Preventive and therapeutic role of betaine in liver disease: A review on molecular mechanisms

Low Glycemic Index Biscuits Enriched with Beetroot Powder as a Source of Betaine and Mineral Nutrients

This study aimed to evaluate the potential of beetroot powder (BP) as a functional ingredient in biscuits by investigating its effects on nutritional composition, sensory properties, and glycemic response. The primary goal was to determine whether BP could serve as a natural alternative to synthetic additives while maintaining product stability and consumer acceptability. Biscuits were formulated by replacing spelt flour with 15, 20, and 25% BP. The functional impact of the BP was assessed based on betaine content, macro- and microelements, glycemic index (GI), and acrylamide concentration. Thermal analysis (DSC and TGA) and water activity measurements confirmed the BP's stability during six months of storage. Increased BP content led to higher betaine levels and mineral enrichment, particularly with potassium and phosphorus among the macroelements and zinc among the microelements. Sensory analysis identified biscuits with 20% BP as the most preferred, maintaining acceptable ratings even after six months. Hardness initially increased with BP incorporation but decreased over time (p < 0.05). The acrylamide content in the BP-enriched biscuits was significantly lower than in control samples and well below the reference safety threshold. Notably, consuming beetroot biscuits did not trigger a sharp postprandial glucose spike, with the GI of the most acceptable sample (20% BP) measured at 49 ± 11. These findings confirm that BP improves the nutritional and sensory characteristics of biscuits while ensuring product safety and stability, supporting its application as a natural functional ingredient in confectionery products.

Integrated metabolomics and transcriptomics reveal the potential of hydroxy-alpha-sanshool in alleviating insulin resistance

Hydroxy-alpha-sanshool (HAS) has attracted attention because of its various biological activities, such as hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and antioxidant activities. In this study, we investigated the effects of HAS on insulin resistance (IR) and its mechanism. HAS reduced fasting blood glucose (FBG), promoted insulin (INS) secretion, significantly decreased levels of interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and increased the IL-2 level in serum of IR model mice. HAS regulated the mRNA levels of protein kinase B (Akt), B-cell lymphoma extra-large (Bcl-xL), stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD1), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E). Additionally, differentially abundant metabolites in IR model mice treated with HAS were involved in these signaling pathways including prion disease, choline metabolism in cancer, regulation of lipolysis in adipocytes and the pentose phosphate pathway and positively regulated betaine abundance. In conclusion, HAS activated the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt insulin and NF-κB signaling pathways to maintain glucose homeostasis and regulate IR.

Insights into the Metabolite Differentiation Mechanism Between Chinese Dry-Cured Fatty Ham and Lean Ham Through UPLC-MS/MS-Based Untargeted Metabolomics

To understand the impact and mechanism of removing fat and skin tissue on the nutritional metabolism of Chinese dry cured ham, the differential metabolites (DMs) profile between lean ham (LH) and fatty ham (FH) was explored though untargeted metabolomics based on UPLC-MS/MS. The results showed significant differences of the metabolite profiles between FH and LH. A total of 450 defined metabolites were detected, and 266 metabolites among them had significantly different abundances between the two hams, mainly including organic acids and derivatives, and lipids and lipid-like molecules, as well as organoheterocyclic compounds. Furthermore, 131 metabolites were identified as DMs, among which 101 and 30 DMs showed remarkably higher contents in FH and LH, respectively. The further Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis suggested that DMs can be mostly enriched in the pathways of ABC transporters, amino acid biosynthesis, protein digestion and absorption, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, and 2-oxocarboxylic acid metabolism. Moreover, the metabolic network of DMs revealed that the prominent DMs in FH, such as 9(S)-HODE, 9,10-EpOME, 13-Oxo-ODE, L-palmitoyl carnitine, and D-fructose, were primarily involved in the endogenous oxidation and degradation of fat and glycogen. Nevertheless, the dominant DMs in LH, such as 2-isopropylmalic acid, indolelactic acid, and hydroxyisocaproic acid, were mainly the microbial metabolites of amino acids and derivates. These findings could help us understand how fat-deficiency affects the nutritional metabolism of Chinese dry-cured hams from a metabolic perspective.

Disrupted methionine cycle triggers muscle atrophy in cancer cachexia through epigenetic regulation of REDD1

The essential amino acid methionine plays a pivotal role in one-carbon metabolism, facilitating the production of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), a critical supplier for DNA methylation and thereby a modulator of gene expression. Here, we report that the methionine cycle is disrupted in skeletal muscle during cancer cachexia, leading to endoplasmic reticulum stress and DNA hypomethylation-induced expression of the DNA damage inducible transcript 4 (Ddit4) gene, encoding the regulated in development and DNA damage response 1 (REDD1) protein. Targeting DNA methylation by depletion or pharmacological inhibition of DNA methyltransferase 3A (DNMT3A) exacerbates cachexia, while restoring DNMT3A expression or REDD1 knockout alleviates cancer cachexia-induced skeletal muscle atrophy in mice. Methionine supplementation restores DNA methylation of the Ddit4 promoter in a DNMT3A-dependent manner, thereby inhibiting activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4)-mediated Ddit4 transcription. Thus, with the identification of the methionine/SAM-DNMT3A/DNA hypomethylation-Ddit4/REDD1 axis, our study provides molecular insights into an epigenetic mechanism underlying cancer cachexia, and it suggests nutrient supplementation as a promising therapeutic strategy to prevent or reverse cachectic muscle atrophy.

Ion pairing in aqueous tetramethylammonium-acetate solutions by neutron scattering and molecular dynamics simulations

Tetramethylammonium (TMA) is a ubiquitous cationic motif in biochemistry, found in the charged choline headgroup of membrane phospholipids and in tri-methylated lysine residues, which modulates histone-DNA interactions and impacts epigenetic mechanisms. TMA interactions with anionic species, particularly carboxylate groups of amino acid residues and extracellular sugars, are of substantial biological relevance, as these interactions mediate a wide range of cellular processes. This study investigates the molecular interactions between TMA and acetate, representing carboxylate-containing groups, using neutron scattering experiments complemented by force fields and ab initio molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Neutron diffraction with isotopic substitution reveals specific ion pairing signatures between TMA and acetate, with simulations providing a detailed interpretation of the ion pairing structures. Force fields, notably CHARMM36 with the electronic continuum correction (ECC) (by a factor of 0.85) and AMBER99SB, capture essential pairing characteristics, but only revPBE-based ab initio MD simulations accurately model specific experimental features such as the low Q peak intensity in reciprocal space. Our study delivers a refined molecular model of TMA-carboxylate interactions, guiding the selection of force fields for complex biological systems where such interactions are of significant importance.

Apigenin as an emerging hepatoprotective agent: current status and future perspectives

Apigenin (C15H10O5, API) is a natural flavonoid widely found in vegetables, fruits, and plants such as celery, oranges, and chamomile. In recent years, API has attracted considerable attention as a dietary supplement due to its low toxicity, non-mutagenic properties and remarkable therapeutic efficacy in various diseases. In particular, evidence from a large number of preclinical studies suggests that API has promising effects in the prevention and treatment of a variety of liver diseases, including multifactorial liver injury, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease/non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, liver fibrosis and liver cancer. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the progress of research into the therapeutic applications of API in liver diseases as of August 2024, based on literature retrieved from databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, CNKI, Google Scholar and ScienceDirect. The hepatoprotective effects of API involve multiple molecular mechanisms, including inhibition of inflammation, alleviation of hepatic oxidative stress, amelioration of insulin resistance, promotion of fatty acid oxidation, inhibition of liver cancer cell proliferation and differentiation, and induction of tumour cell apoptosis. More importantly, signaling pathways such as Nrf2, NF-κB, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, NLRP3, Wnt/β-catenin, TGF-β1/Smad3, AMPK/SREBP, PPARα/γ, MAPKs, and Caspases are identified as key targets through which API exerts its beneficial effects in various liver diseases. Studies on its toxicity and pharmacokinetics indicate that API has low toxicity, is slowly metabolized and excreted in vivo, and has low oral bioavailability. In addition, the paper summarises and discusses the sources, physicochemical properties, new dosage forms, and current challenges and opportunities of API, with the aim of providing direction and rationale for the further development and clinical application of API in the food, pharmaceutical and nutraceutical fields.

Betaine alleviates nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) via a manner involving BHMT/FTO/m6A/ PGC1α signaling

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has emerged as a major public health crisis with significant health threats and economic burdens worldwide in the past decades. Betaine, a naturally occurring alkaloid compound present in various dietary sources including spinach and beets, has been shown to ameliorate hepatic lipid metabolism and attenuate (NAFLD), while the underlying mechanism remains elusive. Here, we propose a novel mechanism through which betaine exerts its protective effects against hepatic lipid accumulation and (NAFLD) from an epigenetics perspective. Specifically, we discover that betaine upregulates betaine homocysteine S-methyltransferase (BHMT) expression, leading to increased nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) production and subsequent upregulation of fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO) expression. Increased abundance of FTO targets peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC1α) mRNA and reduces the N6-methyladenosine (m6A) level in the CDS of Ppargc1α transcript, which positively regulates PGC1α expression and subsequently inhibits hepatic lipid accumulation. Overall, our works demonstrate that betaine may be a promising therapeutic strategy for treating (NAFLD) and improving liver function through the regulation of (NADPH) and m6A-mediated pathways.

The Chinese herbal prescription Kang-Gong-Yan alleviates cervicitis by modulating metabolites and gut microbiota

CONTEXT

Cervicitis is a common gynecological inflammatory disease. The Chinese herbal prescription Kang-Gong-Yan (KGY) is clinically effective against cervicitis; however, the chemical constituents and therapeutic mechanism of KGY remain elusive.

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the chemical constituents of KGY and explore the potential mechanism of KGY in treating cervicitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

UHPLC-Q-Exactive Plus Orbitrap MS was used to identify the active compounds of KGY; Sprague-Dawley (SD) female rats were randomly divided into the control, model, and KGY groups. Phenol mucilage (25%) was slowly injected into the vagina and cervix of the rats to establish the cervicitis model. Then, rats in the KGY groups (low dose: 1 g/kg/d; medium dose: 5 g/kg/d; high dose: 10 g/kg/d) were continuously gavaged KGY for one week. HE staining was used to observe the cervical tissues of rats; ELISA was used to detect inflammatory factors in plasma; non-targeted metabolomics was used to analyze metabolites; 16S rRNA sequencing was used to analyze intestinal microorganisms.

RESULTS

KGY exerted anti-cervicitis effects and decreased the levels of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α. The mechanism of KGY in treating cervicitis is mainly associated with betaine, amino acid, pyrimidine, and phospholipid metabolism by regulating fifteen metabolites. Moreover, KGY reversed cervicitis-induced gut dysbiosis by mediating five bacteria.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The Chinese herbal prescription KGY may alleviate cervicitis by modulating metabolites and gut microbiota disorders. These findings provide a scientific basis for the clinical application of KGY and a new strategy for treating cervicitis in Chinese medicine.

Research Progress of Chinese Medicine in Treating Chronic Liver Disease by Regulating Autophagy

In recent years, rising living standards and an accelerated lifestyle have led to an increase in the incidence of chronic liver disease. Modern medicine has yet to fully develop effective methods for preventing and treating these conditions due to their complex pathogenesis. Autophagy, a cellular process that maintains homeostasis by removing abnormal proteins, has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for chronic liver diseases. These diseases include liver fibrosis, liver cirrhosis, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, chronic hepatitis B, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Chinese medicine, with its multi-component, multi-target, and multi-pathway approach, offers unique advantages in treating these conditions, especially given the unclear etiology of chronic liver diseases. Recent research demonstrates that Chinese medicine - comprising single herbs, herbal combinations, and proprietary formulas - can effectively regulate autophagy, thereby providing therapeutic and preventive benefits for chronic liver diseases. This paper reviews recent studies, categorizes various chronic liver diseases, and examines the impact of active ingredients and compound formulas from Chinese medicine on autophagy. These insights are crucial for slowing the progression of chronic liver diseases and pave the way for the future application of Chinese medicine in preventing and managing these conditions through autophagy modulation.

An in vivo and in silico probing of the protective potential of betaine against sodium fluoride-induced neurotoxicity

Excessive fluoride exposure beyond the tolerable limit may adversely impacts brain functionality. Betaine (BET), a trimethyl glycine, possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic functions, although the underlying mechanisms of the role of BET on fluoride-induced neurotoxicity remain unelucidated. To assess the mechanism involved in the neuro-restorative role of BET on behavioural, neurochemical, and histological changes, we employed a rat model of sodium fluoride (NaF) exposure. Animals were treated with NaF (9 mg/kg) body weight (bw) only or co-treated with BET (50 and 100 mg/kg bw) orally uninterrupted for 28 days. We obtained behavioural phenotypes in an open field, performed negative geotaxis, and a forelimb grip test, followed by oxido-inflammatory, apoptotic, and histological assessment. Behavioural endpoints indicated lessened locomotive and motor and heightened anxiety-like performance and upregulated oxidative, inflammatory, and apoptotic biomarkers in NaF-exposed rats. Co-treatment with BET significantly enhanced locomotive, motor, and anxiolytic performance, increased the antioxidant signalling mechanisms and demurred oxidative, inflammatory, and apoptotic biomarkers and histoarchitectural damage in the cerebrum and cerebellum cortices mediated by NaF. The in-silico analysis suggests that multiple hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions of BET with critical amino acid residues, including arginine (ARG380 and ARG415) in the Keap1 Kelch domain, which may disrupt Keap1-Nrf2 complex and activate Nrf2. This may account for the observed increased in the Nrf2 levels, elevated antioxidant response and enhanced anti-inflammatory response. The BET-Keap1 complex was also observed to exhibit structural stability and conformational flexibility in solvated biomolecular systems, as indicated by the thermodynamic parameters computed from the trajectories obtained from a 100 ns full atomistic molecular dynamics simulation. Therefore, BET mediates neuroprotection against NaF-induced cerebro-cerebellar damage through rats' antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic activity, which molecular interactions with Keap1-Nrf2 may drive.

Senolytics Enhance the Longevity of Caenorhabditis elegans by Altering Betaine Metabolism

Aging triggers physiological changes in organisms that are tightly linked to metabolic changes. Senolytics targeting many fundamental aging processes are currently being developed. However, the host metabolic response to natural senescence and the molecular mechanism underlying the antiaging benefits of senolytics remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigated metabolic changes during natural senescence based on the Caenorhabditis elegans model and pinpointed potential biomarkers linked to the benefits of senolytics. These results suggest that age-dependent metabolic changes during natural aging occur in C elegans. Betaine was identified as a crucial metabolite in the natural aging process. We explored the metabolic effects of aging interventions by administering 3 antiaging drugs-metformin, quercetin, and minocycline-to nematodes. Notably, betaine expression significantly increased under the 3 antiaging drug treatments. Our findings demonstrated that betaine supplementation extends lifespan, primarily through pathways associated with the forkhead box transcription factor (FoxO) signaling pathway, the p38-mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway, autophagy, the longevity regulating pathway, and the target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway. In addition, autophagy and free radicals are altered in betaine-treated nematodes. Overall, we found that betaine is a critical metabolite during natural aging and that senolytics extend the lifespan of nematodes by increasing betaine levels and promoting autophagy and antioxidant activity. This finding suggests that betaine could be a novel therapeutic target for promoting longevity.

Probiotics as Potential Tool to Mitigate Nucleotide Metabolism Alterations Induced by DiNP Dietary Exposure in Danio rerio

Diisononyl phthalate, classified as endocrine disruptor, has been investigate to trigger lipid biosynthesis in both mammalian and teleostean animal models. Despite this, little is known about the effects of DiNP exposure at tolerable daily intake level and the possible mechanisms of its toxicity. Probiotics, on the other hand, were demonstrated to have beneficial effects on the organism's metabolism and recently emerged as a possible tool to mitigate the EDC toxicity. In the present study, using a metabolomic approach, the potential hepatic sex-related toxicity of DiNP was investigated in adult zebrafish together with the mitigating action of the probiotic formulation SLAB51, which has already demonstrated its ability to ameliorate gastrointestinal pathologies in animals including humans. Zebrafish were exposed for 28 days to 50 µg/kg body weight (bw)/day of DiNP (DiNP) through their diet and treated with 109 CFU/g bw of SLAB51 (P) and the combination of DiNP and SLAB51 (DiNP + P), and the results were compared to those of an untreated control group (C). DiNP reduced AMP, IMP, and GMP in the purine metabolism, while such alterations were not observed in the DiNP + P group, for which the phenotype overlapped that of C fish. In addition, in male, DiNP reduced UMP and CMP levels in the pyrimidine metabolism, while the co-administration of probiotic shifted the DiNP + P metabolic phenotype toward that of P male and closed to C male, suggesting the beneficial effects of probiotics also in male fish. Overall, these results provide the first evidence of the disruptive actions of DiNP on hepatic nucleotide metabolism and mitigating action of the probiotic to reduce a DiNP-induced response in a sex-related manner.

Unlocking Cholesterol Metabolism in Metabolic-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease: Molecular Targets and Natural Product Interventions

Metabolic-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), the hepatic manifestation of metabolic syndrome, represents a growing global health concern. The intricate pathogenesis of MASLD, driven by genetic, metabolic, epigenetic, and environmental factors, leads to considerable clinical variability. Dysregulation of hepatic lipid metabolism, particularly cholesterol homeostasis, is a critical factor in the progression of MASLD and its more severe form, metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH). This review elucidates the multifaceted roles of cholesterol metabolism in MASLD, focusing on its absorption, transportation, biosynthesis, efflux, and conversion. We highlight recent advancements in understanding these processes and explore the therapeutic potential of natural products such as curcumin, berberine, and resveratrol in modulating cholesterol metabolism. By targeting key molecular pathways, these natural products offer promising strategies for MASLD management. Finally, this review also covers the clinical studies of natural products in MASLD, providing new insights for future research and clinical applications.

Untargeted metabonomics and TLR4/ NF-κB signaling pathway analysis reveals potential mechanism of action of Dendrobium huoshanense polysaccharide in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is marked by hepatic steatosis accompanied by an inflammatory response. At present, there are no approved therapeutic agents for NAFLD. Dendrobium Huoshanense polysaccharide (DHP), an active ingredient extracted from the stems of Dendrobium Huoshanense, and exerts a protective effect against liver injury. However, the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of action DHP against NAFLD remain unclear. DHP was extracted, characterized, and administered to mice in which NAFLD had been induced with a high-fat and high-fructose drinking (HFHF) diet. Our results showed that DHP used in this research exhibits the characteristic polysaccharide peak with a molecular weight of 179.935 kDa and is composed primarily of Man and Glc in a molar ratio of 68.97:31.03. DHP treatment greatly ameliorated NAFLD by significantly reducing lipid accumulation and the levels of liver function markers in HFHF-induced NAFLD mice, as evidenced by decreased serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), total cholesterol (TC) and total triglyceride (TG). Furthermore, DHP administration reduced hepatic steatosis, as shown by H&E and Oil red O staining. DHP also inhibited the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway expression, thereby reducing levels of hepatic proinflammatory cytokines. Besides, untargeted metabolomics further indicated that 49 metabolites were affected by DHP. These metabolites are strongly associated the metabolism of glycine, serine, threonine, nicotinate and nicotinamide, and arachidonic acid. In conclusion, DHP has a therapeutic effect against NAFLD, whose underlying mechanism may involve the modulation of TLR4/NF-κB, reduction of inflammation, and regulation of the metabolism of glycine, serine, threonine, nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism, and arachidonic acid metabolism.

Effect of three oral pathogens on the TMA-TMAO metabolic pathway

Background

Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) is produced by hepatic flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 (FMO3) from trimethylamine (TMA). High TMAO level is a biomarker of cardiovascular diseases and metabolic disorders, and it also affects periodontitis through interactions with the gastrointestinal microbiome. While recent findings indicate that periodontitis may alter systemic TMAO levels, the specific mechanisms linking these changes and particular oral pathogens require further clarification.

Methods

In this study, we established a C57BL/6J male mouse model by orally administering Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis, Pg), Fusobacterium nucleatum (F. nucleatum, Fn), Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans, Sm) and PBS was used as a control. We conducted LC-MS/MS analysis to quantify the concentrations of TMAO and its precursors in the plasma and cecal contents of mice. The diversity and composition of the gut microbiome were analyzed using 16S rRNA sequencing. TMAO-related lipid metabolism and enzymes in the intestines and liver were assessed by qPCR and ELISA methods. We further explored the effect of Pg on FMO3 expression and lipid molecules in HepG2 cells by stimulating the cells with Pg-LPS in vitro.

Results

The three oral pathogenic bacteria were orally administered to the mice for 5 weeks. The Pg group showed a marked increase in plasma TMAO, betaine, and creatinine levels, whereas no significant differences were observed in the gut TMAO level among the four groups. Further analysis showed similar diversity and composition in the gut microbiomes of both the Pg and Fn groups, which were different from the Sm and control groups. The profiles of TMA-TMAO pathway-related genera and gut enzymes were not significantly different among all groups. The Pg group showed significantly higher liver FMO3 levels and elevated lipid factors (IL-6, TG, TC, and NEFA) in contrast to the other groups. In vitro experiments confirmed that stimulation of HepG2 cells with Pg-LPS upregulated the expression of FMO3 and increased the lipid factors TC, TG, and IL-6.

Conclusion

This study conclusively demonstrates that Pg, compared to Fn and Sm, plays a critical role in elevating plasma TMAO levels and significantly influences the TMA-TMAO pathway, primarily by modulating the expression of hepatic FMO3 and directly impacting hepatic lipid metabolism.

Natural products in atherosclerosis therapy by targeting PPARs: a review focusing on lipid metabolism and inflammation

Inflammation and dyslipidemia are critical inducing factors of atherosclerosis. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are ligand-activated transcription factors and control the expression of multiple genes that are involved in lipid metabolism and inflammatory responses. However, synthesized PPAR agonists exhibit contrary therapeutic effects and various side effects in atherosclerosis therapy. Natural products are structural diversity and have a good safety. Recent studies find that natural herbs and compounds exhibit attractive therapeutic effects on atherosclerosis by alleviating hyperlipidemia and inflammation through modulation of PPARs. Importantly, the preparation of natural products generally causes significantly lower environmental pollution compared to that of synthesized chemical compounds. Therefore, it is interesting to discover novel PPAR modulator and develop alternative strategies for atherosclerosis therapy based on natural herbs and compounds. This article reviews recent findings, mainly from the year of 2020 to present, about the roles of natural herbs and compounds in regulation of PPARs and their therapeutic effects on atherosclerosis. This article provides alternative strategies and theoretical basis for atherosclerosis therapy using natural herbs and compounds by targeting PPARs, and offers valuable information for researchers that are interested in developing novel PPAR modulators.

Time-Course Metabolomic Analysis: Production of Betaine Structural Analogs by Fungal Fermentation of Seaweed

Betaine structural analogs are compounds characterized by the presence of positive and negative charges in a single molecule and have been reported to have physiological properties, such as anti-inflammatory activities. In this study, we performed a metabolomic analysis of metabolite composition changes during the fermentation of Neopyropia yezoensis, an edible red alga, with Aspergillus oryzae for 72 h. The results indicated that three specific betaine structural analogs (betaine, stachydrine, and carnitine) exhibited significant changes in production by the end of the 72 h fermentation period. Time-course analysis suggested that betaine was generated from the precursor choline at 12-24 h during the late stage of fungal growth, while stachydrine was generated from the precursor-related compound glutamic acid at 48-72 h during the sporulation stage. However, the contribution of the precursor lysine to the increased production of carnitine during the 12-72 h period was unclear. This study provides useful information on the efficient production of betaine structural analogs by the fungal fermentation of seaweed as well as various other food materials.

Altered metabolome and microbiome associated with compromised intestinal barrier induced hepatic lipid metabolic disorder in mice after subacute and subchronic ozone exposure

Exposure to ozone has been associated with metabolic disorders in humans, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study, the role of the gut-liver axis and the potential mechanism behind the metabolic disorder were investigated by histological examination, microbiome and metabolome approaches in mice during the subacute (4-week) and subchronic (12-week) exposure to 0.5 ppm and 2.5 ppm ozone. Ozone exposure resulted in slowed weight gain and reduced hepatic lipid contents in a dose-dependent manner. After exposure to ozone, the number of intestinal goblet cells decreased, while the number of tuft cells increased. Tight junction protein zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) was significantly downregulated, and the apoptosis of epithelial cells increased with compensatory proliferation, indicating a compromised chemical and physical layer of the intestinal barrier. The hepatic and cecal metabolic profiles were altered, primarily related to lipid metabolism and oxidative stress. The abundance of Muribaculaceae increased dose-dependently in both colon and cecum, and was associated with the decrease of metabolites such as bile acids, betaine, and L-carnitine, which subsequently disrupted the intestinal barrier and lipid metabolism. Overall, this study found that subacute and subchronic exposure to ozone induced metabolic disorder via disturbing the gut-liver axis, especially the intestinal barrier. These findings provide new mechanistic understanding of the health risks associated with environmental ozone exposure and other oxidative stressors.

Folate Deficiency and/or the Genetic Variant Mthfr677C >T Can Drive Hepatic Fibrosis or Steatosis in Mice, in a Sex-Specific Manner

SCOPE

Disturbances in one-carbon metabolism contribute to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) which encompasses steatosis, steatohepatitis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis. The goal is to examine impact of folate deficiency and the Mthfr677C >T variant on NAFLD.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This study uses the new Mthfr677C >T mouse model for the human MTHFR677C >T variant. Mthfr677CC and Mthfr677TT mice were fed control diet (CD) or folate-deficient (FD) diets for 4 months. FD and Mthfr677TT alter choline/methyl metabolites in liver and/or plasma (decreased S-adenosylmethionine (SAM):S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) ratio, methyltetrahydrofolate, and betaine; increased homocysteine [Hcy]). FD, with contribution from Mthfr677TT, provokes fibrosis in males. Studies of normal livers reveal alterations in plasma markers and gene expression that suggest an underlying predisposition to fibrosis induced by FD and/or Mthfr677TT in males. These changes are absent or reverse in females, consistent with the sex disparity of fibrosis. Sex-based differences in methylation potential, betaine, sphingomyelin, and trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) levels may prevent fibrogenesis in females. In contrast, Mthfr677TT alters choline metabolism, dysregulates expression of lipid metabolism genes, and promotes steatosis in females.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that folate deficiency predisposes males to fibrosis, which is exacerbated by Mthfr677TT, whereas Mthfr677TT predisposes females to steatosis, and reveal novel contributory mechanisms for these NAFLD-related disorders.

The pharmacological role of Ginsenoside Rg3 in liver diseases: A review on molecular mechanisms

Liver diseases are a significant global health burden and are among the most common diseases. Ginssennoside Rg3 (Rg3), which is one of the most abundant ginsenosides, has been found to have significant preventive and therapeutic effects against various types of diseases with minimal side effects. Numerous studies have demonstrated the significant preventive and therapeutic effects of Rg3 on various liver diseases such as viral hepatitis, acute liver injury, nonalcoholic liver diseases (NAFLD), liver fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The underlying molecular mechanism behind these effects is attributed to apoptosis, autophagy, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory activities, and the regulation of multiple signaling pathways. This review provides a comprehensive description of the potential molecular mechanisms of Rg3 in the development of liver diseases. The article focuses on the regulation of apoptosis, oxidative stress, autophagy, inflammation, and other related factors. Additionally, the review discusses combination therapy and liver targeting strategy, which can accelerate the translation of Rg3 from bench to bedside. Overall, this article serves as a valuable reference for researchers and clinicians alike.

Epigenetic biomarkers for disease susceptibility and preventative medicine

The development of molecular biomarkers for disease makes it possible for preventative medicine approaches to be considered. Therefore, therapeutics, treatments, or clinical management can be used to delay or prevent disease development. The problem with genetic mutations as biomarkers is the low frequency with genome-wide association studies (GWASs), generally at best a 1% association of the patients with the disease. In contrast, epigenetic alterations have a high-frequency association of greater than 90%-95% of individuals with pathology in epigenome-wide association studies (EWASs). A wide variety of human diseases have been shown to have epigenetic biomarkers that are disease specific and that detect pathology susceptibility. This review is focused on the epigenetic biomarkers for disease susceptibility, and it distinct from the large literature on epigenetics of disease etiology or progression. The development of efficient epigenetic biomarkers for disease susceptibility will facilitate a paradigm shift from reactionary medicine to preventative medicine.

Integrated traditional Chinese and Western medicine in the prevention and treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: future directions and strategies

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been widely used for several centuries for metabolic diseases, including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). At present, NAFLD has become the most prevalent form of chronic liver disease worldwide and can progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cirrhosis, and even hepatocellular carcinoma. However, there is still a lack of effective treatment strategies in Western medicine. The development of NAFLD is driven by multiple mechanisms, including genetic factors, insulin resistance, lipotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum stress, inflammation, gut microbiota dysbiosis, and adipose tissue dysfunction. Currently, certain drugs, including insulin sensitizers, statins, vitamin E, ursodeoxycholic acid and betaine, are proven to be beneficial for the clinical treatment of NAFLD. Due to its complex pathogenesis, personalized medicine that integrates various mechanisms may provide better benefits to patients with NAFLD. The holistic view and syndrome differentiation of TCM have advantages in treating NAFLD, which are similar to the principles of personalized medicine. In TCM, NAFLD is primarily classified into five types based on clinical experience. It is located in the liver and is closely related to spleen and kidney functions. However, due to the multi-component characteristics of traditional Chinese medicine, its application in the treatment of NAFLD has been considerably limited. In this review, we summarize the advances in the pathogenesis and treatment of NAFLD, drawn from both the Western medicine and TCM perspectives. We highlight that Chinese and Western medicine have complementary advantages and should receive increased attention in the prevention and treatment of NAFLD.

Preparation of betaine injection and its therapeutic effect in pulmonary arterial hypertension

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a life-threatening disease characterised by elevated pulmonary pressure, right ventricular failure (RVF) and ultimately death. Aggressive treatment of RVF is considered an important therapeutic strategy to treat PAH. Previous studies have indicated that betaine may be may a promising therapeutic approach for PAH-induced RVF. Therefore, in this study, betaine solution for injection was prepared and characterised using various techniques. The therapeutic efficacy of three different methods of administration (intragastric, nebulised inhalation and intravenous injection) were comprehensively evaluated in terms of pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution and pharmacodynamics. The pharmacokinetic results demonstrated that betaine injection administered via nebulised inhalation significantly prolonged betaine's half-life and increased its internal circulation time compared to the intragastric and intravenous routes. Biodistribution experiments verified that the betaine formulation accumulated in the lung tissue when administered via inhalation. The results of the pharmacodynamic analysis further confirmed that right ventricular systolic pressure, mean pulmonary artery pressure and right ventricular hypertrophy index increased in the model group and that inhaled betaine suppressed these pathological changes to a level comparable to those observed in the control group. Taken together, these results indicate that betaine administered by inhalation is a promising strategy for the treatment of PAH-induced RVF.

Exploring the Biomarkers and Potential Mechanisms of Botulinum Toxin Type A in the Treatment of Microglial Inflammatory Activation through P2X7 Receptors based on Transcriptome Sequencing

AIMS

This study aims to explore the potential mechanism by which Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT/ A) inhibits microglial inflammatory activation through P2X7 receptors (P2X7R).

BACKGROUND

BoNT/A is a promising analgesic drug, and previous studies have established that it alleviates Neuropathic Pain (NP) by inhibiting microglial inflammatory activation. This study examined the biomarkers and potential mechanisms by which BoNT/A relieves neuropathic pain by mediating microglial P2X7R and analyzing transcriptome sequencing data from mouse BV-2 microglial cells.

OBJECTIVE

The P2X7R agonist Bz-ATP was used to induce microglial inflammatory activation, whilst RNAseq technology was used to explore the biomarkers and potential mechanisms through which BoNT/A suppresses microglial inflammation.

METHODS

RNA sequencing was performed on three BV-2 cell samples treated with a P2X7R specific activator (Bz-ATP) and three BV-2 cell samples pre-treated with BoNT/A. Only data that successfully passed quality control measures were included in subsequent analysis. Initially, Differentially Expressed Genes (DEGs) were identified from BoNT/A and control samples, followed by Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses. Biomarkers were then identified by constructing a Protein- Protein Interaction (PPI) network and utilizing the CytoHubba plug-in in Cytoscape software. Lastly, enrichment analysis and regulatory network analysis were performed to elucidate the potential mechanism of BoNT/A in the treatment of NP.

RESULTS

93 DEGs related to the "cell component size regulation" GO term and enriched in the "axon guidance" KEGG pathway were identified. Subsequently, 6 biomarkers were identified, namely PTPRF, CHDH, CKM, Ky, Sema3b, and Sema3f, which were enriched in pathways related to biosynthesis and metabolism, disease progression, signal transduction, and organelle function, including the "ribosome" and "Wnt signaling pathway." Finally, a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNAs) network was constructed from 6 mRNAs, 66 miRNAs, and 31 lncRNAs, forming a complex relationship network.

CONCLUSION

Six genes (PTPRF, Sema3b, Sema3f, CHDH, CKM, and Ky) were identified as biomarkers of microglial inflammatory activation following BoNT/A treatment. This finding may provide a valuable reference for the relief and treatment of neuropathic pain.

Metabolomics reveals that chronic restraint stress alleviates carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic fibrosis through the INSR/PI3K/AKT/AMPK pathway

Hepatic fibrosis (HF) could be developed into liver cirrhosis or even hepatocellular carcinoma. Stress has an important role in the occurrence and development of various considerable diseases. However, the effect of a certain degree stress on HF is still controversial. In our study, stress was simulated with regular chronic restraint stress (CRS) and HF model was induced with CCl4 in mice. We found that CRS was able to attenuate CCl4-induced liver injury and fibrosis in mice. Surprisingly, behavioral analysis showed that the mice in the HF group exhibited depression-like behavior. Further, the metabolomic analysis revealed that 119 metabolites and 20 metabolic pathways were altered in mice liver, especially the betaine metabolism pathway. Combined with the results of Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA), the key proteins INSR, PI3K, AKT, and p-AMPK were identified and verified, and the results showed that CRS could upregulate the protein levels and mRNA expression of INSR, PI3K, AKT, and p-AMPK in liver tissues of HF mice. It suggested that CRS alleviated CCl4-induced liver fibrosis in mice through upregulation of the INSR/PI3K/AKT/AMPK pathway. Proper stress might be a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of chronic liver disease, which provided new insights into the treatment of HF. KEY MESSAGES: Chronic restraint stress mitigated CCl4-induced liver injury and hepatic fibrosis. CCl4-induced liver fibrosis could cause depression-like behavior. Chronic restraint stress altered metabolomic profiles in hepatic fibrosis mice, especially the betaine metabolism pathway. Chronic restraint stress increased betaine levels in liver tissue. Chronic restraint stress regulated the INSR/PI3K/AKT/AMPK signaling pathway in hepatic fibrosis mice.

Role of autophagy in betaine-promoted hepatoprotection against non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in mice

Betaine, a compound found in plants and sea foods, is known to be beneficial against non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), but its hepatoprotective and anti-steatogenic mechanisms have been not fully understood. In the present study, we investigated the mechanisms underlying betaine-mediated alleviation of NAFLD induced by a choline-deficient, L-amino acid-defined, high-fat diet (CDAHFD) in mice, with special focus on the contribution of betaine-stimulated autophagy to NAFLD prevention. Male ICR mice were fed a CDAHFD with or without betaine (0.2-1% in drinking water) for 1 week. Betaine ameliorated the CDAHFD-induced fatty liver by restoring sulfur amino acid (SAA)-related metabolites, such as S-adenosylmethionine and homocysteine, and the phosphorylation of AMPK and ACC. In addition, it reduced the CDAHFD-induced ER stress (BiP, ATF6, and CHOP) and apoptosis (Bax, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved PARP); however, it induced autophagy (LC3II/I and p62) which was downregulated by CDAHFD. To determine the role of autophagy in the improvement of NAFLD, chloroquine (CQ), an autophagy inhibitor, was injected into the mice fed a CDAHFD and betaine (0.5 % in drinking water). CQ did not affect SAA metabolism but reduced the beneficial effects of betaine as shown by the increases of hepatic lipids, ER stress, and apoptosis. Notably, the betaine-induced improvements in lipid metabolism determined by protein levels of p-AMPK, p-ACC, PPARα, and ACS1, were reversed by CQ. Thus, the results of this study suggest that the activation of autophagy is an important upstream mechanism for the inhibition of steatosis, ER stress, and apoptosis by betaine in NAFLD.

Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase polymorphisms in dental caries-induced pulp inflammation and regeneration of dentine-pulp complex: Future perspectives

Dental caries (DC)-induced pulp infections usually undergo the common endodontic treatment, root canal therapy (RCT). Endodontically treated teeth are devitalized, become brittle and susceptible for re-infection which eventually results in dental loss. These complications arise because the devitalized pulp losses its ability for innate homeostasis, repair and regeneration. Therefore, restoring the vitality, structure and function of the inflamed pulp and compromised dentin have become the focal points in regenerative endodontics. There are very few evidences, so far, that connect methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase single nucleotide polymorphisms (MTHFR-SNPs) and dental disorders. However, the primary consequences of MTHFR-SNPs, in terms of excessive homocysteine and folate deficiency, are well-known contributors to dental diseases. This article identifies the possible mechanisms by which MTHFR-SNP-carriers are susceptible for DC-induced pulp inflammation (PI); and discusses a cell-homing based strategy for in vivo transplantation in an orthotopic model to regenerate the functional dentine-pulp complex which includes dentinogenesis, neurogenesis and vasculogenesis, in the SNP-carriers.

Betaine as a Functional Ingredient: Metabolism, Health-Promoting Attributes, Food Sources, Applications and Analysis Methods

Betaine is a non-essential amino acid with proven functional properties and underutilized potential. The most common dietary sources of betaine are beets, spinach, and whole grains. Whole grains-such as quinoa, wheat and oat brans, brown rice, barley, etc.-are generally considered rich sources of betaine. This valuable compound has gained popularity as an ingredient in novel and functional foods due to the demonstrated health benefits that it may provide. This review study will provide an overview of the various natural sources of betaine, including different types of food products, and explore the potential of betaine as an innovative functional ingredient. It will thoroughly discuss its metabolic pathways and physiology, disease-preventing and health-promoting properties, and further highlight the extraction procedures and detection methods in different matrices. In addition, gaps in the existing scientific literature will be emphasized.

RNA-binding proteins in metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD): From mechanism to therapy

Metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease globally and seriously increases the public health burden, affecting approximately one quarter of the world population. Recently, RNA binding proteins (RBPs)-related pathogenesis of MAFLD has received increasing attention. RBPs, vividly called the gate keepers of MAFLD, play an important role in the development of MAFLD through transcription regulation, alternative splicing, alternative polyadenylation, stability and subcellular localization. In this review, we describe the mechanisms of different RBPs in the occurrence and development of MAFLD, as well as list some drugs that can improve MAFLD by targeting RBPs. Considering the important role of RBPs in the development of MAFLD, elucidating the RNA regulatory networks involved in RBPs will facilitate the design of new drugs and biomarkers discovery.

The gut microbial metabolite trimethylamine N-oxide and cardiovascular diseases

Morbidity and mortality of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are exceedingly high worldwide. Researchers have found that the occurrence and development of CVDs are closely related to intestinal microecology. Imbalances in intestinal microecology caused by changes in the composition of the intestinal microbiota will eventually alter intestinal metabolites, thus transforming the host physiological state from healthy mode to pathological mode. Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) is produced from the metabolism of dietary choline and L-carnitine by intestinal microbiota, and many studies have shown that this important product inhibits cholesterol metabolism, induces platelet aggregation and thrombosis, and promotes atherosclerosis. TMAO is directly or indirectly involved in the pathogenesis of CVDs and is an important risk factor affecting the occurrence and even prognosis of CVDs. This review presents the biological and chemical characteristics of TMAO, and the process of TMAO produced by gut microbiota. In particular, the review focuses on summarizing how the increase of gut microbial metabolite TMAO affects CVDs including atherosclerosis, heart failure, hypertension, arrhythmia, coronary artery disease, and other CVD-related diseases. Understanding the mechanism of how increases in TMAO promotes CVDs will potentially facilitate the identification and development of targeted therapy for CVDs.

Betaine Mitigates Amyloid-β-Associated Neuroinflammation by Suppressing the NLRP3 and NF-κB Signaling Pathways in Microglial Cells

BACKGROUND

Microglia-driven neuroinflammation has been shown to be involved in the entire process of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Betaine is a natural product that exhibits anti-inflammatory activity; however, the exact underlying molecular mechanisms are poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

Our study focused on determining the effect of betaine against amyloid-β42 oligomer (AβO)-induced inflammation in microglial BV2 cells and investigating the underlying mechanism.

METHODS

AβO was used to establish an in vitro AD model using BV2 cells. A 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide assay was used to measure BV2 cell viability with different concentrations of AβO and betaine. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to determine the expression levels of inflammatory factors, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-18 (IL-18), and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α). Western blotting was used to evaluate the activation of the NOD-like receptor pyrin domain containing-3 (NLRP3) inflammasome and nuclear transcription factor-κB p65 (NF-κB p65). Moreover, we used phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) to activate NF-κB in order to validate that betaine exerted anti-neuroinflammatory effects through regulation of the NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathway.

RESULTS

We used 2 mM betaine to treat 5μM AβO-induced microglial inflammation. The administration of betaine effectively decreased the levels of IL-1β, IL-18, and TNF-α without affecting cell viability in BV2 microglial cells.

CONCLUSION

Betaine inhibited AβO-induced neuroinflammation in microglia by inhibiting the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and NF-κB, which supports further evaluation of betaine as a potential effective modulator for AD.

PPARα in the Epigenetic Driver Seat of NAFLD: New Therapeutic Opportunities for Epigenetic Drugs?

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a growing epidemic and the most common cause of chronic liver disease worldwide. It consists of a spectrum of liver disorders ranging from simple steatosis to NASH which predisposes patients to further fibrosis, cirrhosis and even hepatocarcinoma. Despite much research, an approved treatment is still lacking. Finding new therapeutic targets has therefore been a main priority. Known as a main regulator of the lipid metabolism and highly expressed in the liver, the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPARα) has been identified as an attractive therapeutic target. Since its expression is silenced by DNA hypermethylation in NAFLD patients, many research strategies have aimed to restore the expression of PPARα and its target genes involved in lipid metabolism. Although previously tested PPARα agonists did not ameliorate the disease, current research has shown that PPARα also interacts and regulates epigenetic DNMT1, JMJD3, TET and SIRT1 enzymes. Moreover, there is a growing body of evidence suggesting the orchestrating role of epigenetics in the development and progression of NAFLD. Therefore, current therapeutic strategies are shifting more towards epigenetic drugs. This review provides a concise overview of the epigenetic regulation of NAFLD with a focus on PPARα regulation and highlights recently identified epigenetic interaction partners of PPARα.

Aberrant Mesenteric Adipose Extracellular Matrix Remodelling is Involved in Adipocyte Dysfunction in Crohn's Disease: The Role of TLR-4-mediated Macrophages

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Hypertrophic mesenteric adipose tissue [htMAT] is involved in the disease progression of Crohn's disease [CD] through expressing proinflammatory adipokines from dysfunctional adipocytes by unknown mechanism. Adipocyte function is affected by dynamic adipose tissue extracellular matrix [ECM] remodelling that is mainly mediated by macrophages, and our study aimed to reveal whether aberrant ECM remodelling was present in CD-htMAT and its effects on adipocyte dysfunction, as well as the mechanism.

METHODS

ECM remodelling was examined in MAT samples from CD patients and controls. Mice with dinitrobenzene sulphonic acid [DNBS]-induced colitis were used in vivo study, and lipopolysaccharide [LPS]-induced remodelling behaviour in macrophages was examined in vitro. Macrophages or TLR4 inhibition were used to analyse ECM remodelling mechanisms and their effects on adipocyte function.

RESULTS

Aberrant ECM remodelling: was observed in CD-htMAT, which was characterised by a widened and deformed ECM structure accompanied by dysregulated matrix synthesis and degradation; served as a reservoir for inflammatory factors/cells dominated by macrophages; and was involved in adipocyte dysfunction. In addition, macrophages were the main source of ECM remodelling regulatory factors with activation of Toll-like receptor 4 [TLR4] in htMAT. In vivo, macrophage depletion or TLR4 inhibition largely attenuated mesenteric ECM remodelling while improving mesenteric adipocyte dysfunction during chronic enteritis. In vitro, antagonizing TLR4 significantly inhibited LPS-induced macrophage ECM remodelling behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

The aberrant ECM remodelling in CD-htMAT contributed to mesenteric adipocyte dysfunction, which may be caused at least partly by TLR4-mediated macrophage remodelling behavior. Inhibiting ECM remodelling may be a potential therapeutic strategy for CD.

The Effect of 3-Week Betaine Supplementation on Blood Biomarkers of Cardiometabolic Health in Young Physically Active Males

Betaine (BET) supplementation decreases homocysteine concentration in plasma, but it may also have an adverse effect on health by increasing blood lipid concentrations, at least in overweight and obese individuals. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of BET supplementation on the lipid profile and concentrations of homocysteine, inflammatory cytokines, and liver enzymes in physically active, healthy males. This was a randomized, placebo (PL)-controlled, double-blinded, crossover trial. BET (2.5 or 5.0 g/d) was administered for 21 days. Before and after supplementation with BET or PL, anthropometric measurements and blood were collected in a fasted state. Our results show that BET supplementation significantly decreased homocysteine concentration (from 17.1 ± 4.0 μmol/L before BET to 15.6 ± 3.5 μmol/L after BET, p = 0.009, η² = 0.164). However, the intervention had no effect on total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triacylglycerol, interleukins 1β and 6, and tumour necrosis factor α concentrations, or alanine and aspartate activities. In addition, there were no interactions between the MTHFR genotype and BET dose. In conclusion, BET supplementation may be beneficial for homocysteine concentration in healthy, physically active males, with no detrimental effect on lipid profile.

The anti-diabetic potential of betaine. Mechanisms of action in rodent models of type 2 diabetes

Betaine (N, N, N-trimethylglycine) is an amino-acid derivative exerting numerous beneficial effects on the organism. This compound is found in human and animal diets but is also endogenously generated. However, its synthesis may be insufficient to maintain or improve health. Moreover, the tissue content of betaine reduces under some pathological conditions, such as type 2 diabetes. This decrease may be, however, easily alleviated by dietary betaine supplementation. Rodent studies provided evidence that betaine effectively limits many diabetes-related disturbances. Betaine therapy improves glucose tolerance and insulin action, which is strongly associated with changes in insulin-sensitive tissues, such as skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and liver. Betaine supplementation positively affects multiple genes, which expression is dysregulated in diabetes. AMP-activated protein kinase is thought to play a central role in the mechanism underlying the anti-diabetic betaine action. Moreover, studies with animal models of type 2 diabetes have shown that betaine exerts anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects, and also alleviates endoplasmic reticulum stress. These changes contribute to improved insulin sensitivity and better blood glucose clearance. The results of animal studies encourage the exploration of the therapeutic betaine efficacy in humans with type 2 diabetes.

Dried and Fermented Powders of Edible Algae (Neopyropia yezoensis) Attenuate Hepatic Steatosis in Obese Mice

Edible algae Neopyropia yezoensis is used as “Nori”, its dried sheet product, in Japanese cuisine. Its lipid components reportedly improve hepatic steatosis in obese db/db mice. In this study, we prepared “Nori powder (NP)” and “fermented Nori powder (FNP)” to utilize the functional lipids contained in “Nori” and examined their nutraceutical effects in vivo. Male db/db mice were fed a basal AIN-76 diet, a 10% NP-supplemented diet, or a 10% FNP-supplemented diet for 4 weeks. We detected eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) present in both NP and FNP in the serum and liver of db/db mice in a dose-dependent manner. The NP diet reduced hepatic triglyceride accumulation (by 58%) in db/db mice by modulating gene expression, which resulted in the inhibition of lipogenic enzyme activity. Additionally, NP intake significantly suppressed the expression of inflammatory genes in the liver and hepatic injury marker levels in the sera (by 26%) of db/db mice. The FNP diet also led to a marked reduction in hepatic triglyceride accumulation (by 50%) and hepatic injury (by 28%) in db/db mice, and the mechanism of these alleviative actions was similar to that of the NP diet. Although the EPA content of FNP was one-third that of NP, metabolomic analysis revealed that bioactive betaine analogs, such as stachydrine, betaine, and carnitine, were detected only in FNP. In conclusion, we suggest that (1) mechanical processing of “Nori” makes its lipid components readily absorbable by the body to exert their lipid-lowering effects, and (2) fermentation of “Nori” produces anti-inflammatory molecules and lipid-lowering molecules, which together with the lipid components, can exert hepatic steatosis-alleviating effects.