Synthesis and biological investigation of 2,4-substituted quinazolines as highly potent inhibitors of breast cancer resistance protein (ABCG2)

Spiroindoline quinazolinedione derivatives as inhibitors of P-glycoprotein: potential agents for overcoming multidrug resistance in cancer therapy

Multidrug resistance (MDR) presents a major challenge for effectiveness of chemotherapy. This study investigates the effectiveness of spiroindoline quinazolinediones in reversing MDR mediated by P-glycoprotein (P-gp) overexpression in cancer cells. A series of synthesized hybrid spiro[indoline-3,2'-quinazoline]-2,4'(3'H)-dione derivatives (compounds 5a-5l) were analyzed for their ability to enhance rhodamine 123 (Rhd123) accumulation in the MES-SA/DX5 cell line using flow cytometry. The MTT assay was also employed to evaluate the compounds' effectiveness in reversing drug resistance. Additionally, docking studies and molecular dynamics simulations were conducted to investigate the interaction of these compounds with the P-gp transporter. The Rhd123 accumulation assay in MDR cancer cells revealed that most compounds, in particular 5f, 5g, 5h, 5i, 5j, 5k, and 5l, exhibited significant potential as P-gp inhibitors. Among the tested derivatives, compounds 5g and 5l demonstrated the best effects, and increased Rhd123 accumulation up to 12.9 times compared to untreated cells. Additionally, compounds 5f through 5 l bearing methylbenzyl (5f), benzyl (5g), pentyl (5 ), p-bromobenzyl (5i), p-chlorobenzyl (5j), dichlorobenzyl (5k), and tert-butylbenzyl (5l) substituents on the isatin ring effectively restored sensitivity to doxorubicin at their non-toxic concentrations in resistant MES-SA/DX5 cells. Among these, compound 5l at 5 μM exhibited the highest inhibitory potential, and lowered doxorubicin's IC50 value 10.1 times compared to control. Moreover, in silico investigation identified the potential interactions of test compounds with critical residues of P-gp involved in its efflux function. Our study suggests that the synthesized spiroindoline quinazolinediones may have high potentials as agents capable of reversing MDR in cancer cells.

Exploring Quinazoline as a Scaffold for Developing Novel Therapeutics in Alzheimer's Disease

Quinazoline, a privileged scaffold in medicinal chemistry, offers promising potential in the synthesis of anti-Alzheimer's disease (AD) drugs. This heterocyclic compound, characterized by its fused benzene and pyrimidine rings, enables the design of multifunctional agents targeting AD pathology. The drug-like aspects and pharmaceutical features of quinazoline derivatives have the potential to give rise to various therapeutic drugs. AD is a progressive neurodegenerative condition marked by memory decline, cognitive deterioration, and language disorders. Given its complexity and multifaceted nature, there is a pressing need to discover multi-target drugs to effectively address this debilitating disorder. A comprehensive literature review has demonstrated that quinazoline derivatives exhibit a wide range of therapeutic potential for AD. These compounds function as inhibitors of cholinesterases, β-amyloid aggregation, oxidative stress, and tau protein, among other protective effects. Here, we highlight the most significant and recent research on quinazoline-based anti-AD agents, aiming to support the development and discovery of novel treatments for AD.

A TEMPO promoted tandem reaction of 2-aminobenzophenones and benzylamines under electrochemical conditions

This study describes the efficient synthesis of quinazolines promoted by TEMPO via electro-catalysis with 2-aminobenzophenones and benzylamines. The method exhibited remarkable chemoselectivity under mild reaction conditions. A series of quinazolines could be obtained in moderate to good yields. In addition, control experiments were carried out to verify the reaction mechanism. Furthermore, the synthesis on the gram scale was conducted successfully to give the target product.

Lead Optimization of the 5-Phenylpyrazolopyrimidinone NPD-2975 toward Compounds with Improved Antitrypanosomal Efficacy

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) still faces few therapeutic options and emerging drug resistance, stressing an urgency for novel antitrypanosomal drug discovery. Here, we describe lead optimization efforts aiming at improving antitrypanosomal efficacy and better physicochemical properties based on our previously reported optimized hit NPD-2975 (pIC50 7.2). Systematic modification of the 5-phenylpyrazolopyrimidinone NPD-2975 led to the discovery of a R4-substituted analogue 31c (NPD-3519), showing higher in vitro potency (pIC50 7.8) against Trypanosoma brucei and significantly better metabolic stability. Further, in vivo pharmacokinetic evaluation of 31c and experiments in an acute T. brucei mouse model confirmed improved oral bioavailability and antitrypanosomal efficacy at 50 mg/kg with no apparent toxicity. With good physicochemical properties, low toxicity, improved pharmacokinetic features, and in vivo efficacy, 31c may serve as a promising candidate for future drug development for HAT.

2-Substituted quinazolines: Partial agonistic and antagonistic ligands of the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR)

Following the discovery of 2-(3-methoxyphenyl)-3,4-dihydroquinazoline-4-one and 2-(3-methoxyphenyl)quinazoline-4-thione as potent, but non-specific activators of the human Constitutive Androstane Receptor (CAR, NR1I3), a series of quinazolinones substituted at the C2 phenyl ring was prepared to examine their ability to selectively modulate human CAR activity. Employing cellular and in vitro TR-FRET assays with wild-type CAR or its variant 3 (CAR3) ligand binding domains (LBD), several novel partial human CAR agonists and antagonists were identified. 2-(3-Methylphenyl) quinazolinone derivatives 7d and 8d acted as partial agonists with the recombinant CAR LBD, the former in nanomolar units (EC50 = 0.055 μM and 10.6 μM, respectively). Moreover, 7d did not activate PXR, and did not show any signs of cytotoxicity. On the other hand, 2-(4-bromophenyl)quinazoline-4-thione 7l possessed significant CAR antagonistic activity, although the compound displayed no agonistic or inverse agonistic activities. A compound possessing purely antagonistic effect was thus identified for the first time. These and related compounds may serve as a remedy in xenobiotic intoxication or, conversely, in suppression of undesirable hepatic CAR activation.

Design, Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Quinazolinamine Derivatives as Breast Cancer Resistance Protein and P-Glycoprotein Inhibitors with Improved Metabolic Stability

A series of twenty-two quinazolinamine derivatives showing potent inhibitory activities on breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) and p-glycoprotein (P-gp) were synthesized. A cyclopropyl-containing quinazolinamine 22 was identified as a dual BCRP and P-gp inhibitor, while azide-containing quinazolinamine 33 showed BCRP inhibitory activity. These lead compounds were further investigated in a battery of mechanistic experiments. Compound 22 changed the localization of BCRP and P-gp in cells, thus inhibiting the efflux of anticancer drugs by the two ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. In addition, both 22 and 33 significantly stimulated the ATP hydrolysis of the BCRP transporter, indicating that they can be competitive substrates of the BCRP transporter, and thereby increase the accumulation of mitoxantrone in BCRP-overexpressing H460/MX20 cells. Azide derivative 33, exhibited a greater inhibitory effect on BCRP after UV activation and can serve as a valuable probe for investigating the interactions of quinazolinamine derivatives with BCRP. Notably, the dual BCRP and P-gp inhibitors 4-5, 22-24, 27, and BCRP inhibitor 33 showed improved metabolic stability compared to Ko143.

The More the Better-Investigation of Polymethoxylated N-Carboranyl Quinazolines as Novel Hybrid Breast Cancer Resistance Protein Inhibitors

The ineffectiveness and failing of chemotherapeutic treatments are often associated with multidrug resistance (MDR). MDR is primarily linked to the overexpression of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter proteins in cancer cells. ABCG2 (ATP-binding cassette subfamily G member 2, also known as the breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP)) mediates MDR by an increased drug efflux from the cancer cells. Therefore, the inhibition of ABCG2 activity during chemotherapy ought to improve the efficacy of the administered anti-cancer agents by reversing MDR or by enhancing the agents' pharmacokinetic properties. Significant efforts have been made to develop novel, powerful, selective, and non-toxic inhibitors of BCRP. However, thus far the clinical relevance of BCRP-selective MDR-reversal has been unsuccessful, due to either adverse drug reactions or significant toxicities in vivo. We here report a facile access towards carboranyl quinazoline-based inhibitors of ABCG2. We determined the influence of different methoxy-substitution patterns on the 2-phenylquinazoline scaffold in combination with the beneficial properties of an incorporated inorganic carborane moiety. A series of eight compounds was synthesized and their inhibitory effect on the ABCG2-mediated Hoechst transport was evaluated. Molecular docking studies were performed to better understand the structure-protein interactions of the novel inhibitors, exhibiting putative binding modes within the inner binding site. Further, the most potent, non-toxic compounds were investigated for their potential to reverse ABCG2-mediated mitoxantrone (MXN) resistance. Of these five evaluated compounds, N-(closo-1,7-dicarbadodecaboran(12)-9-yl)-6,7-dimethoxy-2-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-quinazolin-4-amine (DMQCd) exhibited the strongest inhibitory effect towards ABCG2 in the lower nanomolar ranges. Additionally, DMQCd was able to reverse BCRP-mediated MDR, making it a promising candidate for further research on hybrid inorganic-organic compounds.

Two Important Anticancer Mechanisms of Natural and Synthetic Chalcones

ATP-binding cassette subfamily G and tubulin pharmacological mechanisms decrease the effectiveness of anticancer drugs by modulating drug absorption and by creating tubulin assembly through polymerization. A series of natural and synthetic chalcones have been reported to have very good anticancer activity, with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration lower than 1 µM. By modulation, it is observed in case of the first mechanism that methoxy substituents on the aromatic cycle of acetophenone residue and substitution of phenyl nucleus by a heterocycle and by methoxy or hydroxyl groups have a positive impact. To inhibit tubulin, compounds bind to colchicine binding site. Presence of methoxy groups, amino groups or heterocyclic substituents increase activity.

A curated binary pattern multitarget dataset of focused ATP-binding cassette transporter inhibitors

Multitarget datasets that correlate bioactivity landscapes of small-molecules toward different related or unrelated pharmacological targets are crucial for novel drug design and discovery. ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are critical membrane-bound transport proteins that impact drug and metabolite distribution in human disease as well as disease diagnosis and therapy. Molecular-structural patterns are of the highest importance for the drug discovery process as demonstrated by the novel drug discovery tool ‘computer-aided pattern analysis’ (‘C@PA’). Here, we report a multitarget dataset of 1,167 ABC transporter inhibitors analyzed for 604 molecular substructures in a statistical binary pattern distribution scheme. This binary pattern multitarget dataset (ABC_BPMDS) can be utilized for various areas. These areas include the intended design of (i) polypharmacological agents, (ii) highly potent and selective ABC transporter-targeting agents, but also (iii) agents that avoid clearance by the focused ABC transporters [e.g., at the blood-brain barrier (BBB)]. The information provided will not only facilitate novel drug prediction and discovery of ABC transporter-targeting agents, but also drug design in general in terms of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.

Measurement(s)	Influx • Efflux • Tracer • Transport velocity
Technology Type(s)	Fluorometry • Radioactivity • Plate reader • Flow cytometer • Tracer distribution
Factor Type(s)	half-maximal inhibition concentration
Sample Characteristic - Organism	Homo sapiens
Sample Characteristic - Environment	cell culture
Sample Characteristic - Location	Kingdom of Norway • Germany • Australia • Latvia

Development of Simple and Accurate in Silico Ligand-Based Models for Predicting ABCG2 Inhibition

The ATP binding cassette transporter ABCG2 is a physiologically important drug transporter that has a central role in determining the ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination, and toxicity) profile of therapeutics, and contributes to multidrug resistance. Thus, development of predictive in silico models for the identification of ABCG2 inhibitors is of great interest in the early stage of drug discovery. In this work, by exploiting a large public dataset, a number of ligand-based classification models were developed using partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) with molecular interaction field- and fingerprint-based structural description methods, regarding physicochemical and fragmental properties related to ABCG2 inhibition. An in-house dataset compiled from recently experimental studies was used to rigorously validated the model performance. The key molecular properties and fragments favored to inhibitor binding were discussed in detail, which was further explored by docking simulations. A highly informative chemical property was identified as the principal determinant of ABCG2 inhibition, which was utilized to derive a simple rule that had a strong capability for differentiating inhibitors from non-inhibitors. Furthermore, the incorporation of the rule into the best PLS-DA model significantly improved the classification performance, particularly achieving a high prediction accuracy on the independent in-house set. The integrative model is simple and accurate, which could be applied to the evaluation of drug-transporter interactions in drug development. Also, the dominant molecular features derived from the models may help medicinal chemists in the molecular design of novel inhibitors to circumvent ABCG2-mediated drug resistance.

MSCs as Tumor-Specific Vectors for the Delivery of Anticancer Agents-A Potential Therapeutic Strategy in Cancer Diseases: Perspectives for Quinazoline Derivatives

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are considered to be a powerful tool in the treatment of various diseases. Scientists are particularly interested in the possibility of using MSCs in cancer therapy. The research carried out so far has shown that MSCs possess both potential pro-oncogenic and anti-oncogenic properties. It has been confirmed that MSCs can regulate tumor cell growth through a paracrine mechanism, and molecules secreted by MSCs can promote or block a variety of signaling pathways. These findings may be crucial in the development of new MSC-based cell therapeutic strategies. The abilities of MSCs such as tumor tropism, deep migration and immune evasion have evoked considerable interest in their use as tumor-specific vectors for small-molecule anticancer agents. Studies have shown that MSCs can be successfully loaded with chemotherapeutic drugs such as gemcitabine and paclitaxel, and can release them at the site of primary and metastatic neoplasms. The inhibitory effect of MSCs loaded with anti-cancer agents on the proliferation of cancer cells has also been observed. However, not all known chemotherapeutic agents can be used in this approach, mainly due to their cytotoxicity towards MSCs and insufficient loading and release capacity. Quinazoline derivatives appear to be an attractive choice for this therapeutic solution due to their biological and pharmacological properties. There are several quinazolines that have been approved for clinical use as anticancer drugs by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). It gives hope that the synthesis of new quinazoline derivatives and the development of methods of their application may contribute to the establishment of highly effective therapies for oncological patients. However, a deeper understanding of interactions between MSCs and tumor cells, and the exploration of the possibilities of using quinazoline derivatives in MSC-based therapy is necessary to achieve this goal. The aim of this review is to discuss the prospects for using MSC-based cell therapy in cancer treatment and the potential use of quinazolines in this procedure.

Efficient N-arylation of 4-chloroquinazolines en route to novel 4-anilinoquinazolines as potential anticancer agents

Microwave-mediated N-arylation of 4-chloroquinazolines in THF/H₂O rapidly and efficiently afforded a library of novel 6-halo-2-phenyl-substituted 4-anilinoquinazolines. The methodology was compatible with numerous ortho-, meta-, and para-substituted N-methylanilines as well as substituted anilines and furnished the corresponding 4-anilinoquinazolines in good yields. Preliminary screening of the synthesized compounds against tumor cells (HCT-116 and T98G) showed promising antiproliferative properties.

Targeting multidrug resistance-associated protein 1 (MRP1)-expressing cancers: Beyond pharmacological inhibition

Resistance to chemotherapy remains one of the most significant obstacles to successful cancer treatment. While inhibiting drug efflux mediated by ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters is a seemingly attractive and logical approach to combat multidrug resistance (MDR), small molecule inhibition of ABC transporters has so far failed to confer clinical benefit, despite considerable efforts by medicinal chemists, biologists, and clinicians. The long-sought treatment to eradicate cancers displaying ABC transporter overexpression may therefore lie within alternative targeting strategies. When aberrantly expressed, the ABC transporter multidrug resistance-associated protein 1 (MRP1, ABCC1) confers MDR, but can also shift cellular redox balance, leaving the cell vulnerable to select agents. Here, we explore the physiological roles of MRP1, the rational for targeting this transporter in cancer, the development of small molecule MRP1 inhibitors, and the most recent developments in alternative therapeutic approaches for targeting cancers with MRP1 overexpression. We discuss approaches that extend beyond simple MRP1 inhibition by exploiting the collateral sensitivity to glutathione depletion and ferroptosis, the rationale for targeting the shared transcriptional regulators of both MRP1 and glutathione biosynthesis, advances in gene silencing, and new molecules that modulate transporter activity to the detriment of the cancer cell. These strategies illustrate promising new approaches to address multidrug resistant disease that extend beyond the simple reversal of MDR and offer exciting routes for further research.

Binding mode analysis of ABCA7 for the prediction of novel Alzheimer's disease therapeutics

The adenosine-triphosphate-(ATP)-binding cassette (ABC) transporter ABCA7 is a genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Defective ABCA7 promotes AD development and/or progression. Unfortunately, ABCA7 belongs to the group of 'under-studied' ABC transporters that cannot be addressed by small-molecules. However, such small-molecules would allow for the exploration of ABCA7 as pharmacological target for the development of new AD diagnostics and therapeutics. Pan-ABC transporter modulators inherit the potential to explore under-studied ABC transporters as novel pharmacological targets by potentially binding to the proposed 'multitarget binding site'. Using the recently reported cryogenic-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of ABCA1 and ABCA4, a homology model of ABCA7 has been generated. A set of novel, diverse, and potent pan-ABC transporter inhibitors has been docked to this ABCA7 homology model for the discovery of the multitarget binding site. Subsequently, application of pharmacophore modelling identified the essential pharmacophore features of these compounds that may support the rational drug design of innovative diagnostics and therapeutics against AD.

Scaffold fragmentation and substructure hopping reveal potential, robustness, and limits of computer-aided pattern analysis (C@PA)

Computer-aided pattern analysis (C@PA) was recently presented as a powerful tool to predict multitarget ABC transporter inhibitors. The backbone of this computational methodology was the statistical analysis of frequently occurring molecular features amongst a fixed set of reported small-molecules that had been evaluated toward ABCB1, ABCC1, and ABCG2. As a result, negative and positive patterns were elucidated, and secondary positive substructures could be suggested that complemented the multitarget fingerprints. Elevating C@PA to a non-statistical and exploratory level, the concluded secondary positive patterns were extended with potential positive substructures to improve C@PA's prediction capabilities and to explore its robustness. A small-set compound library of known ABCC1 inhibitors with a known hit rate for triple ABCB1, ABCC1, and ABCG2 inhibition was taken to virtually screen for the extended positive patterns. In total, 846 potential broad-spectrum ABCB1, ABCC1, and ABCG2 inhibitors resulted, from which 10 have been purchased and biologically evaluated. Our approach revealed 4 novel multitarget ABCB1, ABCC1, and ABCG2 inhibitors with a biological hit rate of 40%, but with a slightly lower inhibitory power than derived from the original C@PA. This is the very first report about discovering novel broad-spectrum inhibitors against the most prominent ABC transporters by improving C@PA.

Palladium(II)-Catalyzed Three-Component Tandem Cyclization Reaction for the One-Pot Assembly of 4-Arylquinazolines

A one-pot method for joining three separate components leading to an assortment of 4-arylquinazolines (27 examples) in good to excellent yields is described. The method consists of a palladium(II)-catalyzed­ cascade reaction involving C(sp)–C(sp2) coupling followed by intramolecular C–N bond formation. The reaction was readily scaled up to gram quantity and successfully applied to the synthesis of a translocator­ protein (TSPO) ligand.

C@PA: Computer-Aided Pattern Analysis to Predict Multitarget ABC Transporter Inhibitors

Based on literature reports of the last two decades, a computer-aided pattern analysis (C@PA) was implemented for the discovery of novel multitarget ABCB1 (P-gp), ABCC1 (MRP1), and ABCG2 (BCRP) inhibitors. C@PA included basic scaffold identification, substructure search and statistical distribution, as well as novel scaffold extraction to screen a large virtual compound library. Over 45,000 putative and novel broad-spectrum ABC transporter inhibitors were identified, from which 23 were purchased for biological evaluation. Our investigations revealed five novel lead molecules as triple ABCB1, ABCC1, and ABCG2 inhibitors. C@PA is the very first successful computational approach for the discovery of promiscuous ABC transporter inhibitors.

Rational drug design of 6-substituted 4-anilino-2-phenylpyrimidines for exploration of novel ABCG2 binding site

In the search for novel, highly potent, and nontoxic adjuvant chemotherapeutics to resolve the major issue of ABC transporter-mediated multidrug resistance (MDR), pyrimidines were discovered as a promising compound class of modern ABCG2 inhibitors. As ABCG2-mediated MDR is a major obstacle in leukemia, pancreatic carcinoma, and breast cancer chemotherapy, adjuvant chemotherapeutics are highly desired for future clinical oncology. Very recently, docking studies of one of the most potent reversers of ABCG2-mediated MDR were reported and revealed a putative second binding pocket of ABCG2. Based on this (sub)pocket, a series of 16 differently 6-substituted 4-anilino-2-phenylpyrimidines was designed and synthesized to explore the potential increase in inhibitory activity of these ABCG2 inhibitors. The compounds were assessed for their influence on the ABCG2-mediated pheophorbide A transport, as well as the ABCB1- and ABCC1-mediated transport of calcein AM. They were additionally evaluated in MDR reversal assays to determine their half-maximal reversal concentration (EC₅₀). The 6-substitution did not only show increased toxicity against ABCG2-overexpressing cells in combination with SN-38 but also a negative influence on cell viability in general. Nevertheless, several candidates had EC₅₀ values in the low double-digit nanomolar concentration range, qualifying them as some of the most potent reversers of ABCG2-mediated MDR. In addition, five novel multitarget ABCB1, ABCC1, and ABCG2 inhibitors were discovered, four of them exerting their inhibitory power against the three stated transporters at least in the single-digit micromolar concentration range.

Superior Pyrimidine Derivatives as Selective ABCG2 Inhibitors and Broad-Spectrum ABCB1, ABCC1, and ABCG2 Antagonists

In the search for highly effective modulators addressing ABCG2-mediated MDR, 23 pyrimidines were synthesized and biologically assessed. Seven derivatives with (a) nitrogen- and/or halogen-containing residue(s) had extraordinary potencies against ABCG2 (IC₅₀ < 150 nM). The compounds competitively inhibited ABCG2-mediated Hoechst 33342 transport but were not substrates of ABCG2. The most potent MDR reverser, compound 19, concentration-dependently increased SN-38-mediated cancer cell death at 11 nM (EC₅₀), time-dependently doubled SN-38 toxicity in a period of 7 days at 10 nM, and half-maximally accelerated cell death combined with SN-38 at 17 nM. No induction of ABCG2 was observed. Furthermore, 11 pyrimidines were revealed as triple ABCB1/ABCC1/ABCG2 inhibitors. Five possessed IC₅₀ values below 10 μM against each transporter, classifying them as some of the 50 most potent multitarget ABC transporter inhibitors. The most promising representative, compound 37, reversed ABCB1-, ABCC1-, and ABCG2-mediated MDR, making it one of the three most potent ABC transporter inhibitors and reversers of ABC transporters-mediated MDR.

Pyrimidine: A promising scaffold for optimization to develop the inhibitors of ABC transporters

The multidrug resistance (MDR) phenomenon in cancer cells is the major obstacle leading to failure of chemotherapy accompanied by the feature of intractable and recurrence of cancers. As significant contributors that cause MDR, ABC superfamily proteins can transport the chemotherapeutic drugs out of the tumor cells by the energy of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis, thereby reducing their intracellular accumulation. The ABC transports like ABCB1, ABCC1 and ABCG2 have been extensively studied to develop modulators for overcoming MDR. To date, no reversal agents have been successfully marketed for clinical application, and little information about the ABC proteins bound to specific inhibitors is known, which make the design of MDR inhibitors with potency, selectivity and low toxicity a major challenge. In recent years, it has been increasingly recognized that pyrimidine-based derivatives have the potential for reversing ABC-mediated MDR. In this review, we summarized the pyrimidine-based inhibitors of ABC transporters, and mainly focused on their structure optimizations, development strategies and structure-activity relationship studies in hope of providing a reference for medicinal chemists to develop new modulators of MDR with highly potency and fewer side effects.

ADMET evaluation in drug discovery. 20. Prediction of breast cancer resistance protein inhibition through machine learning

Breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/ABCG2), an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) efflux transporter, plays a critical role in multi-drug resistance (MDR) to anti-cancer drugs and drug–drug interactions. The prediction of BCRP inhibition can facilitate evaluating potential drug resistance and drug–drug interactions in early stage of drug discovery. Here we reported a structurally diverse dataset consisting of 1098 BCRP inhibitors and 1701 non-inhibitors. Analysis of various physicochemical properties illustrates that BCRP inhibitors are more hydrophobic and aromatic than non-inhibitors. We then developed a series of quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) models to discriminate between BCRP inhibitors and non-inhibitors. The optimal feature subset was determined by a wrapper feature selection method named rfSA (simulated annealing algorithm coupled with random forest), and the classification models were established by using seven machine learning approaches based on the optimal feature subset, including a deep learning method, two ensemble learning methods, and four classical machine learning methods. The statistical results demonstrated that three methods, including support vector machine (SVM), deep neural networks (DNN) and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), outperformed the others, and the SVM classifier yielded the best predictions (MCC = 0.812 and AUC = 0.958 for the test set). Then, a perturbation-based model-agnostic method was used to interpret our models and analyze the representative features for different models. The application domain analysis demonstrated the prediction reliability of our models. Moreover, the important structural fragments related to BCRP inhibition were identified by the information gain (IG) method along with the frequency analysis. In conclusion, we believe that the classification models developed in this study can be regarded as simple and accurate tools to distinguish BCRP inhibitors from non-inhibitors in drug design and discovery pipelines.

Human health-related properties of chromones: an overview

Natural compounds occurring throughout the world are scientifically and practically valuable because of their unique and beneficial properties to control a wide range of disorders in the human body. Chromones are attracting increasing attention as novel therapeutic agents due to their effective bioactivities for human health. Accordingly, the present overview article was designed to scan the biological and pharmacological performance of chromones, including their anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-oxidant, and anti-microbial activities.

Recent advances in the search of BCRP- and dual P-gp/BCRP-based multidrug resistance modulators

The development of multidrug resistance (MDR) is one of the major challenges to the success of chemotherapy treatment of cancer. This phenomenon is often associated with the overexpression of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters P-gp (P-glycoprotein, ABCB1), multidrug resistance-associated protein 1, ABCC1 and breast cancer resistance protein, ABCG2 (BCRP). These transporters are constitutively expressed in many tissues playing relevant protective roles by the regulation of the permeability of biological membranes, but they are also overexpressed in malignant tissues. P-gp is the first efflux transporter discovered to be involved in cancer drug resistance, and over the years, inhibitors of this pump have been disclosed to administer them in combination with chemotherapeutic agents. Three generations of inhibitors of P-gp have been examined in preclinical and clinical studies; however, these trials have largely failed to demonstrate that coadministration of pump inhibitors elicits an improvement in therapeutic efficacy of antitumor agents, although some of the latest compounds show better results. Therefore, new and innovative strategies, such as the fallback to natural products and the discover of dual activity ligands emerged as new perspectives. BCRP is the most recently ABC protein identified to be involved in multidrug resistance. It is overexpressed in several haematological and solid tumours together with P-gp, threatening the therapeutic effectiveness of different chemotherapeutic drugs. The chemistry of recently described BCRP inhibitors and dual P-gp/BCRP inhibitors, as well as their preliminary pharmacological evaluation are discussed, and the most recent advances concerning these kinds of MDR modulators are reviewed.

Identification of Thienopyrimidine Scaffold as an Inhibitor of the ABC Transport Protein ABCC1 (MRP1) and Related Transporters Using a Combined Virtual Screening Approach

A virtual screening protocol with combination of similarity search and pharmacophore modeling was applied to virtually screen a large compound library to gain new scaffolds regarding ABCC1 inhibition. Biological investigation of promising candidates revealed four compounds as ABCC1 inhibitors, three of them with scaffolds not associated with ABCC1 inhibition until now. The best hit molecule-a thienopyrimidine-was a moderately potent, competitive inhibitor of the ABCC1-mediated transport of calcein AM which also sensitized ABCC1-overexpressing cells toward daunorubicin. Further evaluation showed that it was a moderately potent, competitive inhibitor of the ABCB1-mediated transport of calcein AM, and noncompetitive inhibitor of the ABCG2-mediated pheophorbide A transport. In addition, the thienopyrimidine could also sensitize ABCB1- as well as ABCG2-overexpressing cells toward daunorubicin and SN-38, respectively, in concentration ranges that qualified it as one of the ten best triple ABCC1/ABCB1/ABCG2 inhibitors in the literature. Besides, three more new multitarget inhibitors were identified by this virtual screening approach.

Novel chalcone and flavone derivatives as selective and dual inhibitors of the transport proteins ABCB1 and ABCG2

During cancer chemotherapy, certain cancers may become cross-resistant to structurally diverse antineoplastic agents. This so-called multidrug resistance (MDR) is highly associated with the overexpression of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transport proteins. These membrane-bound efflux pumps export a broad range of structurally diverse endo- and xenobiotics, including chemically unrelated anticancer agents. This translocation of drugs from the inside to the outside of cancer cells is mediated at the expense of ATP. In the last 40 years, three ABC transporters - ABCB1 (P-gp), ABCC1 (MRP1), and ABCG2 (BCRP) - have mainly been attributed to the occurrence of MDR in cancer cells. One of the strategies to overcome MDR is to inhibit the efflux transporter function by small-molecule inhibitors. In this work, we investigated new chalcone- and flavone-based compounds for selective as well as broad-spectrum inhibition of the stated transport proteins. These include substituted chalcones with variations at rings A and B, and flavones with acetamido linker at position 3. The synthesized molecules were evaluated for their inhibitory potential against ABCB1, ABCC1, and ABCG2 in calcein AM and pheophorbide A assays. In further investigations with the most promising candidates from each class, we proved that ABCB1- and ABCG2-mediated MDR could be reversed by the compounds. Moreover, their intrinsic toxicity was found to be negligible in most cases. Altogether, our findings contribute to the understanding of ABC transport proteins and reveal new compounds for ongoing evaluation in the field of ABC transporter-mediated MDR.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of quinazoline derivatives - A SAR study of novel inhibitors of ABCG2

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is a major obstacle for effective chemotherapeutic treatment of cancer frequently leading to failure of the therapy. MDR is often associated with the overexpression of ABC transport proteins like ABCB1 or ABCG2 which efflux harmful substances out of cells at the cost of ATP hydrolysis. One way to overcome MDR is to apply potent inhibitors of ABC transporters to restore the sensitivity of the cells toward cytostatic agents. This study focusses on the synthesis and evaluation of novel 2,4-disubstituted quinazoline derivatives regarding the structure-activity-relationship (SAR), their ability to reverse MDR and their mode of interaction with ABCG2. Hence, the inhibitory potency and selectivity toward ABCG2 was determined. Moreover, the intrinsic cytotoxicity and the reversal of MDR were investigated. Interaction type studies with the substrate Hoechst 33342 and conformational analyses of ABCG2 with 5D3 monoclonal antibody were performed for a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms. In our study we could further enhance the inhibitory effect against ABCG2 (compound 31, IC₅₀: 55 nM) and identify the structural features that are crucial for inhibitory potency, the impact on transport activity and binding to the protein.

The Effects of Synthetically Modified Natural Compounds on ABC Transporters

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is a major hurdle which must be overcome to effectively treat cancer. ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters) play pivotal roles in drug absorption and disposition, and overexpression of ABC transporters has been shown to attenuate cellular/tissue drug accumulation and thus increase MDR across a variety of cancers. Overcoming MDR is one desired approach to improving the survival rate of patients. To date, a number of modulators have been identified which block the function and/or decrease the expression of ABC transporters, thereby restoring the efficacy of a range of anticancer drugs. However, clinical MDR reversal agents have thus far proven ineffective and/or toxic. The need for new, effective, well-tolerated and nontoxic compounds has led to the development of natural compounds and their derivatives to ameliorate MDR. This review evaluates whether synthetically modifying natural compounds is a viable strategy to generate potent, nontoxic, ABC transporter inhibitors which may potentially reverse MDR.

New Inhibitors of Breast Cancer Resistance Protein (ABCG2) Containing a 2,4-Disubstituted Pyridopyrimidine Scaffold

Multidrug resistance (MDR) occurring during cancer chemotherapy is a major obstacle for effectiveness and response to therapy and is often caused by ATP-binding cassette (ABC) efflux transporters. Belonging to the family of ABC transporters, breast cancer resistance protein is getting more and more in the spotlight of research. As a strategy to overcome MDR, inhibitors of ABC transporters were synthesized, which could be applied in combination with cytostatic drugs. For this purpose, 2,4-disubstituted pyridopyrimidine derivatives were synthesized. The investigations confirmed three key characteristics of good inhibitors: a low intrinsic cytotoxicity and a high potency and selectivity toward ABCG2. For selected compounds the interaction with ABCG2 was elucidated and their effect on ATPase activity and conformation sensitive 5D3 antibody binding was investigated. Their ability to reverse MDR in coadministration with the active metabolite of irinotecan and mitoxantron was confirmed.

Pd-Catalyzed tandem reaction of N-(2-cyanoaryl)benzamides with arylboronic acids: synthesis of quinazolines

A Pd-catalyzed tandem reaction of N-(2-cyanoaryl)benzamides with arylboronic acids for the synthesis of quinazolines has been reported.