Multicomponent self nano emulsifying delivery systems of resveratrol with enhanced pharmacokinetics profile

The Pharmacological Properties of Red Grape Polyphenol Resveratrol: Clinical Trials and Obstacles in Drug Development

Resveratrol is a stilbenoid from red grapes that possesses a strong antioxidant activity. Resveratrol has been shown to have anticancer activity, making it a promising drug for the treatment and prevention of numerous cancers. Several in vitro and in vivo investigations have validated resveratrol's anticancer capabilities, demonstrating its ability to block all steps of carcinogenesis (such as initiation, promotion, and progression). Additionally, resveratrol has been found to have auxiliary pharmacological effects such as anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective activity. Despite its pharmacological properties, several obstacles, such as resveratrol's poor solubility and bioavailability, as well as its adverse effects, continue to be key obstacles to drug development. This review critically evaluates the clinical trials to date and aims to develop a framework to develop resveratrol into a clinically viable drug.

Intranasal administration of edaravone nanoparticles improves its stability and brain bioavailability

The clinical application of EDV, a potent antioxidant drug approved for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), is limited by its short biological half-life and poor water solubility necessitating hospitalization during intravenous infusion. Nanotechnology-based drug delivery constitutes a powerful tool through inferring drug stability and targeted drug delivery improving drug bioavailability at the diseased site. Nose-to-brain drug delivery offers direct access to the brain bypassing the blood brain barrier and reducing systemic biodistribution. In this study, we designed EDV-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based polymeric nanoparticles (NP-EDV) for intranasal administration. NPs were formulated by the nanoprecipitation method. Morphology, EDV loading, physicochemical properties, shelf-life stability, in vitro release and pharmacokinetic assessment in mice were conducted. EDV was efficiently loaded into ∼90 nm NPs, stable up to 30 days of storage, at ∼3% drug loading. NP-EDV reduced H2O2-induced oxidative stress toxicity in mouse microglial cell line BV-2. Optical imaging and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) showed that intranasal delivery of NP-EDV offered higher and more sustained brain uptake of EDV compared to intravenous administration. This study is the first of its kind to develop an ALS drug in a nanoparticulate formulation for nose-to-brain delivery raising hope to ALS patients where currently treatment options are limited to two clinically approved drugs only.

Phytoglycogen to Enhance the Solubility and in-vitro Permeation of Resveratrol

This study investigated the capability of phytoglycogen (PG) to improve the water-soluble amount and bioavailability of resveratrol (RES). RES and PG were incorporated through co-solvent mixing and spray-drying to form PG-RES solid dispersions. The soluble amount of RES of PG-RES solid dispersions reached 289.6 μg/mL at PG:RES ratio of 50:1, compared with 45.6 μg/mL for RES alone. X-ray powder diffraction and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy tests suggested a significant reduction of RES crystallinity in PG-RES solid dispersions and the formation of hydrogen bonds between RES and PG. Caco-2 monolayer permeation tests showed that, at low RES loading concentrations (15 and 30 μg/mL), PG-RES solid dispersions achieved greater permeation of RES (0.60 and 1.32 μg/well, respectively) than RES alone (0.32 and 0.90 μg/well, respectively). At an RES loading of 150 μg/mL, PG-RES solid dispersion realized RES permeation of 5.89 μg/well, suggesting the potential of PG in enhancing the bioavailability of RES.

Focus on the Use of Resveratrol in Bladder Cancer

Bladder cancer is the most common tumor of the urinary system, with a high incidence in the male population. Surgery and intravesical instillations can eradicate it, although recurrences are very common, with possible progression. For this reason, adjuvant therapy should be considered in all patients. Resveratrol displays a biphasic dose response both in vitro and in vivo (intravesical application) with an antiproliferative effect at high concentrations and antiangiogenic action in vivo (intraperitoneal application) at a low concentration, suggesting a potential role for it in clinical management as an adjuvant to conventional therapy. In this review, we examine the standard therapeutical approach to bladder cancer and the preclinical studies that have investigated resveratrol in xenotransplantation models of bladder cancer. Molecular signals are also discussed, with a particular focus on the STAT3 pathway and angiogenic growth factor modulation.

Curcumin-resveratrol nano-formulation counteracting hyperammonemia in rats

Malnutrition and low dietary protein intake could be risk factors for developing peripheral and central hyperammonemia, especially in pediatrics. Both curcumin and resveratrol proved to be effective against several hepatic and cerebral injuries. They were reported to be beneficial in lowering circulating ammonia levels, yet both are known for their low bioavailability. The use of pharmaceutical nano-formulations as delivery systems for these two nutraceuticals could solve the aforementioned problem. Hence, the present study aimed to investigate the valuable outcome of using a combination of curcumin and resveratrol in a nanoemulsion formulation, to counteract protein-deficient diet (PDD)-induced hyperammonemia and the consequent complications in male albino rats. Results revealed that using a nanoemulsion containing both curcumin and resveratrol at a dose of (5 + 5 mg/kg) effectively reduced hepatic and brain ammonia levels, serum ALT and AST levels, hepatic and brain nitric oxide levels, oxidative DNA damage as well as disrupted cellular energy performance. In addition, there was a substantial increase in brain levels of monoamines, and a decrease in glutamate content. Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of combined curcumin and resveratrol nanoemulsion is an effective means of ameliorating the hepatic and cerebral adverse effects resulting from PDD-induced hyperammonemia in rats.

[Elucidation and Prediction of Absorption Behavior After Oral Administration of Poorly Water-Soluble Drugs as Different Lipid-Based Formulations]

Lipid-based formulations (LBFs) are isotropic mixtures typically comprising lipids, surfactants, and/or co-solvents, in which drugs are pre-solubilized. After oral administration, LBFs are piggybacked into endogenous lipid digestion pathways. This triggers drug super-saturation and improves absorption. However, super-saturation poses a risk of drug precipitation, which generally leads to poor drug absorption. Furthermore, a series of aqueous colloidal species including digestion products (typically fatty acids and monoglycerides) and endogenous molecules (bile acids and phospholipids) increase the drug solubilization capacity of the intestinal fluid (compared with that of the normal intestinal fluid). However, the solubilization/precipitation behavior may change according to the LBF composition (e.g., the drug loading amount and type of formulation excipients), which may ultimately lead to differences in oral absorption. This review summarizes the results of the evaluation and prediction of the effect of LBFs composition on oral absorption and provides an in-depth understanding of the drug absorption mechanisms when using LBFs.

Research advances of in vivo biological fate of food bioactives delivered by colloidal systems

Food bioactives exhibit various health-promoting effects and are widely used in functional foods to maintain human health. After oral intake, bioactives undergo complex biological processes before reaching the target organs to exert their biological effects. However, several factors may reduce their bioavailability. Colloidal systems have attracted special attention due to their great potential to improve bioavailability and bioefficiency. Herein, we focus on the importance of in vivo studies of the biological fates of bioactives delivered by colloidal systems. Increasing evidence demonstrates that the construction, composition, and physicochemical properties of the delivery systems significantly influence the in vivo biological fates of bioactives. These results demonstrate the great potential to control the in vivo behavior of food bioactives by designing specific delivery systems. We also compare in vivo and in vitro models used for biological studies of the fate of food bioactives delivered by colloidal systems. Meanwhile, the significance of the gut microbiota, targeted delivery, and personalized nutrition should be carefully considered. This review provides new insight for further studies of food bioactives delivered by colloidal systems, as well as scientific guidance for the reasonable design of personalized nutrition.

Combination Therapy Using Polyphenols: An Efficient Way to Improve Antitumoral Activity and Reduce Resistance

Polyphenols represent a structural class of mainly natural organic chemicals that contain multiple phenol structural units. The beneficial properties of polyphenols have been extensively studied for their antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial effects, but nowadays, their medical applications are starting to be extended to many other applications due to their prebiotic role and their impact on the microbiota. This review focused on the use of polyphenols in cancer treatment. Their antineoplastic effects have been demonstrated in various studies when they were tested on numerous cancer lines and some in in vivo models. A431 and SCC13 human skin cancer cell lines treated with EGCG presented a reduced cell viability and enhanced cell death due to the inactivation of β-catenin signaling. Additionally, resveratrol showed a great potential against breast cancer mainly due to its ability to exert both anti-estrogenic and estrogenic effects (based on the concentration) and because it has a high affinity for estrogen receptors ERα and Erβ. Polyphenols can be combined with different classical cytostatic agents to enhance their therapeutic effects on cancer cells and to also protect healthy cells from the aggressiveness of antitumor drugs due to their anti-inflammatory properties. For instance, curcumin has been reported to reduce the gastrointestinal toxicity associated with chemotherapy. In the case of 5-FU-induced, it reduced the gastrointestinal toxicity by increasing the intestinal permeability and inhibiting mucosal damage. Co-administration of EGCG and doxorubicin induced the death of liver cancer cells. EGCG has the ability to inhibit autophagic activity and stop hepatoma Hep3B cell proliferation This symbiotic approach is well-known in medical practice including in multiple chemotherapy.

A QbD Approach to Design and to Optimize the Self-Emulsifying Resveratrol-Phospholipid Complex to Enhance Drug Bioavailability through Lymphatic Transport

Objectives: Despite having profound therapeutic value, the clinical application of resveratrol is restrained due to its <1% bioavailability, arising from the extensive fast-pass effect along with enterohepatic recirculation. This study aimed to develop a self-emulsifying formulation capable of increasing the bioavailability of resveratrol via lymphatic transport. Methods: The resveratrol−phospholipid complex (RPC) was formed by the solvent evaporation method and characterized by FTIR, DSC, and XRD analyses. The RPC-loaded self-emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) was designed, developed, and optimized using the QbD approach with an emphasis on resveratrol transport through the intestinal lymphatic pathway. The in vivo pharmacokinetic study was investigated in male Wister Albino rats. Results: The FTIR, DSC, and XRD analyses confirmed the RPC formation. The obtained design space provided robustness of prediction within the 95% prediction interval to meet the CQA specifications. An optimal formulation (desirability value of 7.24) provided Grade-A self-emulsion and exhibited a 48-fold bioavailability enhancement compared to the pure resveratrol. The cycloheximide-induced chylomicron flow blocking approach demonstrated that 91.14% of the systemically available resveratrol was transported through the intestinal lymphatic route. Conclusions: This study suggests that an optimal self-emulsifying formulation can significantly increase the bioavailability of resveratrol through lymphatic transport to achieve the desired pharmacological effects.

Nano-delivery systems for food bioactive compounds in cancer: prevention, therapy, and clinical applications

Bioactive compounds represent a broad class of dietary metabolites derived from fruits and vegetables, such as polyphenols, carotenoids and glucosinolates with potential for cancer prevention. Curcumin, resveratrol, quercetin, and β-carotene have been the most widely applied bioactive compounds in chemoprevention. Lately, many approaches to encapsulating bioactive components in nano-delivery systems have improved biomolecules' stability and targeted delivery. In this review, we critically analyze nano-delivery systems for bioactive compounds, including polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), liposomes, niosomes, and nanoemulsions (NEs) for potential use in cancer therapy. Efficacy studies of the nanoformulations using cancer cell lines and in vivo models and updated human clinical trials are also discussed. Nano-delivery systems were found to improve the therapeutic efficacy of bioactive molecules against various types of cancer (e.g., breast, prostate, colorectal and lung cancer) mainly due to the antiproliferation and pro-apoptotic effects of tumor cells. Furthermore, some bioactive compounds have promised combination therapy with standard chemotherapeutic agents, with increased tumor efficiency and fewer side effects. These opportunities were identified and developed to ensure more excellent safety and efficacy of novel herbal medicines enabling novel insights for designing nano-delivery systems for bioactive compounds applied in clinical cancer therapy.

Toxicity Assessment of Resveratrol Liposomes-in-Hydrogel Delivery System by EpiVaginalTM Tissue Model

The natural polyphenol resveratrol (RES) has shown great potential as an antimicrobial, including against microbes associated with vaginal infections. To fully exploit the activities of RES, an all-natural ingredients formulation for RES delivery at vaginal site has been developed, namely liposomes loaded with RES, incorporated into a chitosan hydrogel as secondary vehicle. Although considered non-toxic and safe on their own, the compatibility of the final formulation must be evaluated for its biocompatibility and non-irritancy to the vaginal mucosa. As a preclinical safety assessment, the impact of RES formulation on the tissue viability, the effect on barrier function and cell monolayer integrity, and cytotoxicity were evaluated using the cell-based vaginal tissue model, the EpiVaginal™ tissue. RES liposomes-in-hydrogel formulations neither affected the mitochondrial activity, nor the integrity of the cell monolayer in RES concentration up to 60 µg/mL. Moreover, the barrier function was maintained to a greater extent by RES in formulation, emphasizing the benefits of the delivery system. Additionally, none of the tested formulations expressed an increase in lactate dehydrogenase activity compared to the non-treated tissues. The evaluation of the RES delivery system suggests that it is non-irritant and biocompatible with vaginal tissue in vitro in the RES concentrations considered as therapeutic.

Self-Emulsifying Systems for Delivery of Bioactive Compounds from Natural Origin

Nature has been used as therapeutic resources in the treatment of diseases for many years. However, some natural compounds have poor water solubility. Therefore, physicochemical strategies and technologies are necessary for development of systems for carrying these substances. The self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) have been used as carriers of hydrophobic compounds in order to increase the solubility and absorption, improving their bioavailability. SEDDS are constituted with a mixture of oils and surfactants which, when come into contact with an aqueous medium under mild agitation, can form emulsions. In the last years, a wide variety of self-emulsifying formulations containing bioactive compounds from natural origin has been developed. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the main excipients and natural bioactive compounds composing SEDDS. In addition, applications, new technologies and innovation are reviewed as well. Examples of self-emulsifying formulations administered in different sites are also considered for a better understanding of the use of this strategy to modify the delivery of compounds from natural origin.

Nano-Strategies Targeting the Integrin αvβ3 Network for Cancer Therapy

Integrin αvβ3, a cell surface receptor, participates in signaling transduction pathways in cancer cell proliferation and metastasis. Several ligands bind to integrin αvβ3 to regulate proliferation and metastasis in cancer cells. Crosstalk between the integrin and other signal transduction pathways also plays an important role in modulating cancer proliferation. Carcinoembryonic antigen cell adhesion molecule 6 (CEACAM6) activates the downstream integrin FAK to stimulate biological activities including cancer proliferation and metastasis. Blockage of signals related to integrin αvβ3 was shown to be a promising target for cancer therapies. 3,3′,5,5′-tetraiodothyroacetic acid (tetrac) completely binds to the integrin with the thyroid hormone to suppress cancer proliferation. The (E)-stilbene analog, resveratrol, also binds to integrin αvβ3 to inhibit cancer growth. Recently, nanotechnologies have been used in the biomedical field for detection and therapeutic purposes. In the current review, we show and evaluate the potentiation of the nanomaterial carrier RGD peptide, derivatives of PLGA-tetrac (NDAT), and nanoresveratrol targeting integrin αvβ3 in cancer therapies.

Zein nanoparticles as low-cost, safe, and effective carriers to improve the oral bioavailability of resveratrol

The clinical translation of the multiple pharmacological effects of resveratrol (RSV) found in preclinical studies has been impaired by its poor bioavailability, due to poor solubility and rapid metabolism and elimination. The inclusion of this molecule in medicines or functional food products will be ineffective unless suitable systems are developed. Zein protein may constitute an inexpensive, safe, and effective choice to produce nanoparticles (NPs) to incorporate hydrophobic molecules and overcome the bioavailability issues of RSV. In this work, we loaded RSV into zein NPs by using a nanoprecipitation method. Unloaded and RSV-loaded NPs presented average diameter values in the range of 120-180 nm, narrow size distribution (polydispersity index < 0.150), and zeta potential of around + 20 mV. The association efficiency of the drug was equal to or greater than 77% for different initial drug loads. Scanning electron microscopy imaging revealed that zein NPs were round-shaped and presented a smooth surface. Aqueous suspensions of zein NPs were stable for at least 1 month when stored at 4 °C. The freeze-drying of zein NPs using sucrose as cryoprotectant allowed an easy re-suspension of NPs in water without significantly changing the initial colloidal properties. RSV-loaded NPs presented low cytotoxicity to the human colorectal Caco-2 and HT29-MTX cell lines. Finally, permeability studies of RSV across Caco-2 and Caco-2/HT29-MTX evidenced some ability of zein NPs to protect RSV from metabolism events. However, further investigation is needed in order to confirm the possible role of zein NPs in the metabolic stability of RSV. Overall, zein NPs may present the potential to circumvent bioavailability issues of RSV. Graphical abstract.

Research progress on nanotechnology for delivery of active ingredients from traditional Chinese medicines

There is growing acceptance of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) as potential sources of clinical agents based on the demonstrated efficacies of numerous bioactive compounds first identified in TCM extracts, such as paclitaxel, camptothecin, and artemisinin. However, there are several challenges to achieving the full clinical potential of many TCMs, particularly the generally high hydrophobicity and low bioavailability. Recently, however, numerous studies have attempted to circumvent the limited in vivo activity and systemic toxicity of TCM ingredients by incorporation into nanoparticle-based delivery systems. Many of these formulations demonstrate improved bioavailability, enhanced tissue targeting, and greater in vivo stability compared to the native compound. This review summarizes nanoformulations of the most promising and extensively studied TCM compounds to provide a reference for further research. Combining these natural compounds with nanotechnology-based delivery systems may further improve the clinical utility of these agents, in turn leading to more intensive research on traditional medicinal compounds.

Nanocomposite systems for precise oral delivery of drugs and biologics

Oral delivery is considered the favoured route of administration for both local and systemic delivery of active molecules. Formulation of drugs in conventional systems and nanoparticles has provided opportunities for targeting the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, increasing drug solubility and bioavailability. Despite the achievements of these delivery approaches, the development of a product with the ability of delivering drug molecules at a specific site and according to patients' needs remains a challenging endeavour. The complexity of the physicochemical properties of colloidal systems, their stability in different regions of the gastrointestinal tract, and interaction with the restrictive biological barriers hampered their success for oral precise medicine. To overcome these issues, nanoparticles have been combined with polymers to create hybrid nanosystems, namely nanocomposites. They offer enormous possibilities of structural and mechanical modifications to both nanoparticles and polymeric matrixes to generate systems with new properties, functions, and applications for oral delivery. In this review, nanocomposites' physicochemical and functional properties intended to target specific regions of the GI tract-oral cavity, stomach, small bowel, and colon-are analysed. In parallel, it is provided an insight in the nanocomposite solutions for oral delivery intended for systemic and local absorption, together with a focus on inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs). Additional difficulties in managing IBD related to the alteration in the physiology of the intestine are described. Finally, future perspectives and opportunities for advancement in this field are discussed.

Effects of Lipid Digestion and Drug Permeation/Re-Dissolution on Absorption of Orally Administered Ritonavir as Different Lipid-Based Formulations

The aim of this study is to clarify absorption mechanisms after oral administration of ritonavir (RTV) from different types of lipid-based formulations (LBFs) with particular emphasis on the effect of lipid digestion and drug permeation/re-dissolution on the oral absorption. Four LBFs were prepared; three contained either long-chain (LC) or medium-chain (MC) lipids [lipid formulation classification system (LFCS) Type II-LC, Type IIIA-MC, and Type IIIB-MC] and the fourth contained only surfactant and co-solvent (Type IV). The solubility of RTV in those LBFs was determined and drug subsequently loaded at 85% w/w of the saturated solubility in the formulations. Then, each LBF containing drug was added into a model rat intestinal fluid at approximately 2.5% w/v for evaluation using an in vitro digestion model. In vitro digestion study showed the ability of Type II-LC and Type IIIA-MC to support continued solubilization of RTV, and moderate supersaturation was observed in Type IIIA-MC. In contrast, RTV partly precipitated in the Type IIIB-MC during digestion, and the Type IV formulation lost its solubilization capacity rapidly upon dispersion, leading to drastic precipitation. Oral administration of RTV as Type IIIA-MC to rats showed significantly higher area under the plasma concentration-time curve compared to control suspension, whereas it was not improved with Type II-LC administration despite complete solubilization of RTV during digestion. From the results of in vitro permeation across dialysis membrane (a molecular weight cutoff of > 1000 Da), this may be attributed to the lowered free concentration in the gastrointestinal tract owing to incorporation of RTV into the undigested LC lipid. Oral absorption drastically increased with Type IIIB-MC and Type IV despite the observed moderate and drastic precipitation, respectively. Powder X-ray diffraction analysis revealed that the precipitate was amorphous. Therefore, improved re-solubilization may partly contribute to improved absorption. The present study revealed detailed absorption mechanisms from LBFs with different compositions. Our findings may be useful for selecting appropriate excipients to design optimal LBFs for poorly water-soluble drugs.

Resveratrol's Anti-Cancer Effects through the Modulation of Tumor Glucose Metabolism

Simple Summary

The prevention and treatment of cancer is an ongoing medical challenge. In the context of personalized medicine, the well-studied polyphenol resveratrol could complement classical tumor therapy. It may affect key processes such as inflammation, angiogenesis, proliferation, metastasis, glucose metabolism, and apoptosis in various cancers because resveratrol acts as a multi-targeting agent by modulating multiple signal transduction pathways. This review article focuses on resveratrol’s ability to modify tumor glucose metabolism and its associated therapeutic capacity. Resveratrol reduces glucose uptake and glycolysis by affecting Glut1, PFK1, HIF-1α, ROS, PDH, and the CamKKB/AMPK pathway. It also inhibits cell growth, invasion, and proliferation by targeting NF-kB, Sirt1, Sirt3, LDH, PI-3K, mTOR, PKM2, R5P, G6PD, TKT, talin, and PGAM. In addition, resveratrol induces apoptosis by targeting integrin, p53, LDH, and FAK. In conclusion, resveratrol has many potentials to intervene in tumor processes if bioavailability can be increased and this natural compound can be used selectively.

Abstract

Tumor cells develop several metabolic reprogramming strategies, such as increased glucose uptake and utilization via aerobic glycolysis and fermentation of glucose to lactate; these lead to a low pH environment in which the cancer cells thrive and evade apoptosis. These characteristics of tumor cells are known as the Warburg effect. Adaptive metabolic alterations in cancer cells can be attributed to mutations in key metabolic enzymes and transcription factors. The features of the Warburg phenotype may serve as promising markers for the early detection and treatment of tumors. Besides, the glycolytic process of tumors is reversible and could represent a therapeutic target. So-called mono-target therapies are often unsafe and ineffective, and have a high prevalence of recurrence. Their success is hindered by the ability of tumor cells to simultaneously develop multiple chemoresistance pathways. Therefore, agents that modify several cellular targets, such as energy restriction to target tumor cells specifically, have therapeutic potential. Resveratrol, a natural active polyphenol found in grapes and red wine and used in many traditional medicines, is known for its ability to target multiple components of signaling pathways in tumors, leading to the suppression of cell proliferation, activation of apoptosis, and regression in tumor growth. Here, we describe current knowledge on the various mechanisms by which resveratrol modulates glucose metabolism, its potential as an imitator of caloric restriction, and its therapeutic capacity in tumors.

Development of an enzymatic encapsulation process for a cycloamylose inclusion complex with resveratrol

Cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase; EC 2.4.1.19) produces cycloamyloses (CAs), which are large cyclic glucans, and subsequently transforms them to α-, β-, and γ-cyclodextrins. We developed a novel encapsulation process based on the cyclization activity of CGTase and applied it to the formation of CA inclusion complexes with resveratrol (RVT), which has limited bioavailability due to its low water solubility. The encapsulated RVT (CA-RVT) was purified using preparative high-performance liquid chromatography. The water solubility of CA-RVT was 6,000-fold higher than that of RVT. CA-RVT in water demonstrated 98% stability for 1 week at 4 °C. According to radical scavenging activity and anti-inflammatory assays, CA-RVT in aqueous solution exhibited similar activities as an equal amount of RVT in dimethyl sulfoxide, suggesting the limited solubility of RVT can be overcome through CA encapsulation by CGTase, thus enhancing its nutraceutical value as a functional ingredient in the food industry.

Resveratrol: nanocarrier-based delivery systems to enhance its therapeutic potential

Resveratrol (3,5,4'-trihydroxystilbene) is a polyphenolic compound existing in trees, peanuts and grapes and exhibits a broad spectrum of promising therapeutic activities, but it is unclear whether this entity targets the sites of action after oral administration. In vivo applicability of resveratrol has limited success so far, mainly due to its incompetent systemic delivery resulting from its low water solubility, poor bioavailability and short biological half-life. First-pass metabolism and presence of enterohepatic recirculation create doubt on the biological application of high doses typically used for in vitro trials. To augment bioavailability, absorption and uptake of resveratrol by cellular internalization, countless approaches have been implemented which involve the use of nanocarriers. Nanocarriers are a well-known delivery system used to reduce first-pass hepatic metabolism, overcome enterohepatic recirculation and accelerate the absorption of drugs via lymphatic pathways.

Inulin-pluronic-stearic acid based double folded nanomicelles for pH-responsive delivery of resveratrol

Herein, we introduce a novel amphiphilic bioconjugate (INU-F68-SA), synthesized by functionalization of pluronic F68 with a polysaccharide inulin (INU) and a lipid stearic acid (SA). The synthesis of INU-F68-SA was confirmed by FTIR and ¹H-NMR analysis. INU-F68-SA can self-assemble into nanomicelles and therefore, its application in delivering of hydrophobic resveratrol (RSV) was investigated. The RSV-loaded INU-F68-SA nanomicelles (RSNM) had about 172 nm size, spherical shape, 0.237 polydispersity index, and -18 mV zeta potential. More importantly, the RSNM showed high drug entrapment efficiency, controlled drug release and protection of drug during storage. The RSNM significantly enhanced the cytotoxicity of RSV against colorectal cancer cells by inducing apoptosis and changing mitochondrial membrane potential. Further, in-vivo pharmacokinetic experiment indicated an improvement in pharmacokinetics of RSV after administering as RSNM. Thus, the use of self-assembled nanomicelles of amphiphilic INU-F68-SA bioconjugate could be a better alternative to overcome the poor in-vitro and in-vivo performance of RSV.

Development of a Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System for Optimized Topical Delivery of Clofazimine

A quality-by-design and characterization approach was followed to ensure development of self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDSs) destined for topical delivery of the highly lipophilic clofazimine. Solubility and water-titration experiments identified spontaneous emulsification capacity of different excipient combinations and clofazimine. After identifying self-emulsification regions, check-point formulations were selected within the self-emulsification region by considering characteristics required to achieve optimized topical drug delivery. Check-point formulations, able to withstand phase separation after 24 h at an ambient temperature, were subjected to characterization studies. Experiments involved droplet size evaluation; size distribution; zeta-potential; self-emulsification time and efficacy; viscosity and pH measurement; cloud point assessment; and thermodynamic stability studies. SEDDSs with favorable properties, i.e., topical drug delivery, were subjected to dermal diffusion studies. Successful in vitro topical clofazimine delivery was observed. Olive oil facilitated the highest topical delivery of clofazimine probably due to increased oleic acid levels that enhanced stratum corneum lipid disruption, followed by improved dermal clofazimine delivery. Finally, isothermal microcalometric experiments studied the compatibility of excipients. Potential interactions were depicted between argan oil and clofazimine as well as between Span®60 and argan-, macadamia- and olive oil, respectively. However, despite some mundane incompatibilities, successful development of topical SEDDSs achieved enhanced topical clofazimine delivery.

Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery System of Phillygenin: Formulation Development, Characterization and Pharmacokinetic Evaluation

Phillygenin, as an active ingredient of Forsythia suspensa, possesses a wide range of biological and pharmacological activity. However, its development and application are restricted due to its poor bioavailability and low solubility. Our work aimed to develop a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system to improve the oral bioavailability of phillygenin. The composition of the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system was preliminary screened by the pseudo-ternary phase diagram. Subsequently, the central composite design method was employed to optimize the prescription of the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system loaded with phillygenin. The prepared self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin was characterized in terms of morphology, droplet size distribution, polydispersity index and stability. Then, the in vitro dissolution and the oral bioavailability were analyzed. The optimized self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin consisted of 27.8% Labrafil M1944CS, 33.6% Cremophor EL, 38.6% polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG-400) and 10.2 mg/g phillygenin loading. The prepared self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin exhibited spherical and uniform droplets with small size (40.11 ± 0.74 nm) and satisfactory stability. The in vitro dissolution experiment indicated that the cumulative dissolution rate of the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin was significantly better than that of free phillygenin. Furthermore, after oral administration in rats, the bioavailability of phillygenin was significantly enhanced by the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system. The relative bioavailability of the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin was 588.7% compared to the phillygenin suspension. These findings suggest that the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin can be a promising oral drug delivery system to improve the absorption of phillygenin.

Wedelolactone-Loaded Micelles Ameliorate Doxorubicin-Induced Oxidative Injury in Podocytes by Improving Permeability and Bioavailability

Wedelolactone (WED) is commonly used for the treatment of doxorubicin (DOX)-induced kidney damage, but its efficacy is limited by its poor solubility and bioavailability. In this study, we developed a novel delivery system of WED-loaded micelles (WED-M) with Solutol^® HS15 and lecithin at an optimized ratio of 7:3 to improve the poor permeability and bioavailability of WED and to enhance its efficacy. The spherically shaped WED-M (particle size: 160.5 ± 3.4 nm; zeta potential: −30.1 ± 0.9 mV; entrapment efficiency: 94.41 ± 1.64%; drug loading: 8.58 ± 0.25%; solubility: 1.89 ± 0.06 mg/ml) has continuous stability over 14 days and a sustained release profile. The permeability of WED-M in Caco-2 cells indicated a significant 1.61-fold higher Papp AP to BL ratio than WED alone. Additionally, pharmacokinetic evaluation of WED-M demonstrated that the bioavailability of WED was increased 2.78-fold. Both HE staining and transmission electron microscopy showed an obvious improvement of pathological damage in WED-M treatment. Moreover, WED-M significantly enhanced the ROS level in mice and MPC5 podocytes. We concluded that using this micelle delivery system for WED could improve its permeability and bioavailability to attenuate DOX-induced oxidative injury in podocytes. This study provided important information on the fact that the micelle delivery system, WED-M, showed a significant improvement of renal damage.