Artesunate alleviates hepatic fibrosis induced by multiple pathogenic factors and inflammation through the inhibition of LPS/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in rats

Advances in fecal microbiota transplantation for the treatment of diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (DM) refers to a group of chronic diseases with global prevalence, characterized by persistent hyperglycemia resulting from various etiologies. DM can harm various organ systems and lead to acute or chronic complications, which severely endanger human well-being. Traditional treatment mainly involves controlling blood sugar levels through replacement therapy with drugs and insulin; however, some patients still find a satisfactory curative effect difficult to achieve. Extensive research has demonstrated a close correlation between enteric dysbacteriosis and the pathogenesis of various types of DM, paving the way for novel therapeutic approaches targeting the gut microbiota to manage DM. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), a method for re-establishing the intestinal microbiome balance, offers new possibilities for treating diabetes. This article provides a comprehensive review of the correlation between DM and the gut microbiota, as well as the current advancements in FMT treatment for DM, using FMT as an illustrative example. This study aims to offer novel perspectives and establish a theoretical foundation for the clinical diagnosis and management of DM.

Bilobalide attenuates lipopolysaccharide‑induced HepG2 cell injury by inhibiting TLR4‑NF‑κB signaling via the PI3K/Akt pathway

Inflammation is involved in the pathological process underlying a number of liver diseases. Bilobalide (BB) is a natural compound from Ginkgo biloba leaves that was recently demonstrated to exert hepatoprotective effects by inhibiting oxidative stress in the liver cancer cell line HepG2. The anti-inflammatory activity of BB has been reported in recent studies. The major objective of the present study was to investigate whether BB could attenuate inflammation-associated cell damage. HepG2 cells were cultured with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and BB, and cell damage was evaluated by measuring cell viability using MTT assay. The activity of the NF-κB signaling pathway was assessed by measuring the levels of IκBα, NF-κB p65, phosphorylated (p)-IκBα, p-p65, p65 DNA-binding activity and inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. A toll-like receptor (TLR)4 inhibitor (CLI-095) was used to detect the involvement of TLR4 in cell injury caused by LPS. In addition, the PI3K/Akt inhibitor LY294002 was applied to explore the involvement of the PI3K/Akt axis in mediating the effects of BB. The results demonstrated that LPS induced HepG2 cell injury. LPS also elevated the levels of p-IκBα, p-p65, p65 DNA-binding activity and inflammatory cytokines. However, CLI-095 significantly attenuated the LPS-induced cell damage and inhibited the activation of NF-κB signaling. BB also dose-dependently attenuated the LPS-induced cell damage, activation of NF-κB signaling and TLR4 overexpression. Furthermore, it was observed that LY294002 diminished the cytoprotective effects of BB on cell injury, TLR4 expression and NF-κB activation. These findings indicated that BB could attenuate LPS-induced inflammatory injury to HepG2 cells by regulating TLR4-NF-κB signaling.

S-amlodipine induces liver inflammation and dysfunction through the alteration of intestinal microbiome in a rat model

S-amlodipine, a commonly prescribed antihypertensive agent, is widely used in clinical settings to treat hypertension. However, the potential adverse effects of long-term S-amlodipine treatment on the liver remain uncertain, given the cautionary recommendations from clinicians regarding its administration in individuals with impaired liver function. To address this, we conducted a study using an eight-week-old male rat model and administered a daily dose of 0.6 ~ 5 mg/kg of S-amlodipine for 7 weeks. Our findings demonstrated that 1.2 ~ 5 mg/kg of S-amlodipine treatment induced liver inflammation and associated dysfunction in rats, further in vitro experiments revealed that the observed liver inflammation and dysfunction were not attributable to direct effects of S-amlodipine on the liver. Metagenome sequencing analysis revealed that S-amlodipine treatment led to alterations in the gut microbiome of rats, with the bloom of E. coli (4.5 ~ 6.6-fold increase) and a decrease in A. muciniphila (1,613.4 ~ 2,000-fold decrease) and B. uniformis (20.6 ~ 202.7-fold decrease), subsequently causing an increase in the gut bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) content (1.4 ~ 1.5-fold increase in feces). S-amlodipine treatment also induced damage to the intestinal barrier and increased intestinal permeability, as confirmed by elevated levels of fecal albumin; furthermore, the flux of gut bacterial LPS into the bloodstream through the portal vein resulted in an increase in serum LPS content (3.3 ~ 4-fold increase). LPS induces liver inflammation and subsequent dysfunction in rats by activating the TLR4 pathway. This study is the first to show that S-amlodipine induces liver inflammation and dysfunction by perturbing the rat gut microbiome. These results indicate the adverse effects of S-amlodipine on the liver and provide a rich understanding of the safety of long-term S-amlodipine administration.

Effect of artesunate on cardiovascular complications in periodontitis in a type I diabetes rat model and related mechanisms

PURPOSE

Both cardiovascular disease and periodontitis are complications of diabetes that have a great impact on human life and health. Our previous research found that artesunate can effectively improve cardiovascular disease in diabetes and has an inhibitory effect on periodontal disease. Therefore, the present study aimed to explore the potential therapeutic possibility of artesunate in the protection against cardiovascular complications in periodontitis with type I diabetes rats and to elucidate the possible underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

Sprague‒Dawley rats were randomly divided into the healthy, diabetic, periodontitis, diabetic with periodontitis, and artesunate treatment groups (10, 30, and 60 mg/kg, i.g.). After artesunate treatment, oral swabs were collected and used to determine changes in the oral flora. Micro-CT was performed to observe changes in alveolar bone. Blood samples were processed to measure various parameters, while cardiovascular tissues were evaluated by haematoxylin-eosin, Masson, Sirius red, and TUNEL staining to observe fibrosis and apoptosis. The protein and mRNA expression levels in the alveolar bone and cardiovascular tissues were detected using immunohistochemistry and RT‒PCR.

RESULTS

Diabetic rats with periodontitis and cardiovascular complications maintained heart and body weight but exhibited reduced blood glucose levels, and they were able to regulate blood lipid indicators at normal levels after artesunate treatment. The staining assays suggested that treatment with 60 mg/kg artesunate has a significant therapeutic effect on myocardial apoptotic fibrosis. The high expression of NF-κB, TLR4, VEGF, ICAM-1, p38 MAPK, TGF-β, Smad2, and MMP9 in the alveolar bone and cardiovascular tissue in the type I diabetes and type I diabetes with periodontitis rat models was reduced after treatment with artesunate in a concentration-dependent manner. Micro-CT showed that treatment with 60 mg/kg artesunate effectively alleviated alveolar bone resorption and density reduction. The sequencing results suggested that each model group of rats had vascular and oral flora dysbiosis, but artesunate treatment could correct the dysbacteriosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Periodontitis-related pathogenic bacteria cause dysbiosis of the oral and intravascular flora in type I diabetes and aggravate cardiovascular complications. The mechanism by which periodontitis aggravates cardiovascular complications involves the NF-κB pathway, which induces myocardial apoptosis, fibrosis, and vascular inflammation.

Mining host candidate regulators of schistosomiasis-induced liver fibrosis in response to artesunate therapy through transcriptomics approach

BACKGROUND

Artesunate (ART) has been reported to have an antifibrotic effect in various organs. The underlying mechanism has not been systematically elucidated. We aimed to clarify the effect of ART on liver fibrosis induced by Schistosoma japonicum (S. japonicum) in an experimentally infected rodent model and the potential underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

The effect of ART on hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) was assessed using CCK-8 and Annexin V-FITC/PI staining assays. The experimental model of liver fibrosis was established in the Mongolian gerbil model infected with S. japonicum cercariae and then treated with 20 mg/kg or 40 mg/kg ART. The hydroxyproline (Hyp) content, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activities in liver tissue were measured and histopathological changes of liver tissues were observed. Whole-transcriptome RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of the liver tissues was performed. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified using bioinformatic analysis and verified by quantitative PCR (qPCR) and western blot assay.

RESULTS

ART significantly inhibited the proliferation and induce the apoptosis of HSCs in a dose-dependent manner. In vivo, Hyp content decreased significantly in the ART-H group compared to the model (MOD) group and GPX activity was significantly higher in the ART-H group than in the MOD group. Besides, ART treatment significantly reduced collagen production (p <0.05). A total of 158 DEGs and 44 differentially expressed miRNAs related to ART-induced anti-schistosomiasis liver fibrosis were identified. The qPCR and western blot results of selected DEGs were consistent with the sequencing results. These DEGs were implicated in key pathways such as immune and inflammatory response, integrin-mediated signaling and toll-like receptor signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

ART is effective against liver fibrosis using Mongolian gerbil model induced by S. japonicum infection. We identified host candidate regulators of schistosomiasis-induced liver fibrosis in response to ART through transcriptomics approach.

Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking Reveal the Mechanism of Isodon ternifolius (D. Don) Kudo Against Liver Fibrosis

Aim

Many studies have demonstrated the hepatoprotective or anti-fibrotic effects of Isodon ternifolius, but its pharmacological basis and mechanism remain unclear. In this study, we used in vitro models to validate the predicted results and revealed the potential mechanism of action and active ingredients through network pharmacology methods and molecular docking.

Methods

The chemical components of Isodon ternifolius were identified by literatures. Potential targets of Isodon ternifolius were predicted by Swiss Target Prediction. The disease targets were collected through the databases of Gene Card. Common targets of Isodon ternifolius and liver fibrosis were obtained by online tool Venny 2.1. PPI protein interaction network was obtained using String database, and target protein interaction network was drawn using Cytoscape software. Signaling pathway enrichment analysis was performed on drug-disease targets with of DAVID database.

Results

Twenty-one potential active ingredients and 298 potential targets were predicted by Swiss Target Prediction platform. Ninety pathways related to liver fibrosis were obtained by KEGG enrichment. The TLR4, MAPK and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways are mostly associated with liver fibrosis. Molecular docking techniques were used to validate the core target proteins TNF, Akt1, MAPK1, EGFR and TLR4 binding to the ingredients of Isodon ternifolius, which showed that a multitude of ingredients of Isodon ternifolius were able to bind to the above target proteins, especially 2α-hydroxy oleanolic acid and (-)-Lambertic acid. Our experimental validation results showed that Isodon ternifolius inhibited the activation of PI3K-Akt and ERK1/2 signaling pathways.

Conclusion

Through a network pharmacology approach and in vitro cell assay, we predicted and validated the active compounds of Isodon ternifolius and its potential targets for LF treatment. The results suggest that the mechanism of Isodon ternifolius treating LF by inhibiting angiogenesis may be related to the ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways.

Artesunate reduces sepsis-mediated acute lung injury in a SIRT1-dependent manner

Introduction

Sepsis-mediated acute lung injury (ALI) is a critical clinical condition. Artesunate (AS) is a sesquiterpene lactone endoperoxide that was discovered in Artemisia annua, which is a traditional Chinese herb. AS has a broad set of biological and pharmacological actions; however, its protective effect on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI remains unclear.

Methods

LPS-mediated ALI was induced in rats through bronchial LPS inhalation. Then NR8383 cells were treated with LPS to establish an in vitro model. Further, we administered different AS doses in vivo and in vitro.

Results

AS administration significantly decreased LPS-mediated pulmonary cell death and inhibited pulmonary neutrophil infiltration. Additionally, AS administration increased SIRT1 expression in pulmonary sections. Administration of a biological antagonist or shRNA-induced reduction of SIRT1 expression significantly inhibited the protective effect of AS against LPS-induced cellular injury, pulmonary dysfunction, neutrophil infiltration, and apoptosis. This demonstrates that enhanced SIRT1 expression is crucially involved in the observed protective effects.

Conclusion

Our findings could suggest the use of AS for treating lung disorders through a mechanism involving SIRT1 expression.

A critical review on anti-fibrotic phytochemicals targeting activated hepatic stellate cells

Liver fibrosis is a major health concern occurring worldwide. It arises due to prolonged wound healing response of various insults like viral, autoimmune, cholestatic, drug-induced, and metabolic diseases. Currently, there is no clinically approved drug for liver fibrosis treatment. Hepatic stellate cells are the principal liver cells that are activated during liver fibrosis, and targeting these activated cells is an ideal therapeutic strategy. Numerous phytochemicals have been demonstrated in vitro and in vivo treating experimental liver fibrosis; however, none of them have been clinically approved for therapeutic use. This review mainly focuses on such hepatoprotective phytochemicals reported inhibiting major signaling pathways that are dysregulated in activated hepatic stellate cells. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Liver fibrosis is a global health concern and there is no FDA approved drug to treat liver fibrosis. Although notable pharmacological agents like pentoxifylline, gliotoxin, imatinibmesylate, Gleevec, and so on are reported to exhibit anti-fibrotic effect, the major concern is their side effect. Hence, phytochemicals are promising candidates that could be employed against liver fibrosis. In this review, the anti-fibrotic potential of phytochemicals targeting activated HSCs are summarized. Understanding these phytochemicals will further help in the development of agents that are more effective against liver fibrosis.

Network Pharmacology-Based Exploration on the Intervention of Qinghao Biejia Decoction on the Inflammation-Carcinoma Transformation Process of Chronic Liver Disease via MAPK and PI3k/AKT Pathway

Chronic liver disease(CLD) is a slow-developing and long-term disease that can cause serious damage to the liver. Thus far, it has been associated with viral hepatitis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease(NAFLD), alcoholic liver disease(ALD), hepatic fibrosis(HF), liver cirrhosis (LC), and liver cancer. Qinghao Biejia Decoction (QBD) is a classic ancient Chinese herbal prescription with strong immune-enhancing, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor effects. In this study, we used a network pharmacology approach to investigate the molecular mechanisms of QBD in the inflammation-carcinoma transformation process of chronic liver disease. Two key drug targets, MAPK1 and PIK3CA, were screened using network pharmacology and molecular docking techniques, revealing dihydroartemisinin, artesunate, 12-O-Nicotinoylisolineolone, caffeic acid, and diincarvilone A as active ingredients involved in QBD mechanisms. The main signaling pathways involved were the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway and MAPK signaling pathway. In summary, our results indicated that QBD affects the inflammatory transformation of chronic liver disease through MAPK1 and PIK3CA and signaling pathways MAPK and PI3K/AKT. These data provide research direction for investigating the mechanisms underlying the inflammation-carcinoma transformation process in QBD for chronic liver disease.

Physiological Effects of Ferroptosis on Organ Fibrosis

Ferroptosis is a new type of programmed cell death with unique morphological, biochemical, and genetic features. From the initial study of histomorphology to the exploration of subcellular organelles and even molecular mechanisms, a net connecting ferroptosis and fibrosis is being woven and formed. Inflammation may be the bridge between both processes. In this review, we will discuss the ferroptosis theory and process and the physiological functions of ferroptosis, followed by a description of the pathological effects and the underlying mechanisms of ferroptosis in the pathogenesis of tumorigenesis, ischemic damage, degenerative lesions, autoimmune diseases, and necroinflammation. We then focus on the role of ferroptosis in the fibrosis process in the liver, lung, kidney, heart, and other organs. Although the molecular mechanism of ferroptosis has been explored extensively in the past few years, many challenges remain to be resolved to translate this information into antifibrotic practice, which is becoming a promising new direction in the field of fibrotic disease prevention and treatment.

Ethanol Extract of Artemisia Annua Prevents LPS-Induced Inflammation and Blood-Milk Barrier Disruption in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells

This experiment evaluated the pre-protective effect of AAE on inflammatory injury and tight junction disturbance in bMECs induced by LPS. The bMECs were treated with AAE (3, 6, 12 μg/mL) for 3 h and then incubated with 10 μg/mL lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for 12 h. Our results showed that LPS significantly increased the mRNA and protein expression of CD36, induced the phosphorylation of IκBα and p65 and elevated the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 mRNA, which further resulted in ultrastructural damage, disrupted the expression of tight junction proteins (occludin, zonula occludens (ZO-1) and claudin-1) and decreased the viability of bMECs (p < 0.05). More importantly, AAE pretreatment attenuated the expression of CD36, suppressed the activity of the NF-κB signaling pathway and down-regulated the levels of inflammatory factors in LPS-stimulated bMECs (p < 0.05). Therefore, AAE can effectively protect bMECs against inflammatory injury and tight junction dysfunction, which has important research value for the prevention of bovine mastitis.

Integrated analysis of differentially expressed genes, differentially methylated genes, and natural compounds in hepatitis C virus-induced cirrhosis

Objective

To identify key genes in hepatitis C virus (HCV)-induced cirrhosis and to predict effective drugs for its treatment.

Methods

Three datasets were used to screen for differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differentially methylated genes (DMGs) in HCV-induced cirrhosis. DEGs were subjected to Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analyses using the clusterProfiler R package. Their respective protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks were constructed using Cytoscape. Cross analysis of DEGs and DMGs was performed to identify the genetic landscape of HCV-induced cirrhosis, and five genes were validated by receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. Molecular autodocking between ISG15 and natural products was performed using AutoDock Tool 1.5.6.

Results

A total of 357 DEGs and 8,830 DMGs were identified. DEG functional analysis identified several pathways involved in the pathogenesis of HCV-induced cirrhosis. Cross analysis of DEGs and DMGs identified 212 genes, and PPI network analysis identified 25 hub genes. Finally, five genes including ISG15 were identified and confirmed in dataset GSE36411. Artesunate and betulinic acid were shown to have a strong binding affinity to ISG15.

Conclusion

Our study provides novel insights into the mechanisms of HCV-induced cirrhosis which could lead to the identification of new therapeutics.

The mechanism of microglia-mediated immune inflammation in ischemic stroke and the role of natural botanical components in regulating microglia: A review

Ischemic stroke (IS) is one of the most fatal diseases. Neuroimmunity, inflammation, and oxidative stress play important roles in various complex mechanisms of IS. In particular, the early proinflammatory response resulting from the overactivation of resident microglia and the infiltration of circulating monocytes and macrophages in the brain after cerebral ischemia leads to secondary brain injury. Microglia are innate immune cells in the brain that constantly monitor the brain microenvironment under normal conditions. Once ischemia occurs, microglia are activated to produce dual effects of neurotoxicity and neuroprotection, and the balance of the two effects determines the fate of damaged neurons. The activation of microglia is defined as the classical activation (M1 type) or alternative activation (M2 type). M1 type microglia secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines and neurotoxic mediators to exacerbate neuronal damage, while M2 type microglia promote a repairing anti-inflammatory response. Fine regulation of M1/M2 microglial activation to minimize damage and maximize protection has important therapeutic value. This review focuses on the interaction between M1/M2 microglia and other immune cells involved in the regulation of IS phenotypic characteristics, and the mechanism of natural plant components regulating microglia after IS, providing novel candidate drugs for regulating microglial balance and IS drug development.

Artemisinin relieves myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury via modulating miR-29b-3p and hemicentin 1

Objective: To explore the impact of artemisinin (ARS) on myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury and the underlying mechanism. Methods: Myocardial I/R rat model and cell model were used in this study. The cell viability, morphological changes, apoptosis, and oxidative stress were evaluated in cardiomyocytes H9c2 cells in vitro by using cell counting kit-8, microscope, flow cytometry, and commercial kits. High throughput sequencing is used to identify molecular targets of ARS on myocardial I/R injury, and then the gene-gene interaction network was constructed. MiR-29b-3p, hemicentin 1 (HMCN1), and apoptosis-related genes were tested by qRT-PCR and Western blotting. In the myocardial I/R rat model, echocardiography, (Triphenyl tetrazolium chloride) TTC staining, Hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining, Masson Trichrome staining, and TUNEL staining are applied to evaluate the protective effect of ARS on the myocardial injury. Results: In vitro, we demonstrated that ARS alleviated H₂O₂-induced myocardial I/R injury, manifested by increased H9c2 viability, decreased pathological changes, apoptosis, and oxidative stress biomarker ROS, LDH, and CK-MB. Then, sequencing analysis revealed that miR-29b-3p/HMCN1 was the target of ARS for myocardial I/R injury. Notably, rescue experiments indicated that ARS inhibited myocardial I/R injury through targeted regulation miR-29b-3p/HMCN1. In vivo, we confirmed that ARS reduced myocardial injury, fibrosis, and apoptosis via modulation of miR-29b-3p/HMCN1. Conclusion: This study demonstrated the functional role of the ARS/miR-29b-3p/HMCN1 axis in alleviating myocardial I/R injury, which provided a new direction for myocardial I/R injury therapy.

RNA-seq-based transcriptome analysis of the anti-inflammatory effect of artesunate in the early treatment of the mouse cerebral malaria model

The present study provides new insights into the molecular mechanisms by which artesunate improves prognosis in cerebral malaria, in particular inhibition of host cytokine storm.

Artemisinins in Combating Viral Infections Like SARS-CoV-2, Inflammation and Cancers and Options to Meet Increased Global Demand

Artemisinin is a natural bioactive sesquiterpene lactone containing an unusual endoperoxide 1, 2, 4-trioxane ring. It is derived from the herbal medicinal plant Artemisia annua and is best known for its use in treatment of malaria. However, recent studies also indicate the potential for artemisinin and related compounds, commonly referred to as artemisinins, in combating viral infections, inflammation and certain cancers. Moreover, the different potential modes of action of artemisinins make these compounds also potentially relevant to the challenges the world faces in the COVID-19 pandemic. Initial studies indicate positive effects of artemisinin or Artemisia spp. extracts to combat SARS-CoV-2 infection or COVID-19 related symptoms and WHO-supervised clinical studies on the potential of artemisinins to combat COVID-19 are now in progress. However, implementing multiple potential new uses of artemisinins will require effective solutions to boost production, either by enhancing synthesis in A. annua itself or through biotechnological engineering in alternative biosynthesis platforms. Because of this renewed interest in artemisinin and its derivatives, here we review its modes of action, its potential application in different diseases including COVID-19, its biosynthesis and future options to boost production.

Development of human iPSC-derived quiescent hepatic stellate cell-like cells for drug discovery and in vitro disease modeling

Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) play a central role in the progression of liver fibrosis by producing extracellular matrices. The development of drugs to suppress liver fibrosis has been hampered by the lack of human quiescent HSCs (qHSCs) and an appropriate in vitro model that faithfully recapitulates HSC activation. In the present study, we developed a culture system to generate qHSC-like cells from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) that can be converted into activated HSCs in culture. To monitor the activation process, a red fluorescent protein (RFP) gene was inserted in hiPSCs downstream of the activation marker gene actin alpha 2 smooth muscle (ACTA2). Using qHSC-like cells derived from RFP reporter iPSCs, we screened a repurposing chemical library and identified therapeutic candidates that prevent liver fibrosis. Hence, hiPSC-derived qHSC-like cells will be a useful tool to study the mechanism of HSC activation and to identify therapeutic agents.

Artesunate attenuates inflammatory injury and inhibits the NF-κB pathway in a mouse model of cerebral ischemia

OBJECTIVE

Inflammation is an important factor in the pathological process of cerebral ischemia. Artesunate exhibits a broad range of anti-inflammatory properties in many diseases. We investigated the potential protective effect of artesunate against cerebral ischemia and the related mechanisms.

METHODS

Mice were divided into distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (dMCAO), sham, low dose, and high dose groups and subjected to dMCAO, except for the sham group. The low and high dose groups were administered artesunate (15 and 30 mg/kg), and the neuroprotective effects were analyzed by evaluating infarct volumes and neurological deficits. Microglial activation and neutrophil infiltration were evaluated by immunofluorescence, immunohistochemical staining, and western blotting. Inflammatory mediators were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Nuclear factor (NF)-κB nuclear translocation was detected by immunofluorescence and western blotting.

RESULTS

Compared with the dMCAO group, artesunate significantly improved neurological deficit scores and infarct volumes and ameliorated inflammation by reducing neutrophil infiltration, suppressing microglial activation, and downregulating tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β expression. Furthermore, artesunate inhibited nuclear translocation of NF-κB and inhibitor protein α proteolysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Artesunate protected against inflammatory injury by reducing neutrophil infiltration and microglial activation, suppressing inflammatory cytokines, and inhibiting the NF-κB pathway. Therefore, artesunate is a potential ischemic stroke treatment.

MALAT1 promotes liver fibrosis by sponging miR‑181a and activating TLR4‑NF‑κB signaling

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether long non-coding RNA metastasis associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 (MALAT1) could modulate activation and inflammation of hepatic stellate cell (HSCs) via regulation of a microRNA (miR)-181a-toll like receptor (TLR)4/nuclear factor (NF)-κB axis, thereby contributing to the development of liver fibrosis. A total of 151 patients with liver fibrosis were recruited, and the serum levels of alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferase and albumin were determined. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 and LPS were used to activate and induce inflammation in the human HSC cell line LX2. MALAT1 was knocked using small interfering RNA or overexpressed, and an inhibitor and mimic of miR-181a-5p were used to examine the effect of MALAT1 and miR-181a-5p on the activation and inflammation of LX2 cells. Both MALAT1 and miR-181a-5p expression performed well in their ability to differentiate patients with liver fibrosis from healthy volunteers, and MALAT1 expression was associated with the severity of liver fibrosis. The expression levels of TLR4 and NF-κB were increased after stimulation with LPS or TGF-β1, but MALAT1 knockdown or miR-181a-5p mimic transfection abrogated this increase. Moreover, the TGF-β1-induced increase in viability, proliferation, migration, adhesion and collagen production, and the LPS-induced inflammation of LX2 cells were all reversed after MALAT1 knockdown or transfection with miR-181a-5p mimic. The MALAT1/miR-181a-5p axis was involved in regulating collagen production and inflammation by activating TLR4/NF-κB signaling, which may be conducive to liver fibrosis treatment in the future.

Molecular Basis of Artemisinin Derivatives Inhibition of Myeloid Differentiation Protein 2 by Combined in Silico and Experimental Study

Artemisinin (also known as Qinghaosu), an active component of the Qinghao extract, is widely used as antimalarial drug. Previous studies reveal that artemisinin and its derivatives also have effective anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, but the direct molecular target remains unknown. Recently, several reports mentioned that myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD-2, also known as lymphocyte antigen 96) may be the endogenous target of artemisinin in the inhibition of lipopolysaccharide signaling. However, the exact interaction between artemisinin and MD-2 is still not fully understood. Here, experimental and computational methods were employed to elucidate the relationship between the artemisinin and its inhibition mechanism. Experimental results showed that artemether exhibit higher anti-inflammatory activity performance than artemisinin and artesunate. Molecular docking results showed that artemisinin, artesunate, and artemether had similar binding poses, and all complexes remained stable throughout the whole molecular dynamics simulations, whereas the binding of artemisinin and its derivatives to MD-2 decreased the TLR4(Toll-Like Receptor 4)/MD-2 stability. Moreover, artemether exhibited lower binding energy as compared to artemisinin and artesunate, which is in good agreement with the experimental results. Leu61, Leu78, and Ile117 are indeed key residues that contribute to the binding free energy. Binding free energy analysis further confirmed that hydrophobic interactions were critical to maintain the binding mode of artemisinin and its derivatives with MD-2.

Anti-malarial drug: the emerging role of artemisinin and its derivatives in liver disease treatment

Artemisinin and its derivatives belong to a family of drugs approved for the treatment of malaria with known clinical safety and efficacy. In addition to its anti-malarial effect, artemisinin displays anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer effects in vivo and in vitro. Recently, much attention has been paid to the therapeutic role of artemisinin in liver diseases. Several studies suggest that artemisinin and its derivatives can protect the liver through different mechanisms, such as those pertaining to inflammation, proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and induction of apoptosis and autophagy. In this review, we provide a comprehensive discussion of the underlying molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways of artemisinin and its derivatives in treating liver diseases. Further pharmacological research will aid in determining whether artemisinin and its derivatives may serve as promising medicines for the treatment of liver diseases in the future.

Antibiotics Attenuate Methamphetamine-Induced Hepatotoxicity by Regulating Oxidative Stress and TLR4/MyD88/Traf6 Axis

Methamphetamine (METH) is a major psychostimulant drug of abuse worldwide, and its neurotoxicity has been studied extensively. In addition to neurotoxicity, METH can also induce hepatotoxicity. The underlying mechanism of intestinal microorganisms in METH-induced hepatotoxicity remains unclear. In this study, mice have received antibiotics intragastrically or PBS once each day for 1 week, followed by METH or saline. The antibiotics attenuated METH-induced hepatotoxicity as evidenced by histopathological observation and biochemical analysis; furthermore, they alleviated METH-induced oxidative stress. The effect of antibiotics on METH-induced hepatotoxicity was investigated using RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq). The RNA-seq results demonstrated that antibiotics could regulate 580 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), of which 319 were upregulated after METH treatment and then downregulated with antibiotic pretreatment and 237 were first downregulated after METH administration and then upregulated after antibiotic pretreatment, in addition to 11 upregulated and 13 downregulated ones simultaneously in METH and antibiotic-pretreated groups. RNA-seq analyses revealed that TLR4 is one of the hub genes. Western blot analysis indicated that antibiotics inhibited the increase of TLR4, MyD88 and Traf6 induced by METH. This research suggests that antibiotics may play an important role in preventing METH-induced liver injury by regulating oxidative stress and TLR4/MyD88/Traf6 axis, though further investigation is required.

Artesunate Provides Neuroprotection against Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury via the TLR-4/NF-κB Pathway in Rats

Inflammation has an important role in ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. Artesunate (ART) has anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory pharmacological activities, and it is used for various types of serious malaria, including cerebral malaria. ART maintains a high concentration in the brain but little is known about the neuroprotective effect of ART against brain I/R injury. We studied the neuroprotection of ART against brain I/R injury and its underlying mechanism. In this study, rats were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) for 2 h. After 24 h of reperfusion, neurological deficits, cerebrum water content, infarct volume, hematoxylin-eosin (H&E)-staining, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, and proinflammatory cytokine levels were measured. Administration of 20, 40, 80, and 160 mg/kg ART intraperitoneally (i.p.) 10 min after MCAO significantly decreased brain water content and improved neurological deficits in a dose-dependent manner. An 80 mg/kg dosage was optimal. ART significantly reduced infarct volume, suppressed MPO activity and diminished the expressions of toll-like receptor (TLR)-4, MyD88, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interleukin (IL)-6 in the area of the ischemic cortex. The neuroprotective action of ART against focal cerebral I/R injury might be due to the attenuation of inflammation through the TLR-4/NF-κB pathway.

Artesunate alleviates schistosomiasis-induced liver fibrosis by downregulation of mitochondrial complex Ⅰ subunit NDUFB8 and complex Ⅲ subunit UQCRC2 in hepatic stellate cells

Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) play a key role in the pathogenesis of hepatic fibrosis. Inhibition of the HSCs activity is an ideal strategy in the treatment of fibrosis, but there is no drug yet for this strategy. Artesunate (ART) has been shown to protect liver from fibrosis through inhibition of HSCs activity. However, the mechanism of ART activity remains to be fully uncovered. In this study, we tested ART in a mouse model of hepatic fibrosis established in the schistosomiasis-infected mice. The mechanism of ART action was investigated in the HSC cell line LX-2. ART significantly inhibited hepatic fibrosis. In LX-2 cells, ART efficiently inhibited the cell activity in proliferation and mRNA expression of fibrosis marker genes including Col1a1 and Col3a1. An impact of ART on mitochondria was observed for suppression of enzymes in the citric acid cycle (TCA), such as citrate synthase (CS), isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH₂), and alpha ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (OGDH) in a dose-dependent manner. ART decreased the mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and the protein levels of mitochondrial complex Ⅰ subunit NDUFB8 and complex Ⅲ subunit UQCRC2 in HSCs. All of these alterations were observed with an increase in HSC apoptosis. This study suggests that ART may alleviate liver fibrosis by downregulation of HSC activity through suppression of NDUFB8 and UQCRC2 in mitochondria. This study provides a new insight into the mechanism of the ART activity in the inhibition of schistosomiasis-induced liver fibrosis.

Artemisinin and artemisinin derivatives as anti-fibrotic therapeutics

Fibrosis is a pathological reparative process that can occur in most organs and is responsible for nearly half of deaths in the developed world. Despite considerable research, few therapies have proven effective and been approved clinically for treatment of fibrosis. Artemisinin compounds are best known as antimalarial therapeutics, but they also demonstrate antiparasitic, antibacterial, anticancer, and anti-fibrotic effects. Here we summarize literature describing anti-fibrotic effects of artemisinin compounds in in vivo and in vitro models of tissue fibrosis, and we describe the likely mechanisms by which artemisinin compounds appear to inhibit cellular and tissue processes that lead to fibrosis. To consider alternative routes of administration of artemisinin for treatment of internal organ fibrosis, we also discuss the potential for more direct oral delivery of Artemisia plant material to enhance bioavailability and efficacy of artemisinin compared to administration of purified artemisinin drugs at comparable doses. It is our hope that greater understanding of the broad anti-fibrotic effects of artemisinin drugs will enable and promote their use as therapeutics for treatment of fibrotic diseases.

The interrupted cross-talk of inflammatory and oxidative stress trajectories signifies the effect of artesunate against hepatic ischemia/reperfusion-induced inflammasomopathy

The antimalarial drug artesunate (Art) has proven its beneficial effects against ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in diverse organs, but its potential role against hepatic I/R is still obscure. This study, hence, examined whether treatment with Art alone or in combination with rapamycin (Rapa), an mTOR inhibitor, can ameliorate hepatic I/R injury via targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway. Rats were divided into hepatic sham- and I/R-operated rats. The latter were either left untreated (I/R group) or treated with Art, Rapa, or their combination. On the molecular level, all treatment regimens succeeded to hinder inflammasome assembly and activation, assessed as NLRP3, ASC, cleaved caspase-1, caspase-11, N-terminal cleaved gasdermin-D (GSDMD-N), IL-1β, and IL-18. This effect was associated by the inhibition in the harmful signaling pathways HMGB1/RAGE and TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6 to inactivate the transcription factor NF-κB and the production of its pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-18, IL-6, and TNF-α. Additionally, this effect entailed the inhibition of ICAM-1/MPO/ROS cascade, which in turn hampered cell demise induced by apoptosis, manifested as correction of the imbalanced Bcl2/Bax, as well as pyroptosis (LDH, cleaved caspase-1, caspase-11, GSDMD-N, IL-1β, and IL-18), and necrosis. The corrected pathways were reflected on the improved liver function (serum ALT, AST, and LDH) and microscopical hepatic architecture. Noteworthy, the effect of Art on all parameters exceeded significantly that of Rapa and even improved the effect of the latter in the combination group. In conclusion, our results suggest novel roles for Art in abating functional and structural I/R-induced hepatic abnormalities via several traversing cross-talking pathways that succeeded to abate NLRP3 inflammasome and cell death.

A comprehensive review of natural products to fight liver fibrosis: Alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, coumarins and other compounds

The discovery of drugs to treat liver fibrosis has long been a challenge over the past decades due to its complicated pathogenesis. As a primary approach for drug development, natural products account for 30% of clinical drugs used for disease treatment. Therefore, natural products are increasingly important for their medicinal value in liver fibrosis therapy. In this part of the review, special focus is placed on the effect and mechanism of natural compounds, including alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, coumarins and others. A total of 36 kinds of natural compounds demonstrate significant antifibrotic effects in various liver fibrosis models in vivo and in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in vitro. Revealing the mechanism will provide further basis for clinical conversion, as well as accelerate drug discovery. The mechanism was further summarized with the finding of network regulation by several natural products, such as oxymatrine, paeoniflorin, ginsenoside Rg1 and taurine. Moreover, there are still improvements needed in investigating clinical efficacy, determining mechanisms, and combining applications, as well as semisynthesis and modification. Therefore, natural products area promising resource for agents that protect against liver fibrosis.

Role of endoplasmic reticulum oxidase 1α in H9C2 cardiomyocytes following hypoxia/reoxygenation injury

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) oxidase 1α (ERO1α) is a glycosylated flavoenzyme that is located on the luminal side of the ER membrane, which serves an important role in catalyzing the formation of protein disulfide bonds and ER redox homeostasis. However, the role of ERO1α in myocardial hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) injury remains largely unknown. In the present study, ERO1α expression levels in H9C2 cardiomyocytes increased following H/R, reaching their highest levels following 3 h of hypoxia and 6 h of reoxygenation. In addition, H/R induced apoptosis, and significantly increased expression levels of ER stress (ERS) markers 78 kDa glucose-regulated protein and C/EBP homologous protein. Moreover, the genetic knockdown of ERO1α using short hairpin RNA suppressed cell apoptosis, caspase-3 activity, expression levels of cleaved caspase-12 and cytochrome c in the cytoplasm. Overall, this suggested that ERO1α knockdown may protect against H/R injury. The ERS activator tunicamycin (TM) was used to counteract the ERO1α-induced reduction in ERS; however, the percentage of apoptotic cells and the level of mitochondrial damage did not change. In conclusion, the results from the present study suggested that ERO1α knockdown may protect H9C2 cardiomyocytes from H/R injury through inhibiting intracellular ROS production and increasing intracellular levels of Ca²⁺, suggesting that ERO1α may serve an important role in H/R.

Artesunate prevents knee intraarticular adhesion via PRKR-like ER kinase (PERK) signal pathway

Background

Intraarticular scar adhesion refers to a serious complication caused by knee surgery or trauma, leading to various sequelae (e.g., articular cartilage degeneration and knee joint stiffness). Artesunate (ART) has exhibited an effect to suppress fibroblast proliferation, whereas the exact mechanism remains unclear. This study aims to delve into the possible mechanism of ART in suppressing joint adhesion.

Methods

The effect of ART on reduced intraarticular adhesions was ascertained by histological staining and immunohistochemical analysis through vivo experiments. Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay, Western blot analysis, flow cytometry, and tunnel staining were used to detect the effect of ART in promoting fibroblast apoptosis and delve into its possible signaling pathway.

Results

The results of hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining suggested that the number of fibroblasts decreased with the increase in ART concentration. The results of Masson staining were similar, with the increase in concentration, the collagen content decreased. Immunohistochemical results showed that the expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) characteristic proteins 78 kDa glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) increased in a concentration-dependent manner. CCK-8 results suggested that ART could inhibit fibroblast viability in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Results of flow cytometry, tunnel staining, and Western blot suggested the apoptosis of fibroblasts occurred after ART treatment. Cells with caspase inhibitors were treated, and apoptotic proteins cleaved-poly ADP-ribose polymerase (cleaved PARP) and cleaved-caspase 3 were detected; the results showed that the apoptotic effect of ART was reduced. The expressions of ERS-related protein CHOP and apoptosis-related protein Bax were upregulated, while the expression of Bcl-2 was downregulated, and the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 increased in a concentration-dependent manner. Continuous detection of PRKR-like ER kinase (PERK) pathway-related proteins showed that the expression of p-PERK and phosphorylating eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (p-eIF2α) increased in a time-dependent and concentration-dependent manner. PERK pathway inhibitors could partially inhibit ART-mediated apoptosis through PERK pathway.

Conclusions

ART can promote fibroblast apoptosis through PERK pathway, a classical ERS pathway, and thus prevent fibrosis in the surgical area after joint surgery.

Dibromoacetic Acid Induced Hepatotoxicity in Mice through Oxidative Stress and Toll-Like Receptor 4 Signaling Pathway Activation

Dibromoacetic acid (DBA) is one of haloacetic acids, often as a by-product of disinfection in drinking water. DBA is a multiple-organ carcinogen in rodent animals, but little research on its hepatotoxicity has been conducted and its mechanism has not been elucidated. In this study, we found that DBA could induce obvious hepatotoxcity in Balb/c mice as indicated by histological changes, increasing serum level of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and accumulation of hepatic glycogen, after the mice were administered DBA at doses of 1.25, 5, and 20 mg/kg body weight for 28 days via oral gavage. In mechanism study, DBA induced oxidative stress as evidenced by increasing the level of malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the liver, advanced oxidative protein products (AOPPs) in the serum, and decreasing the level of glutathione (GSH) in the liver. DBA induced inflammation in the liver of the mice which is supported by increasing the production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and the mRNA levels of TNF-α, interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) in the liver. DBA also upregulated the protein levels of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88), tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6), inhibitor of nuclear factor κB alpha (IκB-α), nuclear factor κB p65 (NF-κB p65), and the phosphoralation of P38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (P38MAPK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). Conclusion. DBA could induce hepatotoxicity in mice by oral exposure; the mechanism is related to oxidative stress, inflammation, and Toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathway activation.

Artesunate alleviates interleukin‑1β‑induced inflammatory response and apoptosis by inhibiting the NF‑κB signaling pathway in chondrocyte‑like ATDC5 cells, and delays the progression of osteoarthritis in a mouse model

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a progressive and degenerative joint disorder that is highly prevalent worldwide and for which there is currently no effective medical therapy. Artesunate (ART), a natural compound used to treat malaria, possesses diverse biological properties, including the regulation of inflammation and apoptosis in various cells; however, its role in OA remains unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of ART on interleukin (IL)‑1β‑induced chondrocyte‑like ATDC5 cells and in an OA mouse model. The results revealed that ART dose‑dependently relieved the inhibitory effect of IL‑1β on cell viability. Moreover, ART significantly reduced the overexpression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)‑3, MMP‑13, a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs‑5 and cyclooxygenase‑2 at both the gene and protein levels in chondrocyte‑like ATDC5 cells stimulated by IL‑1β. Furthermore, ART decreased the expression of pro‑apoptotic Bax, cleaved caspase‑3 and cleaved caspase‑7 in a dose‑dependent manner, and increased the expression of the anti‑apoptotic factor Bcl‑2. These changes were mediated by the inhibitory effect of ART on the nuclear factor‑κB signaling pathway, defined as repression of the phosphorylation of IκBα and p65, and improved redistribution of p65. Additionally, ART blocked the advancement of the calcified cartilage zone and the loss of proteoglycan, and lowered histological scoring of OA in a mouse model. Taken together, these results indicate that ART may be of value as a therapeutic agent for OA.

Research progress on the anti-hepatic fibrosis action and mechanism of natural products

Hepatic fibrosis is the most common pathological feature of most chronic liver diseases, and its continuous deterioration gradually develops into liver cirrhosis and eventually leads to liver cancer. At present, there are many kinds of drugs used to treat liver fibrosis. However, Western drugs tend to only target single genes/proteins and induce many adverse reactions. Most of the mechanisms and active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) are not clear, and there is a lack of unified diagnosis and treatment standards. Natural products, which are characterized by structural diversity, low toxicity, and origination from a wide range of sources, have unique advantages and great potential in anti-liver fibrosis. This article summarizes the work done over the previous decade, on the active ingredients in natural products that are reported to have anti-hepatic fibrosis effects. The effective anti-hepatic fibrosis ingredients identified can be generally divided into flavonoids, saponins, polysaccharides and alkaloids. Mechanisms of anti-liver fibrosis include inhibition of liver inflammation, anti-lipid peroxidation injury, inhibition of the activation and proliferation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), modulation of the synthesis and secretion of pro-fibrosis factors, and regulation of the synthesis and degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM). This review provides suggestions for the development of anti-hepatic fibrosis drugs.

The modulatory effect of Artemisia annua L. on toll-like receptor expression in Acanthamoeba infected mouse lungs

The genus Acanthamoeba, which may cause different infections in humans, occurs widely in the environment. Lung inflammation caused by these parasites induces pulmonary pathological changes such as pulmonary necrosis, peribronchial plasma cell infiltration, moderate desquamation of alveolar cells and partial destruction of bronchial epithelial cells, and presence of numerous trophozoites and cysts among inflammatory cells. The aim of this study was to assess the influence of plant extracts from Artemisia annua L. on expression of the toll-like receptors TLR2 and TLR4 in lungs of mice with acanthamoebiasis. A. annua, which belongs to the family Asteraceae, is an annual plant that grows wild in Asia. In this study, statistically significant changes of expression of TLR2 and TLR4 were demonstrated. In the lungs of infected mice after application of extract from A. annua the expression of TLRs was observed mainly in bronchial epithelial cells, pneumocytes (to a lesser extent during the outbreak of infection), and in the course of high general TLR expression. TLR4 in particular was also visible in stromal cells of lung parenchyma. In conclusion, we confirmed that a plant extract of A. annua has a modulatory effect on components of the immune system such as TLR2 and TLR4.

Artesunate alleviates liver fibrosis by regulating ferroptosis signaling pathway

Liver fibrosis is a progression of chronic liver disease, which lacks effective therapies in the world. Attractively, more and more evidences show that natural products are safe and effective in the prevention and treatment of hepatic fibrosis. Artesunate, a water-soluble hemisuccinate derivative of artemisinin, exerts various pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor and immunomodulating abilities. However, the effects of artesunate on hepatic fibrosis are little-known. Here our study was performed to investigate the effect of artesunate on carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced mouse liver fibrosis and elucidate whether artesunate could alleviate liver fibrosis by regulating ferritinophagy- mediated ferroptosis in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). Firstly, our results demonstrated that artesunate treatment could induce activated HSC ferroptosis in fibrotic livers. Moreover, primary HSCs isolated from different animal groups were cultured to detect biomarkers of ferroptosis including iron, lipid peroxidation, glutathione (GSH) and prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase 2 (ptgs2) levels. The results revealed that artesunate remarkably promoted ferroptosis of activated HSCs. Furthermore, consistent with the experimental results in vivo, the data in vitro still indicated that artesunate treatment markedly induced ferroptosis in activated HSCs, which mainly embodied as declined cell vitality, increased cell death rate, accumulated iron, elevated lipid peroxides and reduced antioxidant capacity. Conversely, inhibition of ferroptosis by deferoxamine (DFO) completely abolished artesunate-induced anti-fibrosis effect. Surprisingly, artesunate also evidently triggered ferritinophagy accompanied by up-regulation of LC3 (microtubule-associated protein light chain 3), Atg3, Atg5, Atg6/beclin1, Atg12 (autophagy related genes) and down-regulation of p62, FTH1 (ferritin heavy chain), NCOA4 (nuclear receptor co-activator 4) in activated HSCs. Nevertheless, depletion of ferritinophagy by specific inhibitor lysosomal lumen alkalizer-chloroquine (CQ) inhibited artesunate-induced ferroptosis and anti-fibrosis function. These results suggested that ferritinophagy-mediated HSC ferroptosis was responsible for artesunate-induced anti-fibrosis efficacy, which provided new clues for further pharmacological study of artesunate.

Artesunate inhibits fibroblasts proliferation and reduces surgery-induced epidural fibrosis via the autophagy-mediated p53/p21waf1/cip1 pathway

Fibroblast proliferation is considered to be a major cause in the process of epidural fibrosis formation. Autophagy is a tightly-regulated catabolic process in charge of degrading intracellular components. Although autophagy has been associated with fibrosis of different tissues, the effect of autophagy on epidural fibrosis is still unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the function and mechanism of autophagy induced by Artesunate (ART), a classical antimalarial agent extracted from the Chinese medicinal herb. In vitro, the effect of ART on inducing fibroblast autophagy was evaluated via LC3 immunofluorescent staining, Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and western blotting analysis. Moreover, the effect of ART on inhibiting fibroblast proliferation was investigated by CCK-8 assay, EdU incorporation assay, flow cytometry and western blotting analysis. Results indicated that ART could induce autophagy and inhibit proliferation in fibroblasts. The inhibitory effect of ART on fibroblast proliferation was associated with the upregulation of p53 and p21^waf1/cip1 proteins. Intriguingly, 3-MA, a classical autophagy inhibitor, attenuated ART-induced p53/p21^waf1/cip1 pathway activation and fibroblast proliferation inhibition. In vivo, the effect of ART on reducing epidural fibrosis was detected by histological macroscopic assessment, hydroxyproline content analysis, histological and immunohistochemical staining. The results revealed that ART had significant suppressive effects on epidural fibrosis following laminectomy in rats. In conclusion, this research demonstrated that ART could inhibit fibroblast proliferation and reduce epidural fibrosis formation after laminectomy, and the potential mechanism might through autophagy cascade-mediated p53/p21^waf1/cip1 pathway. It might provide a novel reagent for reducing epidural fibrosis after spinal laminectomy surgery.

Artesunate may inhibit liver fibrosis via the FAK/Akt/β-catenin pathway in LX-2 cells

BACKGROUND

An increasing number of studies are investigating the effects of Chinese medicine on hepatic fibrosis, but only few studies have examined the anti-fibrogenic properties of Artesunate (ART). The aim of the present study was to explore the anti-fibrotic effects of ART on LX-2 cells, the human HSC cell line, and to determine potential molecular mechanisms via the focal adhesion kinase (FAK)/ protein kinase B (Akt)/ β-catenin pathway.

METHODS

LX-2 cells were stimulated with different concentration of ART (0, 12.5, 25 and 50 μg/ml) for 12, 24, 48 or 72 h, their proliferation was analyzed using the Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. LX-2 cells were treated with different doses of ART (0, 12.5, 25 and 50 μg/ml) for 24 h, their apoptosis was measured using flow cytometry, the levels of mRNAs encoding collagen I or α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) were determined using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and the levels of key proteins in the FAK/Akt/β-catenin signaling pathway were assessed by western blotting. Specific inhibitors of FAK were added to the LX-2 cells cultures to explore the potential signaling.

RESULTS

Exposing LX-2 cells to ART efficiently inhibited their proliferation, significantly promoted early apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner, and markedly downregulated the mRNA expression of α-SMA and collagen I. In addition, ART, similar to FAK inhibitor PF562271 significantly inhibited the FAK/Akt/β-catenin signaling pathway by reducing the levels of phosphorylated FAK, Akt and GSK-3β.

CONCLUSIONS

Our present study shows that ART could regulate the proliferation, apoptosis and activation of LX-2. Meanwhile, the anti-fibrogenic mechanisms of ART was correlated with FAK/Akt/β-catenin pathway. Future research should verify and extend these findings, as well as explore other molecules and therefore serve as useful therapeutic targets.

Tetrahydropalmatine Prevents High-Fat Diet-Induced Hyperlipidemia in Golden Hamsters (Mesocricetus Auratus)

Background

Hyperlipidemia is a major cause of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Tetrahydropalmatine (THP) can exhibit hepatoprotective, anti-arrhythmic, and anti-inflammatory activities. The mechanism of THP on the hyperlipidemia remains unknown; therefore, the present study explored the role of THP in hyperlipidemia.

Material/Methods

We established an animal model of hyperlipidemia by high-fat diet (HFD) feeding. Blood samples were obtained for determination of serum cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c), pro-inflammatory cytokines, and CYP7A1 expression. Histology was performed and inflammation was detected in the liver using hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. The mRNA and protein levels of TLR4 and TRAF-6 were determined by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and Western blot, respectively.

Results

THP suppressed hepatic lipid accumulation and reduced serum levels of TC, TG, LDL-c, and HDL-c in HFD-fed golden hamsters. THP increased cholesterol 7 α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) expression and prevented inflammation by the limited reduction in interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) expressions in serum and liver. THP slightly increased the ratio of the body/liver weight. THP inhibited the mRNA and protein levels of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and TNF-receptor associated factor-6 (TRAF-6).

Conclusions

These results suggest that THP attenuates hyperlipidemia by multiple effects, including hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects. Moreover, THP also suppressed the expressions of TLR4 and TRAF-6 in golden hamsters.

The selectivity of artemisinin-based drugs on human lung normal and cancer cells

Artemisinin-based drugs are documented to possess anticancer potential that is selectively effective to cancer cells. However, this selectivity is disputable in different studies and the mechanism is still unclear. To clarify this discrepancy, this study employed five assays to evaluate the cytotoxic effects of artemisinin and artesunate on normal human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells and lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells. The results of five cytotoxic assays coherently showed that artemisinin and artesunate caused dose-dependent cytotoxicity in both HBE and A549 cells with a slight selectivity to A549 cells. Further, both HBE cells and A549 cells demonstrated elevated levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and increased DNA damage. Since artemisinin and artesunate exerted significant cytotoxic effect on both normal cells and cancer cells via the same pathway of ROS-mediated DNA damage, the side effects of artemisinin and artesunate on normal cell cannot be ignored when developing their antitumor effects.

Role of artesunate in TGF‑β1‑induced renal tubular epithelial‑mesenchymal transdifferentiation in NRK‑52E cells

The implications of epithelial-mesenchymal transdifferentiation (EMT) have extended beyond the confines of renal fibrosis to renal tubulointerstitial fibrosis. It has been proposed that EMT may be one of the mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of renal fibrosis. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 is considered to be an important cytokine which regulates the transdifferentiation of tubular epithelial cells into myofibroblasts in renal tubulointerstitial fibrosis. In the present study, normal rat kidney tubular epithelial cells (NRK-52E) were treated for 48 h with TGF-β1 (5 ng/ml) and different concentrations of artesunate (ART; 0.01, 0.1 and 1 µg/ml). Western blotting, reverse transcription-semi quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis and immunofluorescence staining were used to evaluate the expression of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-7, uterine sensitization-associated gene (USAG)-1, E-cadherin, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and extracellular matrix collagen type I (Col I) mRNA. ART was able to attenuate renal injury in a unilateral ureteral obstruction model. However, its anti-fibrotic effect remains to be elucidated. In the present study, it was observed that ART was able to ameliorate the TGF-β1-induced alterations in cellular morphology. In addition, ART inhibited the TGF-β1-induced USAG-1 increase and the decrease in BMP-7. Treatment with ART markedly attenuated the TGF-β1-induced upregulation of α-SMA and downregulation of E-cadherin. Additionally, ART was able to significantly attenuate the deposition of interstitial collagens, including Col I. The results of the present study further verified the therapeutic efficacy of ART in TGF-β1-induced renal interstitial fibrosis. These findings indicated that ART may hold the potential to prevent chronic kidney diseases via the suppression of USAG-1 expression or by increasing BMP-7 expression.