Childhood experiences of sexual abuse and later parenting practices among non-offending mothers of sexually abused and comparison girls

The relationship between parental adverse childhood experiences and parenting behaviors

BACKGROUND

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are strongly related to the development of various health problems. Several previous studies have revealed the link between ACEs, parental mental health, and child psychopathology. However, the direct association between ACEs and parenting behaviors is still understudied.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the relationship between parental ACEs and parenting, the effect of mental health which possibly mediated parenting behaviors, and the prevalence of ACEs.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Data was obtained from 403 parents of 6-18-year-old students in Chiang Mai, Thailand, from January to February 2023.

METHODS

Relationships among ACEs, depression, anxiety, stress, and parenting behaviors were examined using correlation analysis and path analysis. The direct and indirect effects of potential associated factors on parenting behaviors were also examined.

RESULTS

Overall, 62.5 % of parents reported at least one ACE. Path analysis revealed significant direct effects of ACEs on poorer mental health in all subscales: depression, anxiety, and stress (β = 0.19, 0.21, 0.18 respectively). ACEs were directly associated with the use of corporal punishment (β = 0.15). Stress also had a positive direct effect on inconsistent discipline (β = 0.18).

CONCLUSION

ACEs are common in parents and associated with mental health problems. ACEs also affect parenting behaviors via direct and indirect pathways. It is important to detect and provide interventions to parents having a history of ACEs and poor mental health to improve the quality of parenting practices.

Perceptions of parenthood and child development among parents who experienced child maltreatment

Maltreatment survivors may be at risk for parenting challenges, although the previous literature is inconsistent, has focused on individual maltreatment forms, and has overlooked posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and other trauma exposure. The current study, thus, aimed to expand this research in four key ways by (a) examining all five maltreatment forms; (b) controlling for other nonmaltreatment trauma exposure to better isolate the role of maltreatment; (c) investigating maltreatment types and PTSS simultaneously; and (d) exploring novel parenting factors, specifically four types of parenting beliefs and developmental knowledge. Trauma-exposed parents (N = 301; Mage = 26.49 years, SD = 8.34, range: 18-69 years; 66.8% female; 59.8% White) participated in the study. A path analytic model indicated that, surprisingly, none of the maltreatment types nor cumulative trauma exposure corresponded with parental beliefs related to one's child, self, partner, or social relationships. PTSS, however, were tied to all four parenting belief types as well as developmental knowledge, βs = -.05-.40. Physical and emotional abuse were linked to less accurate developmental knowledge, β = .02, and maladaptive parenting practices, β = .03. Sexual abuse, neglect, and witnessing domestic violence were not associated with any of the parenting factors. Thus, current trauma symptoms are likely a more critical intervention focus than maltreatment experiences, although physical and emotional abuse may also play a role in parenting knowledge and behaviors. These findings also signal the importance of including all five maltreatment forms and PTSS when conducting research on the interaction between trauma and parenting.

"I Have to Make Sure She Is Not Sad": Children's Perceptions of Their Mothers' Experiences in Shelters for Battered Women

A qualitative study examined children's subjective perception of their mother's situation during their stay in shelters for battered women (SBW). Thirty-two children, aged 7-12 years, who were staying with their mothers in SBWs participated in this study. Thematic analysis revealed the following two core themes: children's perceptions and insights, and feelings that were related to their perceptions. The findings are discussed in light of the concepts of exposure to IPV as a lived trauma, and re-exposure to violence in new contexts, and the role of the relationship with the abused mother in shaping the child's well-being.

A Scoping Study of Parents With a History of Childhood Sexual Abuse and a Theoretical Framework for Future Research

Transitioning to a parenting role is a complex psychological process that can be stressful for a parent with a history of childhood sexual abuse (CSA). Over the past decade, important advances have been made in identifying the effects of childhood trauma on parents' relationships with their children. This article presents a new theoretical framework that emerged from a scoping study of parenting experiences among adults who experienced CSA. The methods of Arksey and O'Malley were used to conduct the scoping study, and the guidelines for theory construction and model building developed by Jaccard and Jacoby were adopted. Only peer-reviewed published journal articles in English that studied exclusively CSA and its effects on parenting among individuals aged 18 years or older were included. Three resources for collecting data were used: (1) internet databases including PsycINFO and PubMed, (2) reference lists of review articles, and (3) the citation index functionality of Google Scholar for review articles. Forty-six articles were included in the scoping study. These studies mainly focused on mothers and their relationships with their children. No articles considered the age(s) at which parents experienced CSA and potential effects on parenting outcomes. In addition, there is limited knowledge about fathers with a history of CSA and their relationship with their children. The development of a theoretical framework designed through a methodologically driven identification of gaps in the body of knowledge provides a foundation for future research in this area.

A Systematic Review of the Effect of Parental Adverse Childhood Experiences on Parenting and Child Psychopathology

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are defined as early exposure to maltreatment and household dysfunction. Researchers have demonstrated the link between ACEs and negative psychological, behavioral, interpersonal, and health outcomes. A growing area of interest in the ACE literature concerns the relationship between ACEs, parenting, and child psychopathology due to the intergenerational effect of ACEs. Emotional availability and discipline strategies are two domains of parenting that can increase understanding of the associations between ACEs, parenting, and child psychopathology from an attachment framework because they are both salient during early childhood and directly influence a child's later behavior. This paper utilized the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines to elucidate the relationships between parental ACEs, parents' emotional availability and discipline strategies, and children's psychopathology. PubMed, PSYCINFO, and Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection were used to access the literature on June 16, 2020, and 26 studies met the inclusion criteria. Results from this review suggested that there is a direct association between ACEs and parental emotional availability and discipline techniques. Depression and dissociation were identified as potential mediators. There was support for the direct association between parental ACEs and children's internalizing and externalizing difficulties. Maternal anxiety and depressive symptoms, emotional availability, attachment, and children's maltreatment experiences were found to be possible mediators. Recommendations are proposed to address limitations within the literature to further expand upon the research of ACEs, parenting, and child psychopathology.

Dissociation Links Maternal History Of Childhood Abuse To Impaired parenting

The present study investigated dissociation as a predictor of parenting and a potential mediator in the relationship between early life maltreatment (ELM) and impaired parenting. Mothers reporting moderate to severe sexual and/or physical abuse (assessed with the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire) formed the maltreatment group (n = 58; MG) and were compared to a non-maltreated comparison group (n = 61; CG) 5 months (T1) and 12 months (T2) postpartum. Dissociative symptoms were assessed with the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) at T1. Parenting was investigated by self-report questionnaires and behavior observation (Emotional Availability Scales; EA) at T2. Higher dissociation scores significantly predicted more self-reported parental bonding impairment and stress, higher physical abuse risk and less observed maternal sensitivity, non-intrusiveness and a lower total EA-score during mother-child interactions (p < .001 to p < .05). Dissociation mediated the associations between ELM and self-reported parenting, but not the associations between ELM and parenting as observed during mother-child interactions. Our results suggest that maternal dissociative symptoms play a distinct role in the intergenerational transmission of adverse childhood experiences and should therefore be targeted in therapeutic interventions provided for victims of physical/sexual childhood abuse and in preventive family programs.

Correlates and Predictors of Mothers' Adaptation and Trauma Symptoms Following the Unveiling of the Sexual Abuse of Their Child

Child sexual abuse (CSA) can severely affect the mental health of children and their parents. While correlates of recovery have been documented in children, factors exacerbating parents' adaptation to their child's unveiling of CSA deserves further attention. Parents' history of abuse has been inconsistently identified as a predictor of their distress in reaction to their child's abuse disclosure. This study proposes a mediation model that explores various processes underlying mother's psychological distress (posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], dissociation, and their comorbidity) following their children's unveiling of CSA. It investigates the influence of mother's own CSA, as well as of her exposure to additional forms of past and current victimization, on her reaction to the child's CSA disclosure, while considering coping mechanisms as mediators (avoidance, problem solving, search for social support, and feeling of guilt). Data were collected through self-report measures completed by 298 mothers of children who had recently disclosed CSA. Path analyses revealed that mother's exposure to interparental violence as a child acted as a primary predictor of dissociation and of its comorbidity with PTSD, while a history of CSA was directly and exclusively linked to dissociation. Being exposed to recent partner violence was indirectly related to trauma symptoms, with coping mechanisms acting as mediators. This study outlines the relationship between mother's psychological distress and her cumulative, past, and current exposure to various forms of victimization. Exposure to interparental violence as a child represents a particularly important factor for identifying mothers most in need of support, as it is a significant predictor of dissociation and of its comorbidity with PTSD.

Couple and parenting functioning of childhood sexual abuse survivors: a systematic review of the literature (2001-2018)

In this review, 55 unique empirical studies of the impacts of a history of CSA on couple and parenting functioning were identified and analyzed according to assumptions considered in an earlier review. Overall, this current systematic review supported earlier assumptions that CSA survivors would evidence insecure attachments in their adult couple relationships; that CSA survivors would be less likely to marry and more likely to divorce; and that partners would also experience difficulties in relation to their partnership with a CSA survivor. Assumptions about parenting functioning included: that CSA survivors would have different attitudes toward their children; that CSA survivors would function poorly as parents; and that children of CSA survivors would be at increased risk for sexual abuse. Evolutions in the literature since that first review included methodological improvements, as well as the inclusion of male survivors in some studies. More sophisticated statistical modeling allowed for a greater understanding of mediators and moderators in the relationship between CSA and later interpersonal functioning in couple relationships and in parenting. Recommendations for future research and clinical implications were proposed.

Transmission of Intergenerational Parenting Attitudes and Natural Mentorship: Associations Within the LONGSCAN population

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests that families transmit child maltreatment and parenting attitudes. Natural mentorship may mediate intergenerational parenting attitudes' risk for maltreatment but has not been studied.

OBJECTIVE

To compare parenting attitudes between adolescents exposed to or at risk for maltreatment and their caregivers and to determine if natural mentorship mediates differences in parenting attitudes' maltreatment risk.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

The study included 779 children and their caregivers from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) study, METHODS: Standardized measures assessed parenting attitudes, natural mentorship and demographic characteristics. Repeated measures, multivariable logistic regressions were used to predict low risk parenting attitudes for maltreatment among adolescents with and without natural mentors.

RESULTS

In adjusted analysis, natural mentorship did not predict an adolescent having low risk parenting attitudes when their caregivers had moderate or high risk attitudes: appropriate empathy adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.26; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.52 -3.01; appropriate expectations aOR = 1.35; CI 0.62-2.93; physical punishment rejection aOR = 1.74; CI 0.78-3.88; and appropriate roles aOR = 1.11; CI 0.57-2.18. Low risk caregiver parenting attitudes for appropriate empathy related to adolescents having low risk empathy attitudes (aOR = 2.89; CI 1.31-6.37). Male gender, African American race and Hispanic ethnicity were negatively associated with an adolescent having low risk parenting attitudes for maltreatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Natural mentorship did not mediate adolescent parenting attitudes. While prevention and intervention strategies should include natural mentoring given positive health impacts, services must be cognizant of and designed for gender, racial and ethnic diversity.

Intergenerational effects of childhood maltreatment: A systematic review of the parenting practices of adult survivors of childhood abuse, neglect, and violence

A history of maltreatment in childhood may influence adults' parenting practices, potentially affecting their children. This systematic review examines 97 studies investigating associations of parental childhood victimization with a range of parenting behaviors that may contribute to the intergenerational effects of abuse: abusive parenting, problematic parenting, positive parenting, and positive parental affect. Key findings include: (1) parents who report experiencing physical abuse or witnessing violence in the home during childhood are at increased risk for reporting that they engage in abusive or neglectful parenting; (2) a cumulative effect of maltreatment experiences, such that adults who report experiencing multiple types or repeated instances of victimization are at greatest risk for perpetrating child abuse; (3) associations between reported childhood maltreatment experiences and parents' problematic role reversal with, rejection of, and withdrawal from their children; (4) indirect effects between reported childhood maltreatment and abusive parenting via adult intimate partner violence; and (5) indirect effects between reported childhood maltreatment and lower levels of positive parenting behaviors and affect via mothers' mental health. Thus, childhood experiences of maltreatment may alter parents' ability to avoid negative and utilize positive parenting practices. Limitations of this body of literature include few prospective studies, an overreliance on adults' self-report of their childhood victimization and current parenting, and little examination of potentially differential associations for mothers and fathers.

The Associations Of Maternal Emotion Dysregulation And Early Child Dissociative Behaviors

Although dissociation is believed to develop in early childhood, there is little research prospectively examining childhood dissociation or parental contributions related to its development. The current study sought to examine parent factors prospectively related to changes in dissociation symptoms in childhood. The current study sampled 68 mother-child dyads at two time points, when children were 3-4 and then 5-6 years, in which mothers with emotion dysregulation were oversampled. Maternal emotion dysregulation was assessed at both time points. Maternal dissociation was assessed only at time two. Child dissociation was assessed at each time point using a modified subscale of the Child Behavioral Checklist. Results showed moderate stability in childhood dissociation across time points. Further, maternal emotion dysregulation and dissociation were both significantly correlated with children's dissociation. Accounting for several covariates, time one maternal emotion dysregulation was prospectively associated with preschoolers' dissociative behaviors at 5-6 years old. The present work suggests that symptoms of dissociation can be observed early in childhood and that maternal factors play an early role in the development of dissociation in children.

Post-Traumatic Stress, Mother's Emotion Regulation, and Parenting in Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence

Post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) are high among female survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV), and children of parents experiencing PTSS are at heightened risk for a wide range of emotional and behavioral problems. Parenting has significant influence on child adjustment, and although links have been found between parental psychopathology and maladaptive parenting, little is known about the factors that may explain this relation. The current study examines mother's emotion regulation (ER) as a factor influencing the relation between mother PTSS and parenting around children's emotions in a study sample of sixty-four female survivors of IPV and their 6- to 12-year-old children. Mothers reported on their own PTSS and their parenting. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) was used as a psychophysiological index of mother's ER. Experiential components of mother's ER was also measured by observer coding of the Meta-Emotion Interview, a structured assessment that asks parents about their attitudes toward and experiences with emotions, including their regulation of emotions. Mother's RSA reactivity moderated the relation between PTSS and negative parenting. There was also a significant indirect relation between mothers' PTSS symptom severity and supportive parenting reactions through mothers' self-report of ER. Results suggest that mother's ER abilities represent factors that significantly affect associations between maternal PTSS and parent's emotion socialization practices. Implications for assessment and intervention with families exposed to the stress of IPV are discussed.

Predictors of parenting attitudes in an at-risk sample: Results from the LONGSCAN study

BACKGROUND

Associations between parenting attitudes and behavior and children's adjustment are well-established, including links between negative parenting beliefs and increased risk for child maltreatment and poorer child functioning. Considerably less is known regarding what factors may correspond with parenting attitudes, particularly among at-risk samples. In line with theoretical models of the determinants of parenting, the aim of the study was to investigate correlates of parenting attitudes among child, caregiver, family, and neighborhood factors.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTINGS/METHODS

The study included 1071 4-year-old children (48.8 % female; 55.7 % Black) and their caregivers from the Longitudinal Studies in Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) study.

RESULTS

Numerous factors were consistently related to more positive parenting attitudes (i.e., more appropriate parenting expectations, greater empathy, and valuing non-physical punishment), including greater educational attainment, caregiver history of child sexual and physical abuse, lower levels of children's internalizing symptoms, greater family income, and lower levels of psychological aggression. Lower levels of caregiver depressive symptoms, greater number of maltreatment allegations, use of nonviolent discipline, and less severity of stressful life events were tied to more adaptive parenting attitudes in one or two domains.

CONCLUSIONS

Caregiver, child, familial, and environmental factors, as well as child maltreatment, may be important in determining parenting attitudes. Identification of the drivers of parenting attitudes may aid identification and intervention efforts with high-risk samples of caregivers to help improve parenting outcomes.

Parenting in the context of historical childhood trauma: An interpretive meta-synthesis

BACKGROUND

Parents with childhood trauma histories are more likely to experience difficulties with child-rearing. The literature often pathologizes the parenting behaviours of parents with abuse histories, meaning strengths sometimes are neglected OBJECTIVE: This article presents a meta-synthesis of qualitative studies into the parenting experiences of survivors of childhood abuse. This analysis was undertaken to develop awareness of the experiences of this population, with the hope findings would be of use to policy-makers and professionals supporting parents and their children.

METHOD

Following a systematic search and process of quality appraisal, 11 papers were subjected to an interpretive meta-synthesis, utilising a meta-ethnographic method.

RESULTS

Three themes were generated. Forming a Parental Identity Through the Lens of Trauma related to how parents and authors of the primary studies tended to interpret all parenting experiences, especially challenges, in terms of the effects of childhood abuse. Protecting Against Cycles of Abuse related to many parents fearing they would be unable to protect children from harm. The Need for Safe Support was concerned with how parents often felt they needed support but experienced this as unsafe.

CONCLUSIONS

Results pointed to how ambivalence towards professional input should typically be regarded as understandable in the context of lived-experience of abused parents. Professionals should seek to avoid pathologizing parental difficulties and support parents by normalising and making sense of difficult emotional reactions in order to support engagement and promote containing parent-child interactions. Trauma-informed approaches to therapy could usefully be employed by services and agencies working with parents to support children.

Causal connection between dissociation and ongoing interpersonal violence: A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To identify evidence for dissociation as a cause of ongoing interpersonal violence.

METHOD

A systematic review of the literature retrieved from ten databases.

RESULTS

Fifteen studies yielded from our search strategy have been included in the review; eleven of these were longitudinal and four were experimental. The evidence indicates that pathological dissociation may contribute towards enduring interpersonal violence. Thus, dissociation may account for instances of repeated victimisation. There are similar indications concerning offenders, but study designs in this area allow one to draw fewer causal conclusions. There is some evidence that dissociation decreases information processing from the limbic system, which may be one underlying neurofunctional mechanism of persistent violence.

CONCLUSION

There is growing evidence for dissociation as a cause of interpersonal violence. However, the available evidence is still limited, and our review rather reveals an important research gap. Future longitudinal and experimental studies aimed at clarifying the role of dissociation in the context of violence should take into account the theoretical and empirical complexity around the concept of dissociation.

Testing the cycle of maltreatment hypothesis: Meta-analytic evidence of the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment

It has long been claimed that "maltreatment begets maltreatment," that is, a parent's history of maltreatment increases the risk that his or her child will also suffer maltreatment. However, significant methodological concerns have been raised regarding evidence supporting this assertion, with some arguing that the association weakens in samples with higher methodological rigor. In the current study, the intergenerational transmission of maltreatment hypothesis is examined in 142 studies (149 samples; 227,918 dyads) that underwent a methodological quality review, as well as data extraction on a number of potential moderator variables. Results reveal a modest association of intergenerational maltreatment (k = 80; d = 0.45, 95% confidence interval; CI [0.37, 0.54]). Support for the intergenerational transmission of specific maltreatment types was also observed (neglect: k = 13, d = 0.24, 95% CI [0.11, 0.37]; physical abuse: k = 61, d = 0.41, 95% CI [0.33, 0.49]; emotional abuse: k = 18, d = 0.57, 95% CI [0.43, 0.71]; sexual abuse: k = 18, d = 0.39, 95% CI [0.24, 0.55]). Methodological quality only emerged as a significant moderator of the intergenerational transmission of physical abuse, with a weakening of effect sizes as methodological rigor increased. Evidence from this meta-analysis confirms the cycle of maltreatment hypothesis, although effect sizes were modest. Future research should focus on deepening understanding of mechanisms of transmission, as well as identifying protective factors that can effectively break the cycle of maltreatment.

From Freud to Feminism: Gendered Constructions of Blame Across Theories of Child Sexual Abuse

Most theories of child sexual abuse are, to some degree, gendered, with nonoffending mothers bearing the burden of blame, ideologically and legally, for the transgressions of predominantly male offenders. This article explores the social construction of blame for child sexual abuse via critical analyses of evolving theoretical perspectives on maternal culpability for the inception and maintenance of abuse dynamics. Drawing on selected conceptual and research knowledge that supports and refutes anecdotal claims, this synthesis of the literature culminates in the proposal of an evidence-informed, feminist-grounded, multitheoretical child sexual abuse framework that disrupts dominant mother-blaming discourse and guides socially just and ethically responsive policy, practice, and research.

Psychological and physical intimate partner violence and young children's mental health: The role of maternal posttraumatic stress symptoms and parenting behaviors

Young children are at significant risk of exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV), and vulnerable to exposure-related psychopathology, yet few studies investigate the effects of exposure to IPV on children under the age of 5 years. The current study investigated the role of maternal PTSD symptoms and parenting strategies in the relationship between mothers' IPV experiences and psychopathology in their young children, ages 3-6 years in a community-based cohort of 308 mother-child dyads at high risk for family violence. Data were collected from 2011 to 2014. IPV history and maternal PTSD symptoms were assessed by self-report questionnaires. Children's symptoms were assessed with a developmentally-sensitive psychiatric interview administered to mothers. Punitive/restrictive parenting was independently-coded from in-depth interviews with mothers about their disciplinary practices. Hypothesized direct and indirect pathways between physical and psychological IPV, maternal PTSD, maternal parenting style, and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms were examined with mediation models. Results indicated that neither physical nor psychological IPV experienced by mothers was directly associated with children's symptoms. However, both types of victimization were associated with maternal PTSD symptoms. Examination of indirect pathways suggested that maternal PTSD symptoms mediated the relationship between mothers' psychological and physical IPV experiences and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms and mothers' restrictive/punitive parenting mediated the relationship between mothers' psychological IPV and children's externalizing symptoms. In addition, there was a path from maternal physical IPV to child externalizing symptoms through both maternal PTSD symptoms and restrictive/punitive parenting. Findings highlight the importance of supporting parents in recovering from the sequelae of their own traumatic experiences, as their ensuing mental health symptoms and parenting behaviors may have a significant impact on their children's emotional health.

Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Opportunities: Parenting, Programs, and the Reduction of Risk

To date, child sexual abuse (CSA) prevention has relied largely on child-focused education, teaching children how to identify, avoid, and disclose sexual abuse. The purpose of this article is to explore how prevention opportunities can include parents in new and innovative ways. We propose that parents can play a significant role as protectors of their children via two pathways: (i) directly, through the strong external barriers afforded by parent supervision, monitoring, and involvement; and (ii) indirectly, by promoting their children's self-efficacy, competence, well-being, and self-esteem, which the balance of evidence suggests will help them become less likely targets for abuse and more able to respond appropriately and disclose abuse if it occurs. In this article, we first describe why teaching young children about CSA protective behaviors might not be sufficient for prevention. We then narratively review the existing research on parents and prevention and the parenting and family circumstances that may increase a child's risk of experiencing sexual abuse. Finally, we make a number of recommendations for future approaches to prevention that may better inform and involve parents and other adult protectors in preventing CSA.

Mother-child interactions at six months postpartum are not predicted by maternal histories of abuse and neglect or maltreatment type

OBJECTIVE

A history of childhood maltreatment (CM) is associated with increased rates of maternal psychiatric symptoms and other adverse outcomes in adulthood among postpartum women. However, to date only a few studies have examined associations between CM and mother-child interactions among a nonclinical sample of postpartum women, and the specific potential influence of the type of abuse or neglect is poorly understood. This study was an aim to examine the relationships between CM types and observed parenting in a nonclinical group of recently postpartum mothers with maltreatment histories.

METHOD

Participants were 173 postpartum, nonclinically referred mothers oversampled in the community for CM histories (n = 123, 72%) and their infants who underwent high- and low-stress interactive tasks during their 6-month postpartum visits, which were videotaped for later independent coding on hostile, controlling, and positive parenting. Mothers also provided information on demographics and type of CM they had experienced (i.e., emotional, sexual, physical abuse, and neglect). Differences of maternal parenting by history of CM and specific type were analyzed via 2-way univariate general linear models.

RESULTS

Inconsistent with a priori hypotheses, no significant differences emerged between overall CM severity or exposure to any particular CM type and hostile, controlling, or positive parenting in the high- or low-stress tasks.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that nonclinical postpartum women with CM histories show resilience regarding postpartum parenting quality and do not differentiate from non-CM maltreated postpartum mothers. We discuss the potential influence of resilience, moderating factors, clinical implications, and recommendations based on our findings. (PsycINFO Database Record

Experiences of mothers of sexually abused children in North-West province, post disclosure

BACKGROUND

Sexual violence against children is increasing at an alarming rate in South Africa. In 2010 the South African Police Service (SAPS) reported 21 538 rape cases of children under 18 years. In the North-West province (NWP) 5039 incidents of rape cases were reported in 2009. Mothers often experience emotional pain following child sexual abuse disclosure. It is seldom acknowledged that these mothers experience trauma and need support, post disclosure. The researcher has no known evidence of research conducted on the experiences of these mothers in NWP.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to explore and describe the experiences of mothers of sexually abused children post disclosure of the abuse.

METHOD

The research design was qualitative, exploratory, descriptive and contextual. Purposive sampling was used to select mothers of sexually abused children aged 23 to 59 years whose children ranged from 0 to 16 years. Permission to conduct the study was sought from the Provincial Department of Health and informed consent was obtained from the mothers. Interviews were conducted with a sample of n = 17 until data saturation. Data were collected through in-depth interviews using a voice recorder and field notes to enhance triangulation. Tesch's method of open coding was used to analyse data.

RESULTS

Findings indicated that mothers experienced emotional pain post sexual abuse. They expressed shock, anger and guilt for not noticing the abuse. They showed significant depression as a result of lack of support by stakeholders.

CONCLUSION

Mothers experienced secondary trauma that poses social and psychological challenges with far-reaching implications.

Emotion Regulation in Sexually Abused Preschoolers

Emotion regulation is closely related to mental health in children and adults. Low emotion regulation competencies have been found in school-aged sexually abused girls. The aim of the present study was to investigate emotion regulation competencies in sexually abused preschool girls and boys using a multi-informant approach. Emotion regulation was assessed in 62 sexually abused and 65 non-abused preschoolers using the Emotion Regulation Checklist and the MacArthur Story Stem Battery. Both parents and educators reported lower emotion regulation competencies in sexually abused preschoolers, especially boys, than in non-abused children. The narrative task completed by the children also revealed lower emotion regulation competencies in sexually abused boys. These findings could have an important impact on intervention programs offered to these at-risk children.

Early maternal relational traumatic experiences and psychopathological symptoms: a longitudinal study on mother-infant and father-infant interactions

Early maternal relational traumas and psychopathological risk can have an impact on mother-infant interactions. Research has suggested the study of fathers and of their psychological profiles as protection or risk factors. The aim of the paper is to assess the quality of parental interactions during feeding in families with mothers with early traumatic experiences. One hundred thirty-six (N = 136) families were recruited in gynecological clinics: Group A included families with mothers who experienced early sexual/physical abuse; Group B was composed of families with mothers who experienced early emotional abuse or neglect; and Group C comprised healthy controls. The subjects participated in a 10-month longitudinal protocol [at the fourth month of pregnancy (T₀), 3 months after child birth (T₁), and 6 months after child birth (T₂)] that included an observation of mother-infant and father-infant interactions during feeding (Scala di Valutazione dell’Interazione Alimentare [SVIA]) and a self-reporting 90-item Symptom Checklist-Revised (SCL-90-R). Maternal higher rates of depression and early traumatic experiences of neglect and emotional abuse predicted more maladaptive scores on the affective state of the dyad SVIA subscale. Paternal anxiety predicted more severe levels of food refusal in the child during feeding.

Childhood sexual trauma and subsequent parenting beliefs and behaviors

Using propensity-matched controls, the present study examines the long-term adjustment of women reporting childhood sexual trauma (CST) at or before the age of 14 in terms of parenting efficacy and parenting behavior. Data for these analyses were obtained from mother reports and from observational protocols from a longitudinal study of low-income, rural families. The novel use of propensity-matched controls to create a control group matched on family of origin variables provides evidence that when women with CST are compared with the matched comparison women, females who experienced CST show poorer functioning across multiple domains of parenting (sensitivity, harsh intrusiveness, boundary dissolution), but not in parenting efficacy. Follow-up moderation analyses suggest that the potential effects of trauma on parenting behaviors are not attenuated by protective factors such as higher income, higher education, or stable adult relationships. Implications for interventions with childhood sexual trauma histories and directions for future study are proposed.

Perceptions of the Role of Mothers in the Disclosure and Nondisclosure of Child Sexual Abuse: A Qualitative Study

One of the aims of this research was to develop an understanding of the role mothers were perceived to play during the process of disclosure of child sexual abuse. Using narrative inquiry methodology, face-to-face in-depth interviews were conducted with 22 men and women who had an early sexual experience. Even though a mother's support and protection is known to be important, this study showed that many mothers were seen as unable to offer such support, which had an important influence on nondisclosure. The heterogeneity of perceptions of mothers among adults who experienced child sexual abuse and gender differences are described. Health professionals need to manage complex relational dynamics between adult survivors and their mothers.

Linking mother and youth parenting attitudes: indirect effects via maltreatment, parent involvement, and youth functioning

Evidence suggests that parenting attitudes are transmitted within families. However, limited research has examined this prospectively. The current prospective study examined direct effects of early maternal attitudes toward parenting (as measured at child age 4 by the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory [AAPI]) on later youth parenting attitudes (as measured by the AAPI at youth age 18). Indirect effects via child maltreatment (physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and emotional maltreatment), parent involvement, and youth functioning (internalizing and externalizing problems) were also assessed. Analyses were conducted on data from 412 families enrolled in the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN). There were significant direct effects for three of the four classes of mother parenting attitudes (appropriate developmental expectations of children, empathy toward children, and appropriate family roles) on youth attitudes but not for rejection of punishment. In addition, the following indirect effects were obtained: Mother expectations influenced youth expectations via neglect; mother empathy influenced youth empathy via both parental involvement and youth externalizing problems; and mother rejection of punishment influenced youth rejection of punishment via youth internalizing problems. None of the child or family process variables, however, affected the link between mother and youth attitudes about roles.

Mothers who were sexually abused during childhood are more likely to have a child victim of sexual violence

INTRODUCTION

Recurrent exposure to childhood sexual abuse (CSA) seems to be higher among victims of sexual abuse. In this sense, experiences related to sexual violence can perpetuate within the family context itself in various ways. Here, we investigate the association between being exposed to CSA and having a child victim of sexual abuse.

METHOD

We used a sample with 123 mothers, who were divided into 2 groups: one consisting of 41 mothers of sexually abused children and another consisting of 82 mothers of non-sexually abused children. History of exposure to CSA was evaluated by means of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire - Short Form (CTQ) and we used a logistic regression model to estimate the prediction values regarding having or not a child exposed to sexual violence.

RESULTS

Mothers of sexually abused children had significantly higher scores on CTQ, especially on the sexual abuse subscale (SA). According to our logistic regression model, higher scores on the CTQ significantly predicted the status of being a mother of children exposed to sexual violence in our sample (Wald = 7.074; p = 0.008; Exp(B) = 1.681). Years of formal education reduced the likelihood of having a child victim of sexual violence (Wald = 18.994; p = 0.001; Exp(B) = 0.497).

CONCLUSION

Our findings highlight the importance of a possible intergenerational effect of sexual abuse. Family intervention and prevention against childhood maltreatment should take this issue in account.

Childhood maltreatment, emotional dysregulation, and psychiatric comorbidities

Affect dysregulation, defined as the impaired ability to regulate or tolerate negative emotional states, has been associated with interpersonal trauma and posttraumatic stress. Affect-regulation difficulties play a role in many psychiatric conditions, including anxiety and mood disorders, and especially major depression in youth and bipolar disorder throughout the life span. Exposure to traumatic events and interpersonal trauma in childhood is associated with wide-ranging psychosocial, developmental, and medical impairments in children, adolescents, and adults, with emotional dysregulation being a core feature that may help to account for this heightened risk. In order to understand how the developmental effects of childhood maltreatment contribute to emotional dysregulation and psychiatric sequelae, we review emotional regulation and its developmental neurobiology, and examine the research evidence of associations between childhood trauma, emotional dysregulation, and psychiatric comorbidities in children, adolescents, and adults.

Association of maltreatment with high-risk internet behaviors and offline encounters

OBJECTIVE

High-risk Internet behaviors, including viewing sexually explicit content, provocative social networking profiles, and entertaining online sexual solicitations, were examined in a sample of maltreated and nonmaltreated adolescent girls aged 14 to 17 years. The impact of Internet behaviors on subsequent offline meetings was observed over 12 to 16 months. This study tested 2 main hypotheses: (1) maltreatment would be a unique contributor to high-risk Internet behaviors and (2) high-quality parenting would dampen adolescents' propensity to engage in high-risk Internet behaviors and to participate in offline meetings.

METHODS

Online and offline behaviors and parenting quality were gleaned from 251 adolescent girls, 130 of whom experienced substantiated maltreatment and 121 of whom were demographically matched comparison girls. Parents reported on adolescent behaviors and on the level of Internet monitoring in the home. Social networking profiles were objectively coded for provocative self-presentations. Offline meetings with persons first met online were assessed 12 to 16 months later.

RESULTS

Thirty percent of adolescents reported having offline meetings. Maltreatment, adolescent behavioral problems, and low cognitive ability were uniquely associated with high-risk Internet behaviors. Exposure to sexual content, creating high-risk social networking profiles, and receiving online sexual solicitations were independent predictors of subsequent offline meetings. High-quality parenting and parental monitoring moderated the associations between adolescent risk factors and Internet behaviors, whereas use of parental control software did not.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment modalities for maltreated adolescents should be enhanced to include Internet safety literacy. Adolescents and parents should be aware of how online self-presentations and other Internet behaviors can increase vulnerability for Internet-initiated victimization.

Mother-infant bonding impairment across the first 6 months postpartum: the primacy of psychopathology in women with childhood abuse and neglect histories

Our goal was to examine the trajectory of bonding impairment across the first 6 months postpartum in the context of maternal risk, including maternal history of childhood abuse and neglect and postpartum psychopathology, and to test the association between self-reported bonding impairment and observed positive parenting behaviors. In a sample of women with childhood abuse and neglect histories (CA+, n = 97) and a healthy control comparison group (CA-, n = 53), participants completed questionnaires related to bonding with their infants at 6 weeks, 4 months, and 6 months postpartum and psychopathology at 6 months postpartum. In addition, during a 6-month postpartum home visit, mothers and infants participated in a dyadic play interaction subsequently coded for positive parenting behaviors by blinded coders. We found that all women, independent of risk status, increased in bonding with their infant over the first 6 months postpartum; however, women with postpartum psychopathology (depression and posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD]) showed consistently greater bonding impairment scores at all timepoints. Moreover, we found that, at the 6-month assessment, bonding impairment and observed parenting behaviors were significantly associated. These results highlight the adverse effects of maternal postpartum depression and PTSD on mother-infant bonding in early postpartum in women with child abuse and neglect histories. These findings also shed light on the critical need for early detection and effective treatment of postpartum mental illness in order to prevent problematic parenting and the development of disturbed mother-infant relationships. Results support the use of the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire as a tool to assess parenting quality by its demonstrated association with observed parenting behaviors.

Impact of Depression and Childhood Trauma in Mothers Receiving Home Visitation

Research has documented the deleterious effects of maternal depression and childhood trauma on parenting and child development. There are high rates of both depression and childhood trauma in new mothers participating in home visitation programs, a prevention approach designed to optimize mother and child outcomes. Little is known about the impacts of maternal depression and childhood trauma on parenting in the context of home visitation. This study contrasted depressed and non-depressed mothers enrolled in the first year of a home visitation program on parenting stress, quality of home environment, social network, and psychiatric symptoms. Mothers were young, low income, and predominantly unmarried. Results indicated that depressed mothers displayed impairments in parenting, smaller and less robust social networks, and increased psychiatric symptoms relative to their non-depressed counterparts. Path analyses for the full sample revealed a path linking childhood trauma, depression, and parenting stress. Path analyses by group revealed several differential relationships between dimensions of social network and parenting. Number of embedded networks, namely the number of different domains in which the mother is actively interacting with others, was associated with lowered parenting stress among non-depressed mothers and increased parenting stress in their depressed counterparts with childhood trauma histories. In depressed mothers, social network size was associated with lower levels of parenting stress but decreased quality of the home environment, whereas number of embedded networks was positively related to quality of the home environment. Implications of findings for home visitation programs are discussed.

Does maltreatment beget maltreatment? A systematic review of the intergenerational literature

In this article, the authors critically review the literature testing the cycle of maltreatment hypothesis which posits continuity in maltreatment across adjacent generations. That is, the authors examine whether a history of maltreatment victimization is a significant risk factor for the later perpetration of maltreatment. The authors begin by establishing 11 methodological criteria that studies testing this hypothesis should meet. They include such basic standards as using representative samples, valid and reliable measures, prospective designs, and different reporters for each generation. The authors identify 47 studies that investigated this issue and then evaluate them with regard to the 11 methodological criteria. Overall, most of these studies report findings consistent with the cycle of maltreatment hypothesis. Unfortunately, at the same time, few of them satisfy the basic methodological criteria that the authors established; indeed, even the stronger studies in this area only meet about half of them. Moreover, the methodologically stronger studies present mixed support for the hypothesis. As a result, the positive association often reported in the literature appears to be based largely on the methodologically weaker designs. Based on this systematic methodological review, the authors conclude that this small and methodologically weak body of literature does not provide a definitive test of the cycle of maltreatment hypothesis. The authors conclude that it is imperative to develop more robust and methodologically adequate assessments of this hypothesis to more accurately inform the development of prevention and treatment programs.

Intergenerational transmission of sexual victimization vulnerability as mediated via parenting

OBJECTIVES

Previous research suggests that women's early sexual victimization experiences may influence their parenting behaviors and increase the vulnerability of their children to being sexually victimized. The current study considered whether mother's sexual victimization experiences, in childhood and after age 14, were associated with the sexual victimization experiences reported by their adolescent daughters, and if so, whether these effects were mediated via parenting behaviors.

METHODS

The proposed model was examined using a community sample of 913 mothers and their college-bound daughters, recruited by telephone at the time of the daughter's high school graduation. Daughters reported on their experiences of adolescent sexual victimization and perceptions of mothers' parenting in four domains: connectedness, communication effectiveness, monitoring, and approval of sex. Mothers provided self-reports of their lifetime experiences of sexual victimization.

RESULTS

Consistent with hypotheses, mothers' victimization was positively associated with their daughters' victimization. The effect of mothers' childhood sexual abuse was direct, whereas the effect of mothers' victimization after age 14 was mediated via daughters' perceptions of mothers' monitoring and greater approval of adolescent sexual activity. Comparison of the prevalence of specific victimization experiences indicated that mothers were more likely to report forcible rape over their lifetimes; however, daughters were more likely to report unwanted contact and incapacitated rape.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that even in a highly functional community sample, mothers' sexual victimization experiences are significantly associated with aspects of their parenting behavior and with their daughters' own experiences of adolescent sexual victimization.

The impact of sexual abuse on female development: lessons from a multigenerational, longitudinal research study

This is a report on the research design and findings of a 23-year longitudinal study of the impact of intrafamilial sexual abuse on female development. The conceptual framework integrated concepts of psychological adjustment with theory regarding how psychobiological factors might impact development. Participants included 6- to 16-year-old females with substantiated sexual abuse and a demographically similar comparison group. A cross-sequential design was used and six assessments have taken place, with participants at median age 11 at the first assessment and median age 25 at the sixth assessment. Mothers of participants took part in the early assessments and offspring took part at the sixth assessment. Results of many analyses, both within circumscribed developmental stages and across development, indicated that sexually abused females (on average) showed deleterious sequelae across a host of biopsychosocial domains including: earlier onsets of puberty, cognitive deficits, depression, dissociative symptoms, maladaptive sexual development, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal attenuation, asymmetrical stress responses, high rates of obesity, more major illnesses and healthcare utilization, dropping out of high school, persistent posttraumatic stress disorder, self-mutilation, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders diagnoses, physical and sexual revictimization, premature deliveries, teen motherhood, drug and alcohol abuse, and domestic violence. Offspring born to abused mothers were at increased risk for child maltreatment and overall maldevelopment. There was also a pattern of considerable within group variability. Based on this complex network of findings, implications for optimal treatments are elucidated. Translational aspects of extending observational research into clinical practice are discussed in terms that will likely have a sustained impact on several major public health initiatives.