1 mg/kg dw) were much greater than those in leaves (0.23 and 3.4 mg/kg dw). The bioconcentration factor (BCF), representing the capability of rice to accumulate contaminants from soil into plant tissues, ranged from 1.9 to 224.3 for IMI, from 2.0 to 72.3 for THX, and from 0.4 to 3.2 for DFZ at different treated concentrations. Much higher BCFs were found for IMI and THX at 10*FR treatment than those at FR treatment, however, the BCFs of DFZ at both treatments were similar. The translocation factors (TFs), evaluating the capability of rice to translocate contaminants from the roots to the aboveground parts, ranged from 0.02 to 0.2 for stems and from 0.02 to 9.0 for leaves. The tested compounds were poorly translocated from roots to stems, with a TF below 1. However, IMI and THX were well translocated from roots to leaves. Clothianidin (CLO), the main metabolite of THX, was detected at the concentrations from 0.02 to 0.5 mg kg^-1 in soil and from 0.07 to 7.0 mg kg^-1 in plants. Concentrations of CLO in leaves were almost 14 times greater than those in roots at 10*FR treatment.

Effect of combined exposure to lead and decabromodiphenyl ether on neurodevelopment of zebrafish larvae

The effect of combined exposure to decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) and lead (Pb) on neurodevelopment of zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae was investigated. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to Pb (0, 5, 10, 20 µg/L) and BDE-209 (0, 50, 100, 200 µg/L), either alone or in combination (Mix1: 5 + 50 µg/L, Mix2: 10 + 100 µg/L, Mix3: 20 + 200 µg/L) for up to 144 h post-fertilization. Growth of secondary motoneuron axons and expression of genes related to central nervous system development was significantly inhibited in Mix3 co-exposure group. A significant increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and perturbation of the antioxidant system was detected in the Mix3 group compared to single-toxicant treatments or control. Depressed locomotor activity was recorded in the Mix2 and Mix3 groups. Addition of N-acetyl cysteine to Mix3 eliminated excessive ROS, and protected against lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and locomotor dysfunction. Pb uptake was increased in the presence of BDE-209, but BDE-209 bioconcentration and the ability to metabolize BDE-209 were decreased in the presence of Pb. These results suggest that BDE-209 and Pb have a synergistic disruptive effect on neurodevelopment in zebrafish larvae by enhanced generation of ROS, which is a major factor that contributes to developmental neurotoxicity.