Toxic effects and primary source of the aged micro-sized artificial turf fragments and rubber particles: Comparative studies on laboratory photoaging and actual field sampling

Odor impact patterns and health risks of various enterprises in the rubber product manufacturing industry

The rubber product manufacturing (RPM) industry generates a large number of odor complaints because persistent and distinctive volatile compounds are released during the associated processes. Such compounds represent a nuisance and may pose health risks to nearby residents. Extensive monitoring and sampling identified 146 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from 20 enterprises across 6 subcategories of the RPM industry. Their odor impact patterns and health risks were assessed via dispersion modeling from both horizontal and vertical perspectives. Nine out of the 20 enterprises were found to cause odor impacts to the surrounding residents, with separation distances ranging from 0.3 to 3.5 km depending on the prevailing wind directions. The separation distances were more subject to odor concentrations than exhaust velocities. The odor impacts peaked at 40 to 60 m due to the horizontal and vertical dispersion as well as the height of exhaust ports. From a health risk perspective, none of the enterprises posed carcinogenic or noncarcinogenic risks to the surrounding areas based on the cumulative hazard quotient and carcinogenic risk values; however, acetaldehyde and benzene required further attention. This study provides important evidence for the management and control of VOCs in the RPM industry from both odor and health perspectives.

A systematic review of the environmental and health effects of waste tires recycling

Objectives

With approximately 1.5 billion tires produced annually, the management and disposal of waste tires pose significant environmental challenges worldwide. While tire recycling has the potential to mitigate some environmental issues, existing studies reveal notable gaps and associated risks to human health and the environment, highlighting the need for a comprehensive review.

Methods

This study utilized primary search engines, including Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed, in conjunction with relevant keywords, to identify pertinent studies published in peer-reviewed journals. Data and information regarding the application of waste tires in environmental and health-related contexts were systematically extracted.

Results

Out of 1275 potential articles, 80 studies met the criteria for inclusion in this review. The majority of these studies focused on the use of discarded tires in the construction sector, with 49 % specifically addressing their application in artificial turf fields.

Conclusions

A comprehensive assessment of the health and environmental implications of various recycling methods is essential to determine their feasibility. The increasing utilization of recycled tires across diverse sectors raises new concerns that warrant such investigations. Understanding the health effects associated with recycled tire products can provide valuable insights for both researchers and policymakers.

A Critical Review of an Environmental Risk Substance Induced by Aging Microplastics: Insights into Environmentally Persistent Free Radicals

Microplastics (MPs), as an emerging contaminants category, can undergo complex aging in a variety of environmental matrices in which the chemical bonds of polymer molecules can be broken to form free radicals. While the existence of free radicals in aged plastics has been known for over half a century, only recently has significant research on a new type of environmentally risky substance, namely environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs), present in aged MPs and their environmental effects, been started, but it is still in its infancy. To address these issues, this work examines EPFR generation on MPs and their environmental effect by reviewing publications from 2012 to 2023. The aging processes and mechanisms of MPs in the environment are first summarized. Then, the occurrence and formation mechanisms of EPFRs on aged MPs are specifically discussed. Additionally, the reactivity of EPFRs on aging MPs and their influencing factors are comprehensively considered, such as their physicochemical properties, oxygen content, and coexisting substances. Due to their reactivity, EPFRs can interact directly with some substances (e.g., p-nitrophenol and proteins, etc.) or induce the generation of reactive oxygen species, leading to diverse environmental effects, including pollutant transformation, biotoxicity, and health risks. Finally, research challenges and perspectives for EPFRs formation on aging MPs and related environmental implications are presented. Given the environmental fate and risk of MPs-EPFRs, our urgent call for a better understanding of the potential hazards of aged MPs is to help develop a sustainable path for plastics management.

Exploring the Human Health Impact of Artificial Turf Worldwide: A Systematic Review

The growing use of artificial turf in place of natural turf in residential, recreational and commercial settings has raised concerns regarding its potential impact on human health. A systematic review of databases revealed 5673 articles of which, 30 were deemed eligible. Those performing total concentration analyses, bioaccessibility analyses or human health risk assessments (HHRAs) of artificial turf fibres or crumb rubber infill were of interest. Health hazards and risks were explored in relation to three groups of chemicals of concern: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), heavy metals and other rubber additives. Twenty-five studies performed total concentration analyses on samples of artificial turf infill and/or turf fibres. Of these studies, median reported concentrations of eight PAHs, cadmium, mercury and zinc exceeded the European limits used. Eight studies performed bioaccessibility assays using synthetic biofluids and simulated organ systems. PAHs were not found to be bioaccessible except for benzo[a]pyrene in gastric fluid; heavy metals were bioaccessible except arsenic, and rubber additives were mostly bioaccessible except for three plasticisers: diisobutyl phthalate, benzyl butyl phthalate and dibutyl phthalate. Fourteen studies performed HHRAs to determine non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk. Cancer risks were identified for ingestion exposure to PAH in children with pica and heavy metal exposure via dermal, inhalation and ingestion pathways. Non-carcinogenic risks were identified for the ingestion of cobalt in a child spectator and the ingestion of arsenic, cobalt, thallium and zinc. Potentially hazardous concentrations of chemicals were found across both artificial turf infill and artificial turf fibre samples; bioaccessibility of these chemicals varied. Definitive conclusions were unable to be derived on the human health risks posed to users of artificial turf under real-world exposure scenarios. Future studies are recommended to explore the risks associated with the potential synergistic toxicities of chemical mixtures found in artificial turf.

In vitro endocrine and cardiometabolic toxicity associated with artificial turf materials

Artificial turf, a consumer product growing in usage in the United States, contains diverse chemicals, some of which are endocrine disruptive. Endocrine effects from turf material extracts have been primarily limited to one component, crumb rubber, of these multi-material products. We present in vitro bioactivities from non-weathered and weathered turf sample extracts, including multiple turf components. All weathered samples were collected from real-world turf fields. Non-weathered versus weathered differentially affected the androgen (AR), estrogen (ER), glucocorticoid (GR), and thyroid receptors (TR) in reporter bioassays. While weathered extracts more efficaciously activated peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (PPARγ), this did not translate to greater in vitro adipogenic potential. All turf extracts activated the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). High AhR-efficacy extracts induced modest rat cardiomyoblast toxicity in an AhR-dependent manner. Our data demonstrate potential endocrine and cardiometabolic effects from artificial turf material extracts, warranting further investigation into potential exposures and human health effects.

Insights into the photoreactivity mechanisms of micro-sized rubber particles with different structure: The crucial role of reactive oxygen species and released dissolved organic matter

Micro-sized rubber particles (MRPs), as a significant component of tire wear particles (TWPs), increasingly garnered attention due to the potential ecological risks. However, the impact of photoaging of MRPs and the characteristics of the dissolved organic matter (DOM) derived from MRPs on the photoreactivity of co-existing pollutants is remain unclear. To bridge this knowledge gap, this study selected MRPs with different structure including butadiene rubber (BR), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) and nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) and took tetracycline (TC) as the target pollutant to firstly study potential effects of structural characteristics and active components of MRPs on TC photodegradation process under simulated sunlight irradiation. The results indicated that BR, NBR and SBR enhanced TC photodegradation to varying extents, with SBR having the most pronounced effect. This effect was attributed mainly to the high electron transport capacity and the generation of more triple excited DOM (3DOM*) of SBR, thereby producing more active species (•OH and 1O2) and significantly promoting TC photodegradation. Additionally, the unsaturated bonds and aromatic groups in MRPs-DOM was identified as another crucial factor influencing their photoreactivity. This study will provide a new perspective for understanding the potential ecological effects between MRPs and co-existing pollutants in the natural environment.

Particle sizes crucially affected the release of additives from tire wear particles during UV irradiation and mechanical abrasion

In the environment, tire wear particles (TWPs) could release various additives to induce potential risk, while the effects of particle size on the additive release behavior and ecological risk from TWPs remain unknown. This study investigated the effects and mechanisms of particle sizes (>2 mm, 0.71-1 mm, and <0.1 mm) on the release behavior of TWPs additives under mechanical abrasion and UV irradiation in water. Compared to mechanical abrasion, UV irradiation significantly increased the level of additives released from TWPs. Especially, the additive releasing characteristics were critically affected by the particle sizes of TWPs, manifested as the higher release in the smaller-size ones. After 60 d of UV irradiation, the concentration of antioxidant N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD) reached 10.79 mg/L in the leachate of small-sized TWPs, 2.78 and 5.36 times higher than that of medium-sized and large-sized TWPs. The leachate of the small-sized TWPs also showed higher cytotoxicity. •OH and O2•- were identified as the main reactive oxygen species (ROS), which exhibited higher concentrations and dramatic attack on small-sized TWPs to cause pronounced fragmentation and oxidation, finally inducing the higher release of additives. This paper sheds light on the crucial effects and mechanism of particle sizes in the release behavior of TWPs additives, provides useful information to assess the ecological risk of TWPs.

Generation of environmentally persistent free radicals on photoaged tire wear particles and their neurotoxic effects on neurotransmission in Caenorhabditis elegans

Tire wear particles (TWP) are a prevalent form of microplastics (MPs) extensively distributed in the environment, raising concerns about their environmental behaviors and risks. However, knowledge regarding the properties and toxicity of these particles at environmentally relevant concentrations, specifically regarding the role of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) generated during TWP photoaging, remains limited. In this study, the evolution of EPFRs on TWP under different photoaging times and their adverse effects on Caenorhabditis elegans were systematically investigated. The photoaging process primarily resulted in the formation of EPFRs and reactive oxygen species (O2•-, ⋅OH, and 1O2), altering the physicochemical properties of TWP. The exposure of nematodes to 100 μg/L of TWP-50 (TWP with a photoaging time of 50 d) led to a significant decrease in locomotory behaviors (e.g., head thrashes, body bends, and wavelength) and neurotransmitter contents (e.g., dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin). Similarly, the expression of neurotransmission-related genes was reduced in nematodes exposed to TWP-50. Furthermore, the addition of free-radical inhibitors significantly suppressed TWP-induced neurotoxicity. Notably, correlation analysis revealed a significantly negative correlation between EPFRs levels and the locomotory behaviors and neurotransmitter contents of nematodes. Thus, it was concluded that EPFRs on photoaged TWP induce neurotoxicity by affecting neurotransmission. These findings elucidate the toxicity effects and mechanisms of EPFRs, emphasizing the importance of considering their contributions when evaluating the environmental risks associated with TWP.

Photoaged Tire Wear Particles Leading to the Oxidative Damage on Earthworms (Eisenia fetida) by Disrupting the Antioxidant Defense System: The Definitive Role of Environmental Free Radicals

Tire wear particles (TWPs) have caused increasing concerns due to their detrimental effects on the soil ecosystem. However, the role of weathering in altering the toxicity of TWP to soil organisms is poorly understood. In this study, the toxicity of original and photoaged TWP was compared using earthworms (Eisenia fetida) as soil model organisms. The obtained results indicated that photoaging of TWP resulted in an increase of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) from 3.69 × 1017 to 5.20 × 1017 spin/g. Meanwhile, photoaged TWP induced the changes of toxic endpoint in E. fetide, i.e., the increase of the weight loss and death ratio from 0.0425 to 0.0756 g/worm and 23.3 to 50% compared to original TWP under a 10% concentration, respectively. Analyses of transcriptomics, antioxidant enzyme activity, and histopathology demonstrated that the enhanced toxicity was mainly due to oxidative damage, which was induced by disruption in the antioxidant defense system. Free-radical quenching and correlation analysis further suggested that the excessive production of ex vivo reactive oxygen species, induced by EPFRs, led to the exhaustion of the antioxidant defense system. Overall, this work provides new insights into the potential hazard of the weathered TWP in a soil environment and has significant implications for the recycling and proper disposal of spent tire particles.

Environmentally persistent free radicals on photoaged microplastics from disposable plastic cups induce the oxidative stress-associated toxicity

Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants that exerting multiple toxicological effects. Most studies have focused primarily on the models of unaged MPs and lack environmental relevance. The generation and toxicity of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) on photoaging MPs from disposable plastic cups (DPC-MPs) have not been well studied. Here, the formation of EPFRs on photoaged DPC-MPs and their toxic effects in nematodes were investigated. UV irradiation generated EPFRs, which influenced the characterization of DPC-MPs. Exposure to photoaged DPC-MPs at environmentally relevant concentrations （100-1000 μg/L） reduced the locomotion behavior, body length, and brood size. The Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, lipofuscin accumulation, malondialdehyde (MDA), and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels were increased along with the downregulation of the expression levels of associated genes, such as clk-1, clt-1, and gst-4，in nematodes. Moreover, the toxicity and oxidative stress response of nematodes were significantly inhibited due to N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC). Pearson's correlation analysis revealed that the oxidative stress was significantly associated with adverse physiological effects. Therefore, EPFRs on photoaged DPC-MPs cause toxicity in nematodes, and oxidative stress is important for regulating toxicity. This study offers novel insights into the potential risks of DPC-MPs under UV irradiation, highlighting the need to consider the role of EPFRs in toxicity assessments of DPC-MPs.

Emerging Health Risks of Crumb Rubber: Inhalation of Environmentally Persistent Free Radicals via Saliva During Artificial Turf Activities

Crumb rubber (CR) is a commonly used infill material in artificial turf worldwide. However, the potential health risk associated with exposure to CR containing environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) remains under investigation. Herein, we observed the widespread presence of CR particles in the range of 2.8-51.4 μg/m3 and EPFRs exceeding 6 × 1015 spins/g in the ambient air surrounding artificial turf fields. Notably, the abundance of these particles tended to increase with the number of operating years of the playing fields. Furthermore, by analyzing saliva samples from 200 participants, we established for the first time that EPFR-carrying CR could be found in saliva specimens, suggesting the potential for inhaling them through the oral cavity and their exposure to the human body. After 40 min of exercise on the turf, we detected a substantial presence of EPFRs, reaching as high as (1.15 ± 1.00) × 1016 spins of EPFR per 10 mL of saliva. Moreover, the presence of EPFRs considerably increased the oxidative potential of CR, leading to the inactivation of Ca2+, redox reactions, and changes in spatial binding of the α-1,4-chain of salivary amylase to Ca2+, all of which could influence human saliva health. Our study provides insights into a new pathway of human exposure to CR with EPFRs in artificial turf infill, indicating an increased human health risk of CR exposure.

The generation of environmentally persistent free radicals on photoaged microbeads from cosmetics enhances the toxicity via oxidative stress

Microbeads used in personal care products have been one of the important sources of microplastics (MPs), and little has been reported on their environmental behaviors and health risks. The characteristics of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) and the toxicity assessment of MPs (environmentally relevant concentrations) from cosmetics during photoaging remains largely unknown. In this study, the formation of EPFRs on polyethylene (PE) microbeads from facial scrubs under light irradiation and their toxicity were investigated using C. elegans as a model organism. The results suggested that light irradiation induced the generation of EPFRs, which accelerates the aging process and alters the physicochemical properties of PE microbeads. Acute exposure to PE (1 mg/L) at photoaged times of 45-60 d significantly decreased the physiological indicators (e.g., head thrashes, body bends, and brood size). The oxidative stress response and stress-related gene expression were also enhanced in nematodes. The addition of N-acetyl-l-cysteine induced significant inhibition of toxicity and oxidative stress in nematodes exposed to 45-60 d of photoaged PE. The Pearson correlation results showed that the concentration of EPFRs was significantly correlated with physiological indicators, oxidative stress, and related-genes expression in nematodes. The data confirmed that the generation of EPFRs combined with heavy metals and organics contributed to toxicity induced by photoaged PE, and oxidative stress might be involved in regulating adverse effects in C. elegans. The study provides new insight into the potential risks of microbeads released into the environment during photoaging. The findings also highlight the necessity for considering the role of EPFRs formation in evaluating the impacts of microbeads.