Targeted delivery of albumin nanoparticles for breast cancer: A review

Apoptosis and cell cycle arrest of bone marrow cells by green-synthesized silver but not albumin nanoparticles

Metallic nanoparticles (NPs) made by traditional means have a deleterious effect on bone marrow (BM) cells. Alternatively, green-synthesized NPs are cost-effective, ecofriendly, and may be less toxic. Also, albumin is a biocompatible blood protein involved in several physiological processes, employed in drug delivery without posing adverse effects, and is thought to be ideal NPs or coating for reducing the metallic NP's toxicity. We prepared albumin NPs (AlbNPs), biosynthesized silver NPs (AgNPs) using the metabolite of the Escherichia coli D8 strain and coated them with albumin (Ag/AlbNPs). These NPs were characterized and intraperitoneally administered to rats to compare their effect on rat BM cells. The flow cytometry results revealed that AgNPs significantly reduced viability, increased apoptosis, downregulated the antiapoptotic Bcl2 gene expression, and upregulated the apoptotic genes Bax and p53 in BM cells, while treatment with AlbNPs maintained these parameters. Principally, AgNPs caused significant DNA fragmentation, since all parameters observed by the comet assay (tail length, tail DNA content, tail moment, and olive moment) were significantly higher in AgNP-treated groups than in control and AlbNP-treated groups. Investigation of the cell cycle revealed that treatment with AgNP, but not AlbNPs, downregulated the expression of the regulatory genes Cdk2, Cdk4, and the cyclins A1 (Ccna1) and D1 (Ccnd1), which resulted in the arrest of the progression of the cell cycle at GO/G1, as demonstrated by flow cytometry. Coating AgNPs with albumin increased their size, and decreased their intracellular concentration, resulting in reduced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. However, these results for the Ag/AlbNP-treated group were still not comparable to those treated with pure AlbNPs. In conclusion, in contrast to AlbNPs, green AgNPs are toxic to bone marrow cells. Their coating with albumin, however, reduces this toxicity. To avoid this metal NP toxicity, it is recommended to use compatible degradable NPs instead of metal NPs for medication delivery to BM.

Albumin-based nanoparticles: a potential and emerging oral drug delivery system

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this review is to elaborate current development and challenges of oral albumin nanoparticles, and realize their clinical application.

SIGNIFICANCE

Albumin is an emerging protein nanocarrier with a high degree of versatility, safety, stability, modifiability. These characteristics endow albumin nanoparticles with considerable attention and unique roles in drug delivery. However, most albumin nanoparticles are administered intravenously instead of orally, although oral administration is the most popular and common drug delivery route. Oral administration of albumin nanoparticles is their inevitable tendency, but researches referred to this area are still in infancy.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Given that, firstly, the basic properties of albumin nanoparticles, like preparation methods, drug loading strategies, targeted drug delivery, and clinical application were simply discussed to provide design guide for their oral administration. Subsequently, the functions and challenges of albumin nanoparticles in oral drug delivery, and strategies to overcome the barriers were highlighted. Finally, aiming to realize their clinical potentials, the possible future trends of orally administrated albumin nanoparticles were also elaborated.

CONCLUSIONS

In this review, albumin nanoparticles were comprehensively introduced, especially their functions and challenges in oral drug delivery, aiming to guide their design and development.

Mechanistic insight into association of lysozyme, serum albumin, and insulin with aloin: Thermodynamic and conformational analysis

Lysozyme, serum albumin, and insulin carry out essential functions in the living systems. The properties and functions of these proteins may be positively impacted in association with Aloe vera, which is known to have usefulness as dietary supplement and clinical conditions. In this work, the conformational changes in these proteins have been analysed as a result of interaction with aloin, which has a long history of use in traditional health management. A combination of circular dichroism spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and isothermal titration calorimetry have been used in analysing the associated thermodynamic signatures and structural changes. It is observed that lysozyme, and bovine serum albumin showed weak binding behaviour with aloin at molar ratio of (1:1), which is found to be entropically driven at first binding site while enthalpically driven at second binding site. Similarly for insulin also, the interaction of aloin increased with increase in its concentration and the binding of ligand at first and second site is entropically and enthalpically driven, respectively. These three proteins offer hydrophobic and hydrophilic functionalities for establishing intermolecular interactions with aloin. Differential scanning calorimetry and circular dichroism spectroscopy have provided mechanistic details on tertiary structural changes in these proteins as a result of interactions. The results offer valuable insights into molecular mechanism of conformational changes in these proteins and hence their properties in association with aloin, thereby, having biological implications related to health and food industry.

Protein-based nanocarriers for paclitaxel (PTX) delivery in cancer treatment: A review

Paclitaxel (PTX) is recognized as one of the most potent chemotherapy agents and is widely used to treat various cancers, including ovarian, lung, breast, head, and neck cancer. Due to the limited solubility and high toxicity of PTX, its use in cancer treatment is challenging and limited. Hence, strategies have been devised to improve the solubility and bioavailability of paclitaxel. In recent years, biocompatible nanocarriers have garnered attention due to their desirable properties, including increased permeability, targeted delivery, extended circulatory half-life, and biological drug delivery for the delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs. Protein nanostructures have been widely studied for the delivery of paclitaxel due to their significant advantages, such as safety, low toxicity, availability, and relatively easy preparation. This review article reviews recent advances in the development of protein-based drug delivery systems for loading and releasing paclitaxel. These nanocarriers have great potential to improve paclitaxel's antitumor properties and efficacy. Therefore, in the future, the integration of the pharmaceutical industry and artificial intelligence techniques will provide more opportunities for research and development in the pharmaceutical field.

Albumin as a functional carrier enhances solubilization, photodynamic and photothermal antibacterial therapy of curcumin

Bacterial infections are a significant threat to human health. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) offer promising alternatives to antibiotic therapy. Curcumin (CUR) has shown great potentials in PDT, but its PTT was never reported. Also, its delivery and efficacy is highly limited by the poor water solubility. Herein, we report the antibacterial PTT of CUR for the first time. Furthermore, we successfully solubilized CUR, facilitated its delivery into bacterial cells, and enhanced its antibacterial PDT/PTT via using bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a carrier. The water solubility of CUR was enhanced from 10 to 298 μg/mL by forming CUR-BSA complex (containing 4 mg/mL BSA) which also enhanced the delivery of CUR into E. coli cells by >10 folds. Upon 450 nm irradiation, CUR-BSA (80 μg/mL) caused 94 % viability loss of E. coli, higher than 70 % loss caused by CUR, and more intracellular ROS was generated in CUR-BSA group. Interestingly, the antibacterial activity of CUR-BSA was reduced when the hyperthermia was depleted, suggesting its synergistic PDT/PTT effect. Considering the ready availability and great biocompatibility of albumin, our findings indicate that CUR-albumin complex may have great potentials in clinical use for antibacterial phototherapy.

Metal ions binding and colloidal destabilization in the model systems: Implication on the magnesium chloride coagulation mechanism in tofu making

MgCl2-induced soymilk coagulation mechanism in tofu making was explored from perspectives of Mg2+ binding and colloidal properties in model systems. Isothermal titration calorimetry of bovine serum albumin (BSA)-small molecule mixtures revealed proteins contributed negligibly to Mg2+ binding sites, instead, substantial Mg2+ were bound by soymilk-borne small molecules. The results thus suggested the "protein-Mg2+-protein bridge" was hardly formed in tofu making. Zeta potentials for both BSA-small molecule system and defatted soymilk changed in a similar pattern relative to the unbound Mg2+ concentration, indicating only those small molecules-unbound Mg2+ effectively neutralized the electronegative charges on protein colloidal particles. Turbidity and particle size results revealed a critical zeta potential (-11 mV) was required to induce marked Mg2+-defatted soymilk coagulation. For heated defatted soymilks, a critical minimum protein concentration (8 mg/mL) was needed to observe the significant Mg2+-induced coagulation. This study is expected to deepen our understanding of Mg2+ coagulation mechanism in tofu making.

Enhanced antimicrobial efficacy and biocompatibility of albumin nanoparticles loaded with Mentha extract against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus

In an effort to combat methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), this study investigates the potential of mentha-loaded albumin nanoparticles (MLAN) as a novel antimicrobial agent. MLAN was synthesized by a desolvation method in which the mentha extract was encapsulated in albumin nanoparticles to increase stability and reduce toxicity. Characterization of the nanoparticles by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) confirmed their spherical morphology, a size range of 100-200 nm and uniform distribution. The encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and loading capacity (LC%) of MLAN were determined to be 80% and 72.73%, respectively, indicating a high effectiveness of the encapsulation process. Evaluation of cytotoxicity using the MTT assay revealed that MLAN exhibited significantly higher biocompatibility compared to aqueous Mentha extract and maintained cell viability at 85.1 ± 3.5% at the highest concentration tested (250 µg/mL). Antimicrobial evaluations against MRSA showed that MLAN had larger zones of inhibition and lower minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values (0.39 mg/mL and 0.78 mg/mL, respectively) compared to the aqueous extract (MIC: 0.78 mg/mL, MBC: 1.56 mg/mL). In addition, real-time PCR showed that MLAN significantly downregulated the expression of key virulence genes (icaA, icaD and ebps) in MRSA, indicating a potential reduction in bacterial virulence. These results suggest that MLAN could be a promising alternative to conventional antibiotics with improved antimicrobial efficacy and reduced cytotoxicity. The study underlines the potential of combining plant extracts with nanotechnology for the development of new therapeutic approaches against antibiotic-resistant pathogens such as MRSA. Further in vivo studies are warranted to validate the clinical applicability of MLAN.

Bovine serum albumin nanoparticles encapsulating Dasatinib and Celecoxib for oral cancer: Preparation, characterization, and in-vitro evaluation

Oral squamous cell carcinoma is a diverse complex disease. Despite the ever-expanding repertoire of anti-cancer treatments, the outcomes are often inadequate highlighting the urgent need for innovative approaches. In this regard, co-targeting signaling pathways such as Src and COX-2 have attracted growing attention in several cancers, but co-inhibition of these two pathways using dasatinib and celecoxib has not been explored in oral cancer. However, the therapeutic efficacy of these drugs is limited due to their low aqueous solubility. Nanoencapsulation can improve this by utilizing naturally available proteins due to their ease of fabrication and biocompatibility. In this sense, this study aimed at preparing and characterizing dastatinib (DAS)/celecoxib (CXB)-loaded bovine serum albumin (BSA) nanoparticles as well as investigating their potential anticancer effects in vitro on SCC-4 oral cancer cell line. DAS/CXB-loaded BSA nanoparticles (NPs) were fabricated by the desolvation method, then characterized in terms of their hydrodynamic particle size, zeta potential, morphology and in vitro drug release. The IC50 was determined via the MTT assay. Cyclin D1, COX-2, p-Src and FAK protein expression levels were determined using ELISA while active caspase-3 was determined colorimetrically. DAS/CXB-loaded BSA NPs exhibited particle size of 336.6 ± 1.098 nm with low PDI value of 0.211 ± 0.019 and zeta potential of -35.0 ± 4.03 mV. Moreover, the in vitro cytotoxicity study revealed decreased IC50 value in case of the dual drug-loaded NPs compared to all treated groups, with significant decrease in the expression levels of cyclin D1, COX-2, p-Src and FAK proteins, besides, increased caspase-3 level. The findings suggest that DAS/CXB-loaded BSA NPs could serve as a drug delivery platform with increased antitumor effectiveness.

Copper(II) complexes containing hydrazone and bipyridine/phenanthroline ligands for anticancer application against breast cancer cells

In this work, mixed ligand Cu(II) complexes containing hydrazone and bipyridine ligands (CB1-CB5), or hydrazone and phenanthroline ligands (CP1-CP5) have been synthesized and characterized by spectroscopic and analytical techniques. Single crystal X-ray structure of complex CB1 revealed that two nitrogen atoms from bipyridine, one carbonyl oxygen, one azomethine nitrogen and one hydroxyl oxygen from the hydrazone ligand coordinated to Cu(II) ion, adopting a distorted square pyramidal geometry. Interaction of these complexes with calf thymus (CT) DNA and bovine serum albumin (BSA) was analyzed by absorption and emission studies. Further, the in vitro anticancer activity of the complexes was investigated exclusively against the breast cancer cells namely MCF7, T47D and MDA MB 231, and a normal breast MCF 10a cell line. The phenanthroline bearing complexes (CP1-CP5) displayed better activity than their bipyridine counterparts as seen from the IC50 values. In addition, the most active complex CP1 having an IC50 value of 5.8 ± 0.3 μM against T47D cancer cells was investigated for its mode of cell death through acridine orange/ethidium bromide(AO/EB), 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) and Annexin-V fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) staining assays which revealed apoptosis. Lastly, the cell cycle analysis revealed that complex CP1 induced cell death in T47D cancer cells at the G0/G1 phase.

Effect of Acetonitrile on the Conformation of Bovine Serum Albumin

The use of organic solvents in drug delivery systems (DDSs) either to produce albumin nanoparticles or to manipulate the binding of target molecules to albumin, a promising nanocarrier material, presents challenges due to the conformational changes induced in the protein. In this study, we investigated the alterations in the conformation of bovine serum albumin (BSA) caused by acetonitrile (ACN) in aqueous solution by using a combination of spectroscopic analysis and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Ultraviolet (UV) absorption, fluorescence, and infrared (IR) absorption spectroscopy were used to analyze the BSA conformation in the solutions containing 0-60 vol % ACN. Additionally, MD simulations were conducted to elucidate the interactions between BSA and solvent components, focusing on the structural changes in the hydrophobic pocket with Trp residues of the albumin. Increasing the ACN concentration leads to significant changes in the BSA conformation, as evidenced by shifts in UV fluorescence wavelength, decreased intensity, and alterations in IR absorption bands. Furthermore, the formation of protein aggregates was observed at high ACN concentration (30 vol % ACN), shown by increased hydrodynamic diameter distribution. MD simulations further demonstrate that the presence of ACN molecules near the hydrophobic pocket with the Trp-213 residue increases the fluctuations in the positions of amino acids observed near the hydrophobic pocket with Trp-213. Moreover, the intrusion of water molecules into the hydrophobic pocket under 60% ACN conditions with highly decreased solvent polarity was correlated with the changes in the BSA secondary structure. These findings enhance our understanding of how solvent polarity affects the albumin conformation, which is crucial for optimizing albumin-based DDS applications.

Albumin nanoparticles are a promising drug delivery system in dentistry

Periodontal infection is a long-lasting inflammatory condition caused by the growth and development of an abnormal and harmful community of microorganisms. This destructive illness leads to the loss of the tissues that support the teeth, degradation of the bone surrounding the teeth, and eventually tooth loss. To treat oral infections, it is necessary to use nonsurgical methods such as antibiotics. However, the indiscriminate and incorrect use of antibiotics results in drug resistance. Among these alternate therapeutic options, using nanoparticles to treat infectious dental disease was particularly significant. Consequently, researchers have worked to develop an effective and satisfactory drug delivery method for treating periodontal and dental illnesses. Albumin nanoparticles serve a considerable function as carriers in the drug delivery of chemical and biomolecular medications, such as anticancer treatments; they have several advantages, including biocompatibility and biodegradability, and they are well-tolerated with no adverse effects. Albumin nanoparticles have several benefits over other nanomaterials. Protein nanocarriers provide advantages such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, reduced immunogenicity, and lower cytotoxicity. Furthermore, this nanoparticle demonstrated significant intrinsic antibacterial properties without being loaded with antibiotic medicines. As a medication and antibacterial nanoparticle delivery method, albumin nanoparticles have substantial applications in periodontal and dental infectious disorders such as periodontal infection, apical periodontitis, and peri-implantitis. As a result, in this article, we studied the usage of albumin nanoparticles in dental disorders.

A streamlined proximity extension assay using POEGMA polymer-coated magnetic beads for enhanced protein detection

The detection of protein biomarkers presenting at low concentrations in biological fluids is essential for disease diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring. While magnetic beads-based solid-phase immunoassays have shown promise in achieving high sensitivity for detecting low-abundance proteins, existing protocols suffer from limitations such as the cumbersome need for bead blocking and washing steps to minimize adsorption of non-specific biomolecules. These extra requirements lead to increased assay complexity and the risk of procedural errors. In this study, we present a streamlined magnetic proximity extension assay (MagPEA) using poly (oligo (ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (POEGMA)-coated beads. The polymer brush on bead surface, on the one hand, provides an effective mechanism for repelling non-specifically bound biomolecules that contribute to background signal generation without performing any bead blocking and washing steps. On the other hand, it facilitates the immobilization of capture antibodies on bead surface by simply embedding the antibodies onto the porous polymer under vacuum. Using the human inflammatory factor IL-8 as a demonstration, we show that the incorporation of POEGMA beads into MagPEA workflow significantly simplifies assay procedure while maintains high sensitivity.

The Neoteric Paradigm of Biomolecule-Functionalized Albumin-Based Targeted Cancer Therapeutics

Albumin is a nature-derived, versatile protein carrier, that has been explored extensively by researchers for anticancer drug delivery due to its role in enhancing drug stability, solubility, circulation time, targeting capabilities, and overall therapeutic efficacy. Albumin nanoparticles possess inherent biocompatibility, biodegradability, and passive tumor-targeting ability due to the enhanced permeability and retention effect. However, non-specific accumulation of cytotoxic agents in healthy tissues remains a challenge. In this paper, the functionalization of albumin nanoparticles using various biomolecules including antibodies, nucleic acids, proteins and peptides, vitamins, chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid, and lactobionic acid have been discussed which enables specific recognition and binding to cancer cells. Furthermore, we highlight the supremacy of such a targeted approach in tumor-specific drug delivery, minimization of off-target effects, potential improvement in therapeutic efficacy, cellular internalization, reduced side effects, and better clinical outcomes. This review centers on how they have revolutionized the field of biomedical research and tuned into an excellent targeted approach. In conclusion, this review highlights in detail the role of albumin as a nanocarrier for tumor-targeted delivery using biomolecules as ligands.

Curcumin and nanodelivery systems: New directions for targeted therapy and diagnosis of breast cancer

As the global incidence of breast cancer continues to surge, the pursuit of novel, low-toxicity, and highly efficacious therapeutic strategies has emerged as a pivotal research focus. Curcumin (CUR), an active constituent of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) renowned for its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antitumor properties, exhibits immense potential in breast cancer therapy. Nevertheless, CUR's poor water solubility, chemical instability, and unfavorable pharmacokinetics have impeded its clinical utilization. To address these challenges, nano-delivery systems have been extensively exploited for CUR administration, enhancing its in vivo stability and bioavailability, and facilitating precise targeting of breast cancer lesions. Therefore, we elaborate on CUR's chemical foundations, drug metabolism, and safety profile, and elucidate its potential mechanisms in breast cancer therapy, encompassing inducing apoptosis and autophagy, blocking cell cycle, inhibiting breast cancer metastasis, regulating tumor microenvironment and reversing chemotherapy resistance. The review primarily emphasizes recent advancements in CUR-based nano-delivery systems for the treatment and diagnosis of breast cancer. Liposomes, nanoparticles (encompassing polymer nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, mesoporous silica particles, metal/metal oxide nanoparticles, graphene nanomaterials, albumin nanoparticles, etc.), nanogels, and nanomicelles can serve as delivery carriers for CUR, exhibiting promising anti-breast cancer effects in both in vivo and in vitro experiments. Furthermore, nano-CUR can be integrated with fluorescence imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography imaging, ultrasound, and other techniques to achieve precise localization and diagnosis of breast cancer masses. While this article has summarized the clinical studies of nano-curcumin, it is noteworthy that the research literature on nano-CUR applied to breast cancer diagnosis and the translation of nano-CUR clinical studies in BC patients remain limited. Therefore, future research should intensify exploration in this direction.

A bioinspired doxorubicin-carried albumin Nanocage against aggressive Cancer via systemic targeting of tumor and lymph node metastasis

Cancer metastasis and recurrence are obstacles to successful treatment of aggressive cancer. To address this challenge, chemotherapy is indispensable as an essential part of comprehensive cancer treatment, particularly for subsequent therapy after surgical resection. However, small-molecule drugs for chemotherapy always cause inadequate efficacy and severe side effects against cancer metastasis and recurrence caused by lymph node metastases. Here, we developed doxorubicin-carried albumin nanocages (Dox-AlbCages) with appropriate particle sizes and pH/enzyme-responsive drug release for tumor and lymph node dual-targeted therapy by exploiting the inborn transport properties of serum albumin. Inspired by the protein-templated biomineralization and remote loading of doxorubicin into liposomes, we demonstrated the controlled synthesis of Dox-AlbCages via the aggregation or crystallization of doxorubicin and ammonium sulfate within albumin nanocages using a biomineralization strategy. Dox-AlbCages allowed efficient encapsulation of Dox in the core protected by the albumin corona shell, exhibiting favorable properties for enhanced tumor and lymph node accumulation and preferable cellular uptake for tumor-specific chemotherapy. Intriguingly, Dox-AlbCages effectively inhibited tumor growth and metastasis in orthotopic 4T1 breast tumors and prevented postsurgical tumor recurrence and lung metastasis. At the same time, Dox-AlbCages had fewer side effects than free Dox. This nanoplatform provides a facile strategy for designing tumor- and lymph node-targeted nanomedicines for suppressing cancer metastasis and recurrence.

Advances on Delivery System of Active Ingredients of Dried Toad Skin and Toad Venom

Dried toad skin (TS) and toad venom (TV) are the dried skin of the Bufo bufo gargarizans Cantor and the Bufo melanostictus Schneider, which remove the internal organs and the white secretions of the skin and retroauricular glands. Since 2005, cinobufacini preparations have been approved by the State Food and Drug Administration for use as adjuvant therapies in the treatment of various advanced cancers. Meanwhile, bufalenolides has been identified as the main component of TS/TV, exhibiting antitumor activity, inducing apoptosis of cancer cells and inhibiting cancer cell proliferation or metastasis through a variety of signaling pathways. However, clinical agents frequently face limitations such as inherent toxicity at high concentrations and insufficient tumor targeting. Additionally, the development and utilization of these active ingredients are hindered by poor water solubility, low bioavailability, and rapid clearance from the bloodstream. To address these challenges, the design of a targeted drug delivery system (TDDS) aims to enhance drug bioavailability, improve targeting within the body, increase drug efficacy, and reduce adverse reactions. This article reviews the TDDS for TS/TV, and their active components, including passive, active, and stimuli-responsive TDDS, to provide a reference for advancing their clinical development and use.

Trend of albumin nanoparticles in oncology: a bibliometric analysis of research progress and prospects

Background

Delivery systems based on albumin nanoparticles (NPs) have recently garnered substantial interest in anti-tumor drug development. However, systematic bibliometric analyses in this field remain lacking. This study aimed to analyze the current research status, hotspots, and frontiers in the application of albumin NPs in the field of oncology from a bibliometric perspective.

Methods

Using the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC) as the data source, retrieved articles were analyzed using software, such as VOSviewer 1.6.18 and CiteSpace 6.1.6, and the relevant visualization maps were plotted.

Results

From 1 January 2000, to 15 April 2024, 2,262 institutions from 67 countries/regions published 1,624 articles related to the application of albumin NPs in the field of oncology. The USA was a leader in this field and held a formidable academic reputation. The most productive institution was the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The most productive author was Youn YS, whereas Kratz F was the most frequently co-cited author. The most productive journal was the International Journal of Nanomedicine, whereas the Journal of Controlled Release was the most co-cited journal. Future research hotspots and frontiers included "rapid and convenient synthesis methods predominated by self-assembly," "surface modification," "construction of multifunctional NPs for theranostics," "research on natural active ingredients mainly based on phenolic compounds," "combination therapy," and "clinical applications."

Conclusion

Based on our bibliometric analysis and summary, we obtained an overview of the research on albumin NPs in the field of oncology, identified the most influential countries, institutions, authors, journals, and citations, and discussed the current research hotspots and frontiers in this field. Our study may serve as an important reference for future research in this field.

Albumin Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems

Nanoparticle-based systems are extensively investigated for drug delivery. Among others, with superior biocompatibility and enhanced targeting capacity, albumin appears to be a promising carrier for drug delivery. Albumin nanoparticles are highly favored in many disease therapies, as they have the proper chemical groups for modification, cell-binding sites for cell adhesion, and affinity to protein drugs for nanocomplex generation. Herein, this review summarizes the recent fabrication techniques, modification strategies, and application of albumin nanoparticles. We first discuss various albumin nanoparticle fabrication methods, from both pros and cons. Then, we provide a comprehensive introduction to the modification section, including organic albumin nanoparticles, metal albumin nanoparticles, inorganic albumin nanoparticles, and albumin nanoparticle-based hybrids. We finally bring further perspectives on albumin nanoparticles used for various critical diseases.

Advanced Delivery Strategies of Nintedanib for Lung Disorders and Beyond: A Comprehensive Review

Nintedanib, a primary treatment for lung fibrosis, has gathered substantial attention due to its multifaceted potential. A tyrosine kinase inhibitor, nintedanib, inhibits multiple signalling receptors, including endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), and fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) and ultimately inhibits fibroblast proliferation and differentiation. Therefore, nintedanib has been studied widely for other ailments like cancers and hepatic fibrosis, apart from lung disorders. Commercially, nintedanib is available as soft gelatin capsules for treatment against idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Since it has very low oral bioavailability (4.7%), high doses of a drug, such as 100-150 mg, are administered, which can cause problems of gastrointestinal irritation and hepatotoxicity. The article begins with exploring the mechanism of action of nintedanib, elucidating its complex interactions within cellular pathways that govern fibrotic processes. It also emphasizes the pharmacokinetics of nintedanib, clinical trial insights, and the limitations of conventional formulations. The article mainly focuses on the emerging landscape of nanoparticle-based carriers such as hybrid liposome-exosome, nano liquid crystals, discoidal polymeric, and magnetic systems, offering promising avenues to optimize drug targeting, address its efficacy issues and minimise adverse effects. However, none of these delivery systems are commercialised, and further research is required to ensure safety and effectiveness in clinical settings. Yet, as research progresses, these advanced delivery systems promise to revolutionise the treatment landscape for various fibrotic disorders and cancers, potentially improving patient outcomes and quality of life.

pH-responsive self-assembled nanoparticles for tumor-targeted drug delivery

Recent advances in the field of drug delivery have opened new avenues for the development of novel nanodrug delivery systems (NDDS) in cancer therapy. Self-assembled nanoparticles (SANPs) based on tumour microenvironment have great advantages in improving antitumor effect, and pH-responsive SANPs prepared by the combination of pH-responsive nanomaterials and self-assembly technology can effectively improve the efficacy and reduce the systemic toxicity of antitumor drugs. In this review, we describe the characteristics of self-assembly and its driving force, the mechanism of pH-responsive NDDS, and the nanomaterials for pH-responsive SANPs type. A series of pH-responsive SANPs for tumour-targeted drug delivery are discussed, with an emphasis on the relation between structural features and theranostic performance.

Fluorescence study of the interaction between albumin and layered double hydroxides

Layered double hydroxides nanoparticles (LDH-NP) are increasingly studied for biomedical applications. Nevertheless, their interaction with biomolecules such as proteins needs further exploration for an effective application. In this work, the adsorption of bovine serum albumin (BSA) on LDH-NP and the conformation changes of the protein upon adsorption were characterized using fluorescence spectroscopy. First, the quenching of tryptophan residues of BSA by chloride-intercalated LDH-NP was explored and the BSA adsorption capacity of LDH-NP were determined. Then, the structural conformation of the protein was analyzed by fluorescence spectroscopy (including synchronous, polarization and quenching studies) at different surface coverages. Finally, the proclivity of adsorbed BSA molecules to assemble as amyloid fibril was evaluated. Due to the positive charging and low curvature of LDH-NP, BSA molecules were strongly adsorbed, which produced a quenching of the protein fluorescence and a large adsorption capacity. The effect on BSA conformation was dependent on surface coverage (SC): at low values ,t he tryptophan residues were in more hydrophobic environments and more accessible to quenchers than al high ones. At low SC, there is space between the BSA molecules to spread on the surface, which led to a conformation change. Contrarily, the native conformation around tryptophan residues of BSA was preserved at high SC due to the tight packing of the adsorbed protein molecules. As a result, BSA molecules are stabilized against the formation of amyloid fibrils at high SC, while at low SC they present a similar fibrillation than free BSA.

Exploring the synergistic behavior of paclitaxel and vorinostat upon co-loading in albumin nanoparticles for breast cancer management

Breast cancer is challenging to treat accompanied with poor clinical outcomes. Paclitaxel (PTX) is a first-line chemotherapeutic agent, but possesses limitations due to side effects, high dose, non-specific tissue distribution, and drug resistance. An epigenetic modulator, vorinostat (VOR) is known to enhance PTX efficacy and therefore to resolve the issues of conventional PTX formulations, we designed PTX- and VOR-bound albumin nanoparticles (PTX-VOR-BSA-NPs) using antisolvent precipitation technique where albumin is used as a carrier and a targeting agent. The PTX-VOR-BSA-NPs were of 140 nm size, polydispersity index around 0.18, and about 78% and 68% of entrapment efficiency for PTX and VOR, respectively. A bi-pattern release of both PTX and VOR was observed from PTX-VOR-BSA-NPs with a burst release for 2 h succeeded by sustained release until 24 h. A significantly lower %cell viability was observed in MCF-7 cell lines, while efficient cellular drug uptake was found in MDA-MB-231 cells. Furthermore, a greater apoptotic index was found compared to free PTX and VOR because of the synergistic activity of these drugs. The PTX-VOR-BSA-NPs also showcased superior pharmacokinetic profile and noteworthy reduction in the tumor volume compared to Intaxel in 4T1 cell line-induced breast tumor model. Further, the NPs showed similar levels of toxicity biomarkers as that of control. Overall, the developed PTX-VOR-BSA-NPs were found to have less toxicity and more effectiveness compared to the marketed formulation, thus affirming the generation of a potent as well as and safe product.

Applications of Bioengineered Polymer in the Field of Nano-Based Drug Delivery

The most favored route of drug administration is oral administration; however, several factors, including poor solubility, low bioavailability, and degradation, in the severe gastrointestinal environment frequently compromise the effectiveness of drugs taken orally. Bioengineered polymers have been developed to overcome these difficulties and enhance the delivery of therapeutic agents. Polymeric nanoparticles, including carbon dots, fullerenes, and quantum dots, have emerged as crucial components in this context. They provide a novel way to deliver various therapeutic materials, including proteins, vaccine antigens, and medications, precisely to the locations where they are supposed to have an effect. The promise of this integrated strategy, which combines nanoparticles with bioengineered polymers, is to address the drawbacks of conventional oral medication delivery such as poor solubility, low bioavailability, and early degradation. In recent years, we have seen substantially increased interest in bioengineered polymers because of their distinctive qualities, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and flexible physicochemical characteristics. The different bioengineered polymers, such as chitosan, alginate, and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), can shield medications or antigens from degradation in unfavorable conditions and aid in the administration of drugs orally through mucosal delivery with lower cytotoxicity, thus used in targeted drug delivery. Future research in this area should focus on optimizing the physicochemical properties of these polymers to improve their performance as drug delivery carriers.

Folic acid-coupled bovine serum albumin-modified magnetic nanocomposites from quantum-sized Fe3O4 and layered double hydroxide for actively targeted delivery of 5-fluorouracil

The development of multifunctional magnetic nanocomposites as a drug delivery system for cancer therapy is highly desirable in current nanomedicine. Herein, folic acid-bovine serum albumin conjugate (FA-BSA) was modified on nanocomposites by combining quantum-sized Fe3O4 and layered double hydroxide (LDH) to obtain a novel FA-BSA/Fe3O4@LDH for the delivery of the anticancer drug 5-Fluorouracil (5-Fu). The prepared nanocomposites showed good dispersibility, colloidal stability, magnetic property and erythrocyte compatibility. FA-BSA/Fe3O4@LDH/5-Fu showed pH responsiveness, with both the amount and duration of release of FA-BSA/Fe3O4@LDH/5-Fu being significantly higher in pH 5.0 release medium than in pH 7.4 release medium. The cellular experiments implied that no significant cytotoxicity of FA-BSA/Fe3O4@LDH, particularly due to the presence of FA-BSA, which further enhanced the biocompatibility of the nanocomposite. Furthermore, FA-BSA/Fe3O4@LDH/5-Fu could specifically target the 2D HepG2 cells model and 3D hepatoma cell microspheres model in vitro, and efficient internalization through folate receptor-mediated endocytosis, showing excellent anti-cancer cell activity in a concentration-dependent manner. Therefore, the constructed FA-BSA/Fe3O4@LDH was able to provide a potential novel multifunctional nanocomposite for magnetic-targeting drug delivery and pH-responsive release of drugs to enhance the efficiency of cancer therapy.

Self-Penetrating Oligonucleotide Derivatives: Features of Self-Assembly and Interactions with Serum and Intracellular Proteins

Lipophilic oligonucleotide derivatives are a potent approach to the intracellular delivery of nucleic acids. The binding of these derivatives to serum albumin is a determinant of their fate in the body, as its structure contains several sites of high affinity for hydrophobic compounds. This study focuses on the features of self-association and non-covalent interactions with human serum albumin of novel self-penetrating oligonucleotide derivatives. The study revealed that the introduction of a triazinyl phosphoramidate modification bearing two dodecyl groups at the 3' end region of the oligonucleotide sequence has a negligible effect on its affinity for the complementary sequence. Dynamic light scattering verified that the amphiphilic oligonucleotides under study can self-assemble into micelle-like particles ranging from 8 to 15 nm in size. The oligonucleotides with dodecyl groups form stable complexes with human serum albumin with a dissociation constant of approximately 10-6 M. The oligonucleotide micelles are simultaneously destroyed upon binding to albumin. Using an electrophoretic mobility shift assay and affinity modification, we examined the ability of DNA duplexes containing triazinyl phosphoramidate oligonucleotides to interact with Ku antigen and PARP1, as well as the mutual influence of PARP1 and albumin or Ku antigen and albumin upon interaction with DNA duplexes. These findings, together with the capability of dodecyl-containing derivatives to effectively penetrate different cells, such as HEK293 and T98G, indicate that the oligonucleotides under study can be considered as a platform for the development of therapeutic preparations with a target effect.

Material and Design Toolkit for Drug Delivery: State of the Art, Trends, and Challenges

The nanomaterial and related toolkit have promising applications for improving human health and well-being. Nanobased drug delivery systems use nanoscale materials as carriers to deliver therapeutic agents in a targeted and controlled manner, and they have shown potential to address issues associated with conventional drug delivery systems. They offer benefits for treating various illnesses by encapsulating or conjugating biological agents, chemotherapeutic drugs, and immunotherapeutic agents. The potential applications of this technology are vast; however, significant challenges exist to overcome such as safety issues, toxicity, efficacy, and insufficient capacity. This article discusses the latest developments in drug delivery systems, including drug release mechanisms, material toolkits, related design molecules, and parameters. The concluding section examines the limitations and provides insights into future possibilities.

Enhanced therapeutic action of Trastuzumab loaded ZnxMn1-xFe2O4 nanoparticles using a pre-treatment step for hyperthermia treatment of HER2+ breast cancer

In this study, Ferrites (Fe3O4, MnFe2O4, ZnFe2O4) and different stoichiometric ratios of ZnxMn1-xFe2O4 (x = 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8) nanoparticles (<15 nm) were synthesized by microwave-assisted method and optimised for hyperthermia studies. The selection of the optimised variant of ferrite i.e. Zn0.4Mn0.6Fe2O4 was found to be the best variant based on VSM (38.14 emu g-1) hyperthermia-based temperature rise (maximum ΔT of 38 °C), SAR and ILP values. Trastuzumab, which is known to bind with HER2 receptors of breast cancer was chemically tethered onto Zn0.4Mn0.6Fe2O4 nanoparticles through EDC/NHS coupling with a loading efficiency of 80%. The attached Trastuzumab aided during the pre-treatment step by aiding in the internalisation of Zn0.4Mn0.6Fe2O4 nanoparticles, with cellular uptake of 11% in SK-BR-3 (cancerous HER2+) cells compared to ∼5% for MDA-MB-231 (cancerous HER2-) and RPE-1 (non-cancerous) cells. In the presence of a hyperthermia trigger for 15 mins, ZnxMn1-xFe2O4 -Trastuzumab formulation had a maximum therapeutic effect by reducing the SK-BR-3 cell viability to 14% without adversely affecting the RPE-1 cells. The mechanism of ZnxMn1-xFe2O4-Trastuzumab combination was examined using an internalisation study, MTT-based viability, proliferation study, and ROS generation assay. By utilizing both Trastuzumab and hyperthermia, we achieve their synergistic anticancer properties while minimizing the drug requirement and reducing any effect on non-cancerous cells.

Advances in photoacoustic imaging aided by nano contrast agents: special focus on role of lymphatic system imaging for cancer theranostics

Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) is a successful clinical imaging platform for management of cancer and other health conditions that has seen significant progress in the past decade. However, clinical translation of PAI based methods are still under scrutiny as the imaging quality and clinical information derived from PA images are not on par with other imaging methods. Hence, to improve PAI, exogenous contrast agents, in the form of nanomaterials, are being used to achieve better image with less side effects, lower accumulation, and improved target specificity. Nanomedicine has become inevitable in cancer management, as it contributes at every stage from diagnosis to therapy, surgery, and even in the postoperative care and surveillance for recurrence. Nanocontrast agents for PAI have been developed and are being explored for early and improved cancer diagnosis. The systemic stability and target specificity of the nanomaterials to render its theranostic property depends on various influencing factors such as the administration route and physico-chemical responsiveness. The recent focus in PAI is on targeting the lymphatic system and nodes for cancer diagnosis, as they play a vital role in cancer progression and metastasis. This review aims to discuss the clinical advancements of PAI using nanoparticles as exogenous contrast agents for cancer theranostics with emphasis on PAI of lymphatic system for diagnosis, cancer progression, metastasis, PAI guided tumor resection, and finally PAI guided drug delivery.

Coenzyme Q10-Loaded Albumin Nanoparticles Protect against Redox Imbalance and Inflammatory, Apoptotic, and Histopathological Alterations in Mercuric Chloride-Induced Hepatorenal Toxicity in Rats

Exposure to mercuric chloride (HgCl2), either accidental or occupational, induces substantial liver and kidney damage. Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is a natural antioxidant that also has anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic activities. Herein, our study aimed to investigate the possible protective effects of CoQ10 alone or loaded with albumin nanoparticles (CoQ10NPs) against HgCl2-induced hepatorenal toxicity in rats. Experimental animals received CoQ10 (10 mg/kg/oral) or CoQ10NPs (10 mg/kg/oral) and were injected intraperitoneally with HgCl2 (5 mg/kg; three times/week) for two weeks. The results indicated that CoQ10NP pretreatment caused a significant decrease in serum liver and kidney function markers. Moreover, lowered MDA and NO levels were associated with an increase in antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, GPx, GR, and CAT), along with higher GSH contents, in both the liver and kidneys of intoxicated rats treated with CoQ10NPs. Moreover, HgCl2-intoxicated rats that received CoQ10NPs revealed a significant reduction in the hepatorenal levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, NF-κB, and TGF-β, as well as an increase in the hepatic level of the fibrotic marker (α-SMA). Notably, CoQ10NPs counteracted hepatorenal apoptosis by diminishing the levels of Bax and caspase-3 and boosting the level of Bcl-2. The hepatic and renal histopathological findings supported the abovementioned changes. In conclusion, these data suggest that CoQ10, alone or loaded with albumin nanoparticles, has great power in reversing the hepatic and renal tissue impairment induced by HgCl2 via the modulation of hepatorenal oxidative damage, inflammation, and apoptosis. Therefore, this study provides a valuable therapeutic agent (CoQ10NPs) for preventing and treating several HgCl2-induced hepatorenal disorders.

Recent Advancements and Strategies for Overcoming the Blood-Brain Barrier Using Albumin-Based Drug Delivery Systems to Treat Brain Cancer, with a Focus on Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly aggressive malignant tumor, and the most prevalent primary malignant tumor affecting the brain and central nervous system. Recent research indicates that the genetic profile of GBM makes it resistant to drugs and radiation. However, the main obstacle in treating GBM is transporting drugs through the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Albumin is a versatile biomaterial for the synthesis of nanoparticles. The efficiency of albumin-based delivery systems is determined by their ability to improve tumor targeting and accumulation. In this review, we will discuss the prevalence of human glioblastoma and the currently adopted treatment, as well as the structure and some essential functions of the BBB, to transport drugs through this barrier. We will also mention some aspects related to the blood-tumor brain barrier (BTBB) that lead to poor treatment efficacy. The properties and structure of serum albumin were highlighted, such as its role in targeting brain tumors, as well as the progress made until now regarding the techniques for obtaining albumin nanoparticles and their functionalization, in order to overcome the BBB and treat cancer, especially human glioblastoma. The albumin drug delivery nanosystems mentioned in this paper have improved properties and can overcome the BBB to target brain tumors.

Long-circulating thiolated chitosan nanoparticles of nintedanib with N-acetyl cysteine for treating idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: In vitro assessment of cytotoxicity, antioxidant, and antifibrotic potential

Nintedanib (NIN) is one of the FDA-approved tyrosine kinase inhibitor drugs used to treat idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). This study aimed to formulate a long-circulating injection of Nintedanib to treat bedridden patients with IPF. Nintedanib was incorporated into chitosan nanoparticles (NIN-NP) via the ionic gelation method, and N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), a known antioxidant and mucolytic agent, was added to the NIN-NP (NAC-NIN-NP). The lyophilized formulation had a particle size of 174 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.511, and a zeta potential of 18.6 mV. The spherical nanoparticles were observed in transmission electron microscopy, whereas field emission scanning electron microscopy showed irregular clusters of NP. The thiolation of the chitosan in NAC-NIN-NP was confirmed by ATR-FTIR and NMR, which improved drug release profiles showing >90 % drug release that was 2.42-folds greater than NIN-NP lasting for five days. The DPPH assay showed that adding NAC increased the % inhibition of oxidation in blank-NP (from 54.59 % to 87.17 %) and NIN-NP (58.65 %-89.19 %). The MTT assay on A549 cells showed 67.57 % cell viability by NAC-NIN-NP with an IC50 value of 28 μg/mL. The NAC formulation reduced hydroxyproline content (56.77 μg/mL) compared to NIN-NP (69.48 μg/mL) in WI-38 cell lines. Meanwhile, the healthy cells count with NAC-NIN-NP was higher (5.104 × 103) than with NIN-NP (4.878 × 103). In Hoechst staining, no significant damage to DNA was observed by the drug or formulation. Therefore, NAC-NIN-NP could be a promising treatment option for IPF patients and can be studied further clinically.

Human Serum Albumin Based Nanodrug Delivery Systems: Recent Advances and Future Perspective

With the success of several clinical trials of products based on human serum albumin (HSA) and the rapid development of nanotechnology, HSA-based nanodrug delivery systems (HBNDSs) have received extensive attention in the field of nanomedicine. However, there is still a lack of comprehensive reviews exploring the broader scope of HBNDSs in biomedical applications beyond cancer therapy. To address this gap, this review takes a systematic approach. Firstly, it focuses on the crystal structure and the potential binding sites of HSA. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive summary of recent progresses in the field of HBNDSs for various biomedical applications over the past five years, categorized according to the type of therapeutic drugs loaded onto HSA. These categories include small-molecule drugs, inorganic materials and bioactive ingredients. Finally, the review summarizes the characteristics and current application status of HBNDSs in drug delivery, and also discusses the challenges that need to be addressed for the clinical transformation of HSA formulations and offers future perspectives in this field.

Recent Advances in Nanomaterials-Based Targeted Drug Delivery for Preclinical Cancer Diagnosis and Therapeutics

Nano-oncology is a branch of biomedical research and engineering that focuses on using nanotechnology in cancer diagnosis and treatment. Nanomaterials are extensively employed in the field of oncology because of their minute size and ultra-specificity. A wide range of nanocarriers, such as dendrimers, micelles, PEGylated liposomes, and polymeric nanoparticles are used to facilitate the efficient transport of anti-cancer drugs at the target tumor site. Real-time labeling and monitoring of cancer cells using quantum dots is essential for determining the level of therapy needed for treatment. The drug is targeted to the tumor site either by passive or active means. Passive targeting makes use of the tumor microenvironment and enhanced permeability and retention effect, while active targeting involves the use of ligand-coated nanoparticles. Nanotechnology is being used to diagnose the early stage of cancer by detecting cancer-specific biomarkers using tumor imaging. The implication of nanotechnology in cancer therapy employs photoinduced nanosensitizers, reverse multidrug resistance, and enabling efficient delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 and RNA molecules for therapeutic applications. However, despite recent advancements in nano-oncology, there is a need to delve deeper into the domain of designing and applying nanoparticles for improved cancer diagnostics.

Protein-based Nanoparticle Vaccine Approaches Against Infectious Diseases

The field of vaccine development has seen an increase in the number of rationally designed technologies that increase effectiveness against vaccine-resistant pathogens, while not compromising safety. Yet, there is still an urgent need to expand and further understand these platforms against complex pathogens that often evade protective responses. Nanoscale platforms have been at the center of new studies, especially in the wake of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), with the aim of deploying safe and effective vaccines in a short time period. The intrinsic properties of protein-based nanoparticles, such as biocompatibility, flexible physicochemical characteristics, and variety have made them an attractive platform against different infectious disease agents. In the past decade, several studies have tested both lumazine synthase-, ferritin-, and albumin-based nanoplatforms against a wide range of complex pathogens in pre-clinical studies. Owed to their success in pre-clinical studies, several studies are undergoing human clinical trials or are near an initial phase. In this review we highlight the different protein-based platforms, mechanisms of synthesis, and effectiveness of these over the past decade. In addition, some challenges, and future directions to increase their effectiveness are also highlighted. Taken together, protein-based nanoscaffolds have proven to be an effective means to design rationally designed vaccines, especially against complex pathogens and emerging infectious diseases.

Genetically Encoded Self-Assembling Protein Nanoparticles for the Targeted Delivery In Vitro and In Vivo

Targeted nanoparticles of different origins are considered as new-generation diagnostic and therapeutic tools. However, there are no targeted drug formulations within the composition of nanoparticles approved by the FDA for use in the clinic, which is associated with the insufficient effectiveness of the developed candidates, the difficulties of their biotechnological production, and inadequate batch-to-batch reproducibility. Targeted protein self-assembling nanoparticles circumvent this problem since proteins are encoded in DNA and the final protein product is produced in only one possible way. We believe that the combination of the endless biomedical potential of protein carriers as nanoparticles and the standardized protein purification protocols will make significant progress in "magic bullet" creation possible, bringing modern biomedicine to a new level. In this review, we are focused on the currently existing platforms for targeted self-assembling protein nanoparticles based on transferrin, lactoferrin, casein, lumazine synthase, albumin, ferritin, and encapsulin proteins, as well as on proteins from magnetosomes and virus-like particles. The applications of these self-assembling proteins for targeted delivery in vitro and in vivo are thoroughly discussed, including bioimaging applications and different therapeutic approaches, such as chemotherapy, gene delivery, and photodynamic and photothermal therapy. A critical assessment of these protein platforms' efficacy in biomedicine is provided and possible problems associated with their further development are described.

Research progress of natural silk fibroin and the appplication for drug delivery in chemotherapies

Silk fibroin has been widely used in biological fields due to its biocompatibility, mechanical properties, biodegradability, and safety. Recently, silk fibroin as a drug carrier was developed rapidly and achieved remarkable progress in cancer treatment. The silk fibroin-based delivery system could effectively kill tumor cells without significant side effects and drug resistance. However, few studies have been reported on silk fibroin delivery systems for antitumor therapy. The advancement of silk fibroin-based drug delivery systems research and its applications in cancer therapy are highlighted in this study. The properties, applications, private opinions, and future prospects of silk fibroin carriers are discussed to understand better the development of anti-cancer drug delivery systems, which may also contribute to advancing silk fibroin innovation.

Surface-engineered nanoparticles in cancer immune response and immunotherapy: Current status and future prospects

Cancer immunotherapy is a therapeutic strategy to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis by intervening in the immune response process. Strategies applied to cancer immunotherapy mainly include blocking immune checkpoints, adoptive transfer of engineered immune cells, cytokine therapy, cancer vaccines, and oncolytic virus infection. However, many factors, such as off-target side effects, immunosuppressive cell infiltration and/or upregulation of immune checkpoint expression, cancer cell heterogeneity, and lack of antigen presentation, affect the therapeutic effect of immunotherapy on cancer. To improve the efficacy of targeted immunotherapy and reduce off-target effects, over the past two decades, nanoparticle delivery platforms have been increasingly used in tumor immunotherapy. However, nanoparticles are still subject to biological barriers and biodistribution challenges, which limit their overall clinical potential. This has prompted a series of engineered nanoparticles to overcome specific obstacles and transfer the accumulation of payloads to tumor-infiltrating immune cells. In recent years, new techniques and chemical methods have been employed to modify or functionalize the surfaces of nanoparticles. This review discusses the recent progress of surface-engineered nanoparticles in inducing tumor immune responses and immunotherapy, as well as future directions for the development of next-generation nanomedicines.

Strategic developments in the drug delivery of natural product dihydromyricetin: applications, prospects, and challenges

Dihydromyricetin (DHM) is an important natural flavonoid that has attracted much attention because of its various functions such as protecting the cardiovascular system and liver, treating cancer and neurodegenerative diseases, and anti-inflammation effect, etc. Despite its great development potential in pharmacy, DHM has some problems in pharmaceutical applications such as low solubility, permeability, and stability. To settle these issues, extensive research has been carried out on its physicochemical properties and dosage forms to produce all kinds of DHM preparations in the past ten years. In addition, the combined use of DHM with other drugs is a promising strategy to expand the application of DHM. However, although invention patents for DHM preparations have been issued in several countries, the current transformation of DHM research results into market products is insufficient. To date, there is still a lack of deep research into the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, toxicology, and action mechanism of DHM preparations. Besides, preparations for combined therapy of DHM with other drugs are scarcely reported, which necessitates the development of dosage forms for this application. Apart from medicine, the development of DHM in the food industry is also of great potential. Due to its multiple effects and excellent safety, DHM preparations can be developed for functional drinks and foods. Through this review, we hope to draw more attention to the development potential of DHM and the above challenges and provide valuable references for the research and development of other natural products with a similar structure-activity relationship to this drug.