Gardenia jasminoides Ellis ethanol extract and its constituents reduce the risks of gastritis and reverse gastric lesions in rats

Geniposide alleviated bile acid-associated NLRP3 inflammasome activation by regulating SIRT1/FXR signaling in bile duct ligation-induced liver fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Geniposide (GE), the active compound derived from Gardeniae Fructus, possesses valuable bioactivity for liver diseases, but GE effects on bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced cholestasis remain unclear. This study aimed to elucidate the influence of GE on BDL-induced liver fibrosis and to investigate the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

GE (25 or 50 mg/kg) were intragastrical administered to C57BL/6 J mice for two weeks to characterize the hepatoprotective effect of GE on BDL-induced liver fibrosis. NLRP3 inflammasome activation was detected in vivo, and BMDMs were isolated to explore whether GE directly inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Serum bile acid (BA) profiles were assessed utilizing UPLC-MS/MS, and the involvement of SIRT1/FXR pathways was identified to elucidate the role of SIRT1/FXR in the hepaprotective effect of GE. The veritable impact of SIRT1/FXR signaling was further confirmed by administering the SIRT1 inhibitor EX527 (10 mg/kg) to BDL mice treated with GE.

RESULTS

GE treatment protected mice from BDL-induced liver fibrosis, with NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition. However, development in vitro experiments revealed that GE could not directly inhibit NLRP3 activation under ATP, monosodium urate, and nigericin stimulation. Further mechanistic data showed that GE activated SIRT1, which subsequently deacetylated FXR and restored CDCA, TUDCA, and TCDCA levels, thereby contributing to the observed hepaprotective effect of GE. Notably, EX527 treatment diminished the hepaprotective effect of GE on BDL-induced liver fibrosis.

CONCLUSION

This study first proved the hepaprotective effect of GE on liver fibrosis in BDL mice, which was closely associated with the restoration of BA homeostasis and NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition. The activation of SIRT1 and the subsequent FXR deacetylation restored the BA profiles, especially CDCA, TUDCA, and TCDCA contents, which was the main contributor to NLRP3 inhibition and the hepaprotective effect of GE. Overall, our work provides novel insights that GE as well as Gardeniae Fructus might be the potential attractive candidate for ameliorating BDL-induced liver fibrosis.

Genipin and glutaraldehyde based laccase two-layers immobilization with improved properties: New biocatalysts with high potential for enzymatic removal of trace organic contaminants

This research proposes the preparation of a two-layer laccase biocatalyst using genipin or/and glutaraldehyde as cross-linking agents. The multilayer biocatalysts were prepared using different combinations of genipin and glutaraldehyde in the individual preparation of the first and second laccase layers. First, chitosan was treated with genipin or glutaraldehyde, followed by the immobilization of the first laccase layer to form a single-layer biocatalyst. Then, the immobilized laccases were coated once again with genipin or glutaraldehyde, and a new laccase layer was immobilized onto the system, resulting in the final two-layer biocatalyst. Compared to the single-layer biocatalysts, catalytic activity increased 1.7- and 3.4-fold when glutaraldehyde coating was used to prepare the second laccase layer. However, adding a second layer did not always produce more active biocatalysts, since the two-layer biocatalysts prepared with genipin (GenLacGenLac and GluLacGenLac) presented a decrease in activity of 65% and 28%, respectively. However, these two-layer biocatalysts prepared with genipin maintained 100% of their initial activity after 5 cycles of ABTS oxidation. Nevertheless, the two-layer, genipin-coated biocatalyst resulted in a higher removal of trace organic contaminants, since it removed 100% of mefenamic acid and 66% of acetaminophen, compared with the glutaraldehyde-coated biocatalyst, which removed 20% of mefenamic acid, and 18% of acetaminophen.

Topical Administration of Gardenia jasminoides Extract Regulates Th2 Immunity in OVA-Induced Mice

A key feature of an allergic immune response is a T helper type 2 (Th2)-mediated response with production of allergen-specific IgE antibodies. Gardenia jasminoides extract with the crocin removed (GJExCR) has been shown to inhibit IgE-mediated allergic disease. To evaluate the efficacy and mechanism-of-action of this inhibition, GJExCR was used in an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergy model in BALB/C mice. Sensitization of BALB/C mice with OVA and aluminum hydroxide was performed on days 1 and 14 by intraperitoneal injection, followed by OVA challenge to the dorsal skin for 2 weeks before removal. Seven days post-challenge, mice were treated with GJExCR topically every day for 11 days. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, flow cytometry analysis, real-time PCR, and western blot were performed to determine IgE and Th2 cytokine levels. Following OVA challenge, Th2 cytokine expression and both total and OVA-specific serum IgE levels increased, of which OVA-specific IgE and Th2 cytokine levels decreased after GJExCR treatment. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that GJExCR treatment decreased CD4+ and CD8+ T cell populations in the spleen and lymph nodes. In addition, treatment with GJExCR downregulated signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) activation and Th2 cytokine levels as compared to control. GJExCR containing geniposide downregulated STAT1 activation in HaCaT cells. These findings demonstrate that GJExCR exerts its anti-allergy effect via inhibition of STAT1 activation, thus regulating the immune response via modulation of Th2 cytokine release and IgE levels. Therefore, we propose GJExCR as a potential treatment for allergic hypersensitivity reactions.

Geniposide Alleviates Oxidative Damage in Hepatocytes through Regulating miR-27b-3p/Nrf2 Axis

Geniposide (GEN), a main compound extracted from Gardenia jasminoides fruit, has various biological activities including anti-inflammation, cellular damage alleviation, neuroprotection, and others. However, the effect of GEN on oxidative stress in hepatic cells is yet to be investigated. Our study uncovered that GEN eliminated excess intracellular free radicals by activating the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway in H₂O₂-treated hepatocytes, while the protective effect was blocked by ML385 (an inhibitor of Nrf2). Moreover, H₂O₂ led to upregulation of miR-27b-3p in L02 cells, which was restrained by GEN. Overexpression of miR-27b-3p greatly weakened the antioxidant capacity of GEN in hepatocytes via directly targeting the Nrf2 gene. Our findings indicated that GEN treatment recovered H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress via targeting miR-27b-3p and thereby enhanced the antioxidant capacity by stimulating nuclear translocation and accumulation of Nrf2. These findings suggest that inhibition of miR-27b-3p to activate the Nrf2/ARE pathway by GEN is a potential alternative for hepatic oxidative damage alleviation.

Genipin, an Inhibitor of UCP2 as a Promising New Anticancer Agent: A Review of the Literature

Genipin is a protein cross-linking agent extracted from Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis) fruits. This fruit has conventionally been used as a Chinese herbal medicine for the treatment of inflammation and jaundice and as an edible colorant in oriental countries. Uncoupling protein (UCP)-2 is a member of the family of uncoupling proteins, which are anion transporters positioned in the mitochondrial inner membrane. Genipin has been shown to have hepatoprotective activity, acting as an effective antioxidant and inhibitor of mitochondrial UCP2, and is also reported to exert significant anticancer effects. In this review, the author presents the latest progress of genipin as an anticancer agent and concisely describes its various mechanisms of action. In brief, genipin inhibits UCP2 to attenuate generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to ROS/c-Jun N-terminal kinase-dependent apoptosis of cancer cells. Genipin also increases the tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteases (MMP)-2, a kind of tumor promoter in a variety of cancers, as well as induces caspase-dependent apoptosis in in vitro and in vivo models. These findings suggest that genipin can serve as a promising novel antitumor agent that could be applicable for chemotherapy and/or chemoprevention for cancers.

A review of the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Fructus Gardeniae (Zhi-zi)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fructus Gardeniae (FG) is the dried fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (GjE), which belongs to the family Rubiaceae. FG has a long history of use as a herb, and was originally recorded in Sheng Nong's herbal classic. FG has also been widely used as both medicine and food.

AIM OF STUDY

This review aimed to provide a systematic and comprehensive analysis of the current research progress of FG in terms of ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity, to provide new insights and extensive field of view for subsequent studies.

METHODS

Scientific databases, including CNKI, VIP (Chinese literature), PubMed, Science Direct, Elsevier and Google Scholar (English literatures) were searched to gather data about FG and its main active ingredients such as geniposide and genipin (only regarding toxicity).

RESULTS

Many chemical constituents have been identified from the fruit of GjE, including iridoids, terpenoids, flavonoids, organic acids, volatile oils and others. The constituents of different parts of FG and processed FG are different from those of whole FG. FG extract and its main active constituents have been reported to have pharmacological properties such as hepatoprotective, choleretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-apoptotic and antitumor activities. However, an increasing number of studies have shown that FG induces multiple organ injury, especially causing hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity, which could increase the risk during clinical use. The available literature shows that geniposide, a major active component of FG and a critical marker for its quality, is associated with the pharmacology and toxicity of FG.

CONCLUSION

Although a large number of studies examining FG have been published, issues remain. In the aspect of FG's pharmacology, the traditional efficacy and modern pharmacological effects of FG should be combined, which to broadens clinical application prospects. In addition, few studies have assessed the toxicity of FG. Toxicity assessment of FG should tackle various aspects, including compatibility, processing and the symptom-based prescription theory, in addition to over-dosage or long-term use, for a reasonable clinical use.

SR-5, the specific ratio of Korean multi-herbal formula: An evaluation of antiulcerogenic effects on experimentally induced gastric ulcers in mice

Purpose

Previously, we demonstrated that the specific ratio of Korean multi-herbal formula (SR-5) exhibits hepatoprotective properties against ethanol-induced hepatic damage in rats. Chronic and excessive alcohol consumption is a major etiological factor involved in gastric disease and ulcer development induced by the inflammatory response and oxidative stress.

Methods

The present study evaluated the gastroprotective effects of SR-5 (100, 150, and 200 mg/kg) against hydrochloride acid/ethanol (HCl/EtOH)-induced and indomethacin/hydrochloride acid (INDO/HCl)-induced gastritis in a mouse model and the mechanisms involved.

Results

All the tested doses of SR-5 significantly inhibited gastric lesions in the HCl/EtOH-induced ulcer model mice. Similarly, all the tested doses of SR-5 significantly inhibited gastric lesions in the INDO/HCl-induced ulcer model mice. Furthermore, mice pretreated with SR-5 had significantly increased gastric levels of enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants, namely, catalase (CAT) and glutathione (GSH), with concomitant reductions in malondialdehyde (MDA) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels compared with those in the HCl/EtOH or INDO/HCl group. SR-5 suppressed the expression of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB)/p65, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) to their normal values.

Conclusion

These findings are the first to demonstrate the powerful protective effect of SR-5 against gastric injury development and provide hope for clinical application.

Current Advances and Outlook in Gastric Cancer Chemoresistance: A Review

BACKGROUND

Surgical resection of the lesion is the standard primary treatment of gastric cancer. Unfortunately, most patients are already in the advanced stage of the disease when they are diagnosed with gastric cancer. Alternative therapies, such as radiation therapy and chemotherapy, can achieve only very limited benefits. The emergence of cancer drug resistance has always been the major obstacle to the cure of tumors. The main goal of modern cancer pharmacology is to determine the underlying mechanism of anticancer drugs.

OBJECTIVE

Here, we mainly review the latest research results related to the mechanism of chemotherapy resistance in gastric cancer, the application of natural products in overcoming the chemotherapy resistance of gastric cancer, and the new strategies currently being developed to treat tumors based on immunotherapy and gene therapy.

CONCLUSION

The emergence of cancer drug resistance is the main obstacle in achieving alleviation and final cure for gastric cancer. Mixed therapies are considered to be a possible way to overcome chemoresistance. Natural products are the main resource for discovering new drugs specific for treating chemoresistance, and further research is needed to clarify the mechanism of natural product activity in patients. .

Geniposide protects pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells from lipopolysaccharide-induced injury via α7nAchR-mediated TLR-4/MyD88 signaling

Geniposide is a bioactive iridoid glucoside derived from Gardenia jasminoides that has proven anti-inflammatory effects against acute lung injury. The aim of this study was to determine whether geniposide could protect pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced injury and to explore the participation of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR), which was previously reported to suppress pro-inflammatory cytokine production in LPS-stimulated macrophages. In the present study, rat PASMCs were isolated and stimulated using LPS. The effect of geniposide on LPS-induced PASMC injury was then explored. Geniposide exerted anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-treated PASMCs, as demonstrated by the downregulation of pro-apoptotic proteins and pro-inflammatory cytokines, respectively. Furthermore, the α7nAChR agonist PNU282987 accentuated the protective effect of geniposide against LPS-induced injury in PASMCs by inhibiting toll-like receptor-4/myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (TLR-4/MyD88) signaling and downregulating nuclear factor (NF)-κB expression. Conversely, methyllycaconitine, an inhibitor of α7nAChR, attenuated the effects of geniposide. These findings collectively suggested that in conjunction with geniposide, the activation of α7nAChR may contribute to further mitigating LPS-induced PASMC apoptosis and inflammation. In addition, the underlying mechanisms critically involve the NF-κB/MyD88 signaling axis. These results may provide novel insights into the treatment and management of lung diseases via geniposide administration.

Levels of phenylpropanoids and iridoids in extracts and infusions of Verbena minutiflora

Herein we report for the first time the levels of phenylpropanoids and iridoids in extracts and infusions of V. minutiflora consumed in Brazil to treat urinary and infectious disorders. An in house validation study demonstrated good accuracy and precision to determine the bioactive compounds in V. minutiflora by HPLC-DAD. Phenylpropanoids varied in the extracts (leaves 139.70 to 221.20 mg g-1, flowers 106.43 to 227.22 mg g-1, stems 42.18 to 56.48 mg g-1). Verbascoside occurred in higher concentration in extracts of leaves (87.66 - 136.16) mg g-1 and flowers (58.12 - 148.96) mg g-1 than in stems (19.24 - 24.62) mg g-1. Iridoids in extracts were as follows: leaves (46.60 - 54.79) mg g-1, flowers (55.88 - 93.87) mg g-1 and stems (40.05 to 61.74) mg g-1. High levels of iridoids (314.70 - 415.10) μg mL-1, phenylpropanoids (1996.39 - 2674.13) μg mL-1 and verbascoside (1029.38 - 1456.42 μg mL-1) in infusions support the popular consume of V. minutiflora.

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis: Ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, and pharmacological and industrial applications of an important traditional Chinese medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis is a popular shrub in the Rubiaceae family. The desiccative ripe fruits of this plant (called Zhizi in China) are well known and frequently used not only as an excellent natural colourant, but also as an important traditional medicine for the treatment of different diseases, such as reducing fire except vexed, clearing away heat evil, and cooling blood and eliminating stasis to activate blood circulation. It has also been declared as the first batch of dual-purpose plants used for food and medical functions in China.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review aims to provide a critical and systematic summary of the traditional uses, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity and industrial applications of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis and briefly proposes several suggestions for future application prospects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The related information on Gardenia jasminoides Ellis was obtained from internationally recognized scientific databases through the Internet (PubMed, CNKI, Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar, Web of Science, Medline Plus, ACS, Elsevier and Flora of China) and libraries.

RESULTS

Approximately 162 chemical compounds have been isolated and identified from this herb. Among them, iridoid glycosides and yellow pigment are generally considered the main bioactive and characteristic ingredients. Various pharmacological properties, such as a beneficial effect on the nervous, cardiovascular and digestive systems, hepatoprotective activity, antidepressant activity, and anti-inflammatory activity, were also validated in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, geniposide and genipin are the most important iridoid compounds isolated from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, and genipin is the aglycone of geniposide. As the predominant active ingredient with a distinct pharmacological activity, genipin is also an outstanding biological crosslinking agent. Gardenia yellow pigment has also been widely used as an excellent natural dye-stuff. Hence, Gardenia jasminoides Ellis has been applied to many other fields, including the food industry, textile industry and chemical industry, in addition to its predominant medicinal uses.

CONCLUSIONS

According to this review, Gardenia jasminoides Ellis is outstanding traditional medical plant used in medicine and food. Pharmacological investigations support the traditional use of this herb and may validate the folk medicinal use of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis to treat different diseases. Iridoid glycosides are potential medicines. Gardenia yellow pigment has been the most important source of a natural colourant for food, cloth and paint for thousands of years. This herb has made great contributions to human survival and development. Moreover, it has also achieved outstanding progress in human life and even in art. Although Gardenia jasminoides Ellis has extremely high and comprehensive utilization values, it is still far from being completely explored. Therefore, the comprehensive development of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis deserves further analysis.

Iridoids: Research Advances in Their Phytochemistry, Biological Activities, and Pharmacokinetics

Iridoids are a class of active compounds that widely exist in the plant kingdom. In recent years, with advances in phytochemical research, many compounds with novel structure and outstanding activity have been identified. Iridoid compounds have been confirmed to mainly exist as the prototype and aglycone and Ι and II metabolites, by biological transformation. These metabolites have been shown to have neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic activities. This review summarizes the new structures and activities of iridoids identified locally and globally, and explains their pharmacokinetics from the aspects of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion according to the differences in their structures, thus providing a theoretical basis for further rational development and utilization of iridoids and their metabolites.

Treatment Mechanism of Gardeniae Fructus and Its Carbonized Product Against Ethanol-Induced Gastric Lesions in Rats

Gardeniae Fructus (GF) and carbonized GF (GFC) have been shown to exert a gastrointestinal protective effect and are frequently used in clinical practice for the treatment of hemorrhage and brown stool. In this study, we employed a combination of pharmacological methods and metabolomics in a rat model of ethanol-induced acute stomach ulcer to investigate the gastroprotective effect of GF and GFC water extracts and the potential mechanism involved in this process. The levels of nitric oxide (NO) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) in the plasma of rats were determined. The results showed that both GF and GFC reduced the ethanol-induced gastric lesions and expression of NO and IL-6 in these rats. Of note, 16 and 11 feature metabolites were filtered and identified in the GF and GFC groups, respectively. Both GF and GFC act by restoring the biosynthesis of valine, leucine, and isoleucine, and the metabolism of glycerophospholipids. Moreover, histological evaluation revealed that heat processing of GF to create GFC enhanced the gastric mucosa protective effect. Furthermore, heat processing converted the main pathway from alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism, associated with GF, to histidine metabolism, associated with GFC. GF and GFC ameliorated gastric mucosa lesions in rats via reductions in NO production and inflammatory cytokine secretion, and the induction of prostaglandin E2.

Comparative analysis of sixteen active compounds and antioxidant and anti-influenza properties of Gardenia jasminoides fruits at different times and application to the determination of the appropriate harvest period with hierarchical cluster analysis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gardenia jasminoides fruit (GJF) is used as a well-known traditional folk medicine, a food and a natural colorant in Asia with a long history. The herbal medicine has usually been harvested in the autumn from September to November. However, this time span is too long and might result in the quality instability of GJF.

AIM OF STUDY

We aimed to conduct the comprehensive quality evaluation of GJF including the quantitative analysis of the bioactive components and the main bioactivities, and further to determine the most appropriate harvest time of this phytomedicine.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, an UFLC-Q-TRAP-MS/MS method was established to quantify 7 iridoid glycosides (geniposide, geniposidic acid, secoxyloganin, gardenoside, genipin 1-gentiobioside, scandoside methyl ester, and shanzhiside), 7 phenylpropanoid acids (chlorogenic acid, cryptochlorogenic acid, neochlorogenic acid, isochlorogenic acid A, isochlorogenic acid B, isochlorogenic acid C, and caffeic acid) and 2 carotenoids (crocin-1 and crocin-2) in GJF. With this method, nine samples of GJF harvested at different times were analyzed and compared. These samples were also investigated and compared in terms of their antioxidant activity (DPPH free radical scavenging, ABTS free radical scavenging, ferric-reducing antioxidation) and anti-influenza activity (neuraminidase inhibition), which are closely related to the GJF efficacies. Then, hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was separately performed for the quantitative analysis and bioactivity evaluation in vitro.

RESULTS

The HCA results demonstrated that three GJF samples (S5, S6, and S7) were clustered into one group for both quantitative analysis and bioactivity evaluation in vitro; these three samples were found to have the highest standardized scores in both the former (12.775, 12.106, 10.817) and the latter (3.406, 3.374, 3.440). Based on the comprehensive results, the optimum harvest period was confirmed to extend from mid-October to early-November.

CONCLUSIONS

This study firstly validated the use of UFLC-Q-TRAP-MS/MS method for the determination of 16 bioactive components in GJF. It was also the first time that a quantitative analysis and a bioactivity assay in vitro were integrated for the determination of the most appropriate harvest period of GJF. We hope this paper may provide some reference to studies of appropriate harvest periods and even the quality control of TCMs.

Self-assembling peptides cross-linked with genipin: resilient hydrogels and self-standing electrospun scaffolds for tissue engineering applications

Self-assembling peptides (SAPs) are synthetic bioinspired biomaterials that can be feasibly multi-functionalized for applications in surgery, drug delivery, optics and tissue engineering (TE). Despite their promising biocompatibility and biomimetic properties, they have never been considered real competitors of polymers and/or cross-linked extracellular matrix (ECM) natural proteins. Indeed, synthetic SAP-made hydrogels usually feature modest mechanical properties, limiting their potential applications, due to the transient non-covalent interactions involved in the self-assembling phenomenon. Cross-linked SAP-hydrogels have been recently introduced to bridge this gap, but several questions remain open. New strategies leading to stiffer gels of SAPs may allow for a full exploitation of the SAP technology in TE and beyond. We have developed and characterized a genipin cross-linking strategy significantly increasing the stiffness and resiliency of FAQ(LDLK)3, a functionalized SAP already used for nervous cell cultures. We characterized different protocols of cross-linking, analyzing their dose and time-dependent efficiency, influencing stiffness, bioabsorption time and molecular arrangements. We choose the best developed protocol to electrospin into nanofibers, for the first time, self-standing, water-stable and flexible fibrous mats and micro-channels entirely made of SAPs. This work may open the door to the development and tailoring of bioprostheses entirely made of SAPs for different TE applications.

Gardenia Decoction Prevent Intestinal Mucosal Injury by Inhibiting Pro-inflammatory Cytokines and NF-κB Signaling

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, which belongs to the Rubiaceae family, is a widely used traditional Chinese medicine. Although effect of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis has been widely reported, its anti-inflammatory role in intestinal mucosal injury induced by LPS remains unclear. In the present study, we investigated the effects of decoction extracted from Gardenia jasminoides on the morphology and intestinal antioxidant capacity of duodenum induced by LPS in mice. Further analysis was carried out in the expression of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) was determined by Western blot. Gardenia jasminoides water extract was qualitative analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electro spray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The results showed that Gardenia decoction markedly inhibited the LPS-induced Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, Interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and IL-1 production. It was also observed that Gardenia decoction attenuated duodenum histopathology changes in the mouse models. Furthermore, Gardenia decoction inhibited the expression of NF-κB in LPS stimulated mouse duodenum. These results suggest that Gardenia decoction exerts an anti-inflammatory and antioxidant property by up-regulating the activities of the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), the total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px). Gardenia decoction is highly effective in inhibiting intestinal mucosal damage and may be a promising potential therapeutic reagent for intestinal mucosal damage treatment.

Gastroprotective Effects of Plants Extracts on Gastric Mucosal Injury in Experimental Sprague-Dawley Rats

Rubus crataegifolius (black raspberry, RF), Ulmus macrocarpa (elm, UL), and Gardenia jasminoides (cape jasmine, GJ) are well known for hundreds of years as folk medicines in China and Korea to treat various gastrointestinal disturbance. The present study evaluated the gastroprotective effects of these plants either single or in combination against HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis and indomethacin-induced ulcer in rat model. Stomach ulcer was induced by oral ingestions of HCl/EtOH or indomethacin. Treatment with RF, UL, and GJ separately or in combination was done 1 h before ulcer induction. On HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis RF, UL, and GJ at a dose of 150 mg/kg showed comparable antigastritis effect (less than 50% inhibition) with lesion index of 94.97±8.05, 108.48±11.51, and 79.10±9.77 mm compared to cimetidine (45.33±23.73 mm). However, the combination of RF, UL, and GJ at a dose of 150 mg/kg with a ratio of 50:50:50 showed remarkable antigastritis effect with 77% inhibition. The observed lesion index at a ratio of 50:50:50 was 23.34±9.11 mm similar to cimetidine (18.88±19.88 mm). On indomethacin-induced ulcer, RF and GJ showed 38.28% and 51.8% inhibition whereas UL showed around 17.73% inhibition at 150 mg/kg. Combination of RF, UL, and GJ at 150 mg/kg showed strong antigastritis effect with 83.71% inhibition. These findings suggest strong gastroprotective effect of combined extract. In addition, these plants showed significant antioxidant activity in DPPH scavenging assay and antilipid peroxidation activity. Combination of black raspberry, elm, and cape jasmine might be a significant systemic gastroprotective agent that could be utilized for the treatment and/or protection of gastritis and gastric ulcer.

Plant-Derived Anticancer Agents: Lessons from the Pharmacology of Geniposide and Its Aglycone, Genipin

For centuries, plants have been exploited by mankind as sources of numerous cancer chemotherapeutic agents. Good examples of anticancer compounds of clinical significance today include the taxanes (e.g., taxol), vincristine, vinblastine, and the podophyllotoxin analogues that all trace their origin to higher plants. While all these drugs, along with the various other available therapeutic options, brought some relief in cancer management, a real breakthrough or cure has not yet been achieved. This critical review is a reflection on the lessons learnt from decades of research on the iridoid glycoside geniposide and its aglycone, genipin, which are currently used as gold standard reference compounds in cancer studies. Their effects on tumour development (carcinogenesis), cancer cell survival, and death, with particular emphasis on their mechanisms of actions, are discussed. Particular attention is also given to mechanisms related to the dual pro-oxidant and antioxidant effects of these compounds, the mitochondrial mechanism of cancer cell killing through reactive oxygen species (ROS), including that generated through the uncoupling protein-2 (UCP-2), the inflammatory mechanism, and cell cycle regulation. The implications of various studies for the evaluation of glycosidic and aglycone forms of natural products in vitro and in vivo through pharmacokinetic scrutiny are also addressed.

pH-Sensitive mesoporous silica nanoparticles anticancer prodrugs for sustained release of ursolic acid and the enhanced anti-cancer efficacy for hepatocellular carcinoma cancer

Ursolic acid (UA) as a nature product exhibits good anti-cancer activity, low toxicity, and good liver protection features. However, the low-solubility and poor bioavailability restrict its further clinical application. To overcome this problem, a pH-sensitive prodrug delivery system (UA@MSN-UA) that incorporated acid-sensitive linkage between drug and silica-based mesoporous nanosphere (MSN) was successfully designed and synthesized. The physicochemical properties of the UA@MSN-UA nanoparticles were investigated for shape, particle size, zeta potential, nitrogen adsorption-desorption and infrared (IR) spectroscopy. The nanoparticles were further evaluated for in vitro cytotoxicity, including proliferation inhibition, cell cycle distribution and apoptotic effects against human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells. The TEM image showed that the size of synthesized MSN nanoparticle was a near-spherical shape with ~100nm diameter. In vitro cytotoxicity testing demonstrated that UA@MSN-UA nanoparticles prodrug exhibited higher proliferation inhibition, cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase and significantly caused the early and late apoptosis in HepG2 cells, which would be contributed to high loading capacity, high cellular uptake and sustained release of UA. Overall, the UA-modified MSN prodrug delivery system can be a promising drug carrier for improving the bioavailability of UA, and further enhance its anti-cancer efficacy.

Chemistry and bioactivity of Gardenia jasminoides

Gardenia jasminoides, grown in multiple regions in China, was commonly used as a natural yellow dye but has been one of the popular traditional Chinese medicines since the discovery of its biological property a few decades ago. It has been reported that G. jasminoides possess multiple biological activities, such as antioxidant properties, hypoglycemic effect, inhibition of inflammation, antidepression activity, and improved sleeping quality. In this review, our aim was to have a comprehensive summary of its phytochemistry including the extraction, isolation, and characterization of volatiles and bioactive molecules in G. jasminoides, focusing on the two major phytochemicals, genipin and crocin, which possess potent medicinal properties. Furthermore, this study attempted to establish a structure–activity relationship between the two major series of molecules with two pharmcophores and their biological activities, which would serve further exploration of the properties of phytocompounds in G. jasminoides as potential functional foods and medicines.

Gardenia jasminoides extract-capped gold nanoparticles reverse hydrogen peroxide-induced premature senescence

This study reports a green approach for synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Gardenia jasminoides extract, and specifically, can potentially enhance anti senescence activity. Biological synthesis of gold nanoparticles is ecofriendly and effective for the development of environmentally sustainable nanoparticles compared with existing methods. Here, we developed a simple, fast, efficient, and ecofriendly approach to the synthesis of gold nanoparticles by means of a Gardenia jasminoides extract. These G. jasminoides extract-capped gold nanoparticles (GJ-GNPs) were characterized by UV-vis, high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Furrier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The synthesized GJ-GNPs turned red and showed maximal absorbance at 540nm. Thus, GJ-GNPs were synthesized successfully. We hypothesized that GJ-GNPs would protect ARPE19 cells from hydrogen peroxide-induced premature senescence. SA-β-gal activity was elevated in hydrogen peroxide-treated cells, however, this effect was attenuated by GJ-GNP treatment. Moreover, compared with the normal control, hydrogen peroxide treatment significantly increased lysosome content of the cells and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). GJ-GNPs effectively attenuated the increase in lysosome content and ROS production in these senescent cells. According to cell cycle analysis, G2/M arrest was promoted by hydrogen peroxide treatment in ARPE19 cells, however, this change was reversed by GJ-GNPs. Western blot analysis showed that treatment with GJ-GNPs increased the expression of p53, p21, SIRT3, HO-1, and NQO1 in senescent cells. Our findings should advance the understanding of premature senescence and may lead to therapeutic use of GJ-GNPs in retina-related regenerative medicine.

Geniposide reduces development of streptozotocin-induced diabetic nephropathy via regulating nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathways

Renal pathology was a commonly seen complication in patients with diabetes. Geniposide (GPO) was previously demonstrated to modulate glucose metabolism in diabetes. This study was to investigate effects of GPO in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and its underlying mechanism. Renal function in diabetic rats was evaluated by levels of serum creatinine (Scr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and urinary albumin. Renal inflammation was appraised by inflammatory cells infiltration and pro-inflammatory cytokines production. Renal monocytes, T lymphocytes infiltration, and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) expression were quantitated by immunohistochemistry. Moreover, renal nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) was assayed by Western blotting. Diabetic rats showed renal dysfunction as evidenced by increased levels of Scr, BUN, urinary albumin, and elevator renal index. Histological examination revealed significant glomerular basement membrane (GBM) thickening. However, GPO notably improved renal function and diabetes-induced GBM changes. Additionally, diabetic rats showed noteworthy renal inflammation,as reflected by enhancement of monocytes and T lymphocytes infiltration, increased expression of ICAM-1, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1 (IL-1), and IL-6. Interestingly, the level of monocytes infiltration positively correlated with the severity of GBM. Further study indicated diabetic rats displayed increased activation of NF-κB, indicated by increased expression of NF-κB p65, IKKα, and p-IκBα in renal tissue. However, all the changes in renal inflammation and NF-κB pathway were obviously reversed in GPO-treated diabetic rats. Our works indicate GPO ameliorates structural and functional abnormalities of kidney in diabetic rats, which is associated with its suppression of NF-κB-mediated inflammatory response.

Attenuation of DMBA/croton oil induced mouse skin papilloma by Apodytes dimidiata mediated by its antioxidant and antimutagenic potential

Context Considering the role of cellular oxidative stress in mutations and subsequent transformation, phytochemicals with antioxidant potential has become a primary choice as chemopreventives. Apodytes dimidiata E. Mey. Ex. Arn (Icacinaceae), a widely used plant in Zulu traditional medicine, is reported to possess antioxidant activity. Objective To investigate the chemopreventive efficacy of methanol extract of A. dimidiata leaf (AMF). Materials and methods Antimutagenic potential of AMF (25, 50 and 75 μg/plate) was evaluated by the Ames test. The ability of AMF (100 and 250 mg/kg orally) on restoration of depleted antioxidant status by sodium fluoride (NaF) was analysed on BALB/c mice. 7,12-Dimethylbenz[a]anthracene/croton oil induced mouse skin papilloma model was studied up to 20 weeks to analyse the anticarcinogenic effect of AMF (1%, 3% and 5% topically, twice weekly for 6 weeks). Phytochemicals of AMF were characterized by GC-MS. Results AMF (75 μg/plate) reverted 4-nitro-o-phenylenediamine (NPDA) induced mutations in Salmonella typhimurium strains, TA 98, 100 and 102 by 74.8%, 72.5% and 69.3%, respectively. Against sodium azide, the percentage reversion was 80.4, 71.3 and 71.3. In mice, AMF (250 mg/kg for 4 days) increased the serum superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase activities by 48.71% and 30.3% against the NaF-induced drop. GSH level was improved by 48.59% with a concomitant decrease in TBARS (57.67%). The skin papilloma reduction was 79.32% for 5% AMF. Squalene, dodecanoic, tetradecanoic and hexadecanoic acids are the known antioxidant and chemopreventive molecules identified by GC-MS. Discussion and conclusion Antioxidant and antimutagenic activities of AMF might have contributed to its anticarcinogenic potential.

Induction of apoptosis by genipin inhibits cell proliferation in AGS human gastric cancer cells via Egr1/p21 signaling pathway

Natural compounds are becoming important candidates in cancer therapy due to their cytotoxic effects on cancer cells by inducing various types of programmed cell deaths. In this study, we investigated whether genipin induces programmed cell deaths and mediates in Egr1/p21 signaling pathways in gastric cancer cells. Effects of genipin in AGS cancer cell lines were observed via evaluation of cell viability, ROS generation, cell cycle arrest, and protein and RNA levels of p21, Egr1, as well as apoptotic marker genes. The cell viability of AGS cells reduced by genipin treatment via induction of the caspase 3-dependent apoptosis. Cell cycle arrest was observed at the G2/M phase along with induction of p21 and p21-dependent cyclins. As an upstream mediator of p21, the transcription factor early growth response-1 (Egr1) upregulated p21 through nuclear translocation and binding to the p21 promoter site. Silencing Egr1 expression inhibited the expression of p21 and downstream molecules involved in apoptosis. We demonstrated that genipin treatment in AGS human gastric cancer cell line induces apoptosis via p53-independent Egr1/p21 signaling pathway in a dose-dependent manner.

Optimization of supercritical fluid extraction of oil from the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides and its antidepressant activity

A response surface methodology was applied to optimize the variables affecting the supercritical fluid carbon dioxide extraction of oil from the fruit of Gardeniajasminoides using the Box–Behnken design. The optimum extraction parameters were an extraction temperature of 49.94 °C, an extraction pressure of 29.89 MPa and an extraction time of 93.82 min. Through a GC/MS analysis, we revealed 16 major components of the oil extract, which showed potent antidepressant effects in both of two behavior despair models in mice: tail suspension test and forced swimming test. Our results suggest that the oil extract of Gardenia jasminoides prepared using the supercritical fluid carbon dioxide extraction may contain effective constituents to be used for depression therapy.

Influence of the stage of ripeness on the composition of iridoids and phenolic compounds in genipap (Genipa americana L.)

Genipap fruits, native to the Amazon region, were classified in relation to their stage of ripeness according to firmness and peel color. The influence of the part of the genipap fruit and ripeness stage on the iridoid and phenolic compound profiles was evaluated by HPLC-DAD-MS(n), and a total of 17 compounds were identified. Geniposide was the major compound in both parts of the unripe genipap fruits, representing >70% of the total iridoids, whereas 5-caffeoylquinic acid was the major phenolic compound. In ripe fruits, genipin gentiobioside was the major compound in the endocarp (38%) and no phenolic compounds were detected. During ripening, the total iridoid content decreased by >90%, which could explain the absence of blue pigment formation in the ripe fruits after their injury. This is the first time that the phenolic compound composition and iridoid contents of genipap fruits have been reported in the literature.

Comparative pharmacokinetics of borneol in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion and sham-operated rats

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed to investigate the pharmacokinetics of borneol in the pathological conditions of stroke and evaluate the pharmacokinetic differences of borneol caused by stroke after oral administration of borneol and Xingnaojing (XNJ).

METHODS

The rats were divided into two groups, ischemia-reperfusion (IR) and sham-operated (SO) rats. Each group contained two subgroups: pure borneol and XNJ subgroups. After administration with the same dosages of borneol 162.0 mg/kg, plasma samples were collected. The cerebral ischemia-reperfusion model was created by reversible middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). The blood samples were collected punctually after oral administration and a specific gas chromatographic system-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) method was developed and employed to determine the level of borneol in the plasma. The pharmacokinetic parameters were analyzed using non-compartmental methods with Kinetica.

RESULTS

After administration of borneol, the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) and area under the curve (AUC) values in stroke rats significantly increased by 302% and 275%, respectively, compared with the SO rats, and the same phenomenon appeared after administration of XNJ. In the rats with the same physiological conditions, the Cmax and AUC had higher values in the borneol subgroup (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the pathological damages of ischemia-reperfusion have a significant impact on the pharmacokinetic traits of borneol and that there are some components in XNJ inhibiting the absorption of borneol.

Eradication of Helicobacter pylori: Past, present and future

Helicobacter pylori is the major cause of chronic gastritis and peptic ulcers. Since the classification as a group 1 carcinogenic by International Agency for Research on Cancer, the importance of the complete H. pylori eradication has obtained a novel meaning. Hence, several studies have been made in order to deepen the knowledge in therapy strategies. However, the current therapy presents unsatisfactory eradication rates due to the lack of therapeutic compliance, antibiotic resistance, the degradation of antibiotics at gastric pH and their insufficient residence time in the stomach. Novel approaches have been made in order to overcome these limitations. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview about the current therapy and its limitations, while highlighting the possibility of using micro- and nanotechnology to develop gastric drug delivery systems, overcoming these difficulties in the future.

Neuroprotection by genipin against reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species-mediated injury in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures

Genipin, the multipotent ingredient in Gardenia jasmenoides fruit extract (GFE), may be an effective candidate for treatment following stroke or traumatic brain injury (TBI). Secondary injury includes damage mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), which can alter the biological function of key cellular structures and eventually lead to cell death. In this work, we studied the neuroprotective potential of genipin against damage stemming from ROS and RNS production in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSC), as well as its potential as a direct free radical scavenger. A 50 µM dose of genipin provided significant protection against tert-butyl hydroperoxide (tBHP), a damaging organic peroxide. This dosage of genipin significantly reduced cell death at 48 h compared to vehicle control (0.1% DMSO) when administered 0, 1, 6, and 24 h after addition of tBHP. Similarly, genipin significantly reduced cell death at 48 h when administered 0, 1, 2, and 6h after addition of rotenone, which generates reactive oxygen species via a more physiologically relevant mechanism. Furthermore, genipin significantly reduced both cell death and nitrite levels at 24 h caused by S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (SNAP), a direct nitric oxide (NO) donor, and successfully quenched 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH), a stable free radical, suggesting that genipin may act as a direct free radical scavenger. Our encouraging findings suggest that genipin should be tested in animal models of CNS injury with a significant component of ROS- and RNS-mediated damage, such as TBI and stroke, to assess its in vivo efficacy.

Genipin inhibits TNF-α-induced vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration via induction of HO-1

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and migration triggered by inflammatory stimuli contributes importantly to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and restenosis. On the other hand, genipin, an aglycon of geniposide, exhibits diverse pharmacological functions such as antitumor and anti-inflammatory effects. The protective effects of genipin on the cardiovascular system have also been reported. However, the molecular mechanism involved remains unknown. This study aimed to elucidate the precise function of genipin in VSMCs, focusing particularly on the role of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), a potent anti-inflammatory enzyme. We found that pretreatment of genipin induced HO-1 mRNA and protein levels, as well as its activity in VSMCs. Genipin inhibited TNF-α-induced VSMC proliferation and migration in a dose-dependent manner. At the molecular level, genipin prevented ERK/MAPK and Akt phosphorylation while left p38 MAPK and JNK unchanged. Genipin also blocked the increase of ROS generation induced by TNF-α. More importantly, the specific HO-1 siRNA partially abolished the beneficial effects of genipin on VSMCs. These results suggest that genipin may serve as a novel drug in the treatment of these pathologies by inducing HO-1 expression/activity and subsequently decreasing VSMC proliferation and migration.

Geniposide inhibits airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness in a mouse model of asthma

Our group recently reported the strong anti-inflammatory effects of geniposide (Gen), a bioactive iridoid glucoside derived from gardenia jasminoides, in a mouse acute lung injury model. Herein, we hypothesized that Gen might also have potential therapeutic benefits in treatment of asthma, which was tested in a mouse model of ovalbumin (Ova)-induced allergic airway inflammation. Ova-sensitized and -challenged BALB/c mice, as compared with control animals, displayed airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), bronchoalveolar lavage eosinophilia, mucus hypersecretion, and increased T help 2 (Th2)-associated cytokine and chemokine amounts, as well as serum Ova-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) level. Being compared with the Ova-induced hallmarks of asthma, intraperitoneal Gen treatment prevented eosinophilic pulmonary infiltration, attenuated the increases in interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13, and reduced eotaxin and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) expression. Also, Gen significantly ameliorated the Ova-driven airway hyperresponsiveness, mucus hypersecretion, and allergen-specific IgE level, which are the cardinal pathophysiological symptoms in allergic airway diseases. In addition, the efficacy of Gen was comparable to that of dexamethasone (Dex), a currently available anti-asthmatic drug. Collectively, our findings reveal that the development of immunoregulatory strategies based on Gen may be considered as an effective adjuvant therapy for allergic asthma.

Changes in total and individual crocetin esters upon in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of saffron aqueous extracts

Changes that may be expected in crocetin esters (crocins) upon digestion were examined in saffron aqueous extracts for the first time. Chemical characterization of total and individual crocins and other bioactive compounds was achieved by UV-vis spectrophotometry, RP-HPLC-DAD, and LC-ESI-MS. Antioxidant activity was evaluated using in vitro assays and the comet assay. The observed loss for both total and trans-crocins was higher in saffron (∼50%) than in gardenia extracts (∼30%), which were also examined for comparison. Loss was lower than that reported for hydrophobic carotenoids. cis-Isomers were less affected, leading to the hypothesis that trans/cis isomerization may occur in parallel to degradation reactions. Monitoring changes in the extracts at oral, gastric, or intestinal phases, separately, verified this view pointing out the critical effect of pH, temperature, and duration of process but not of digestive enzymes. No isomerization and less degradation (<20% loss) was evidenced when pure trans-crocetin (di-β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester was subjected to gastric or intestinal conditions.

Genipin-cross-linked fucose-chitosan/heparin nanoparticles for the eradication of Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori is a significant human pathogen that recognizes specific carbohydrate receptors, such as the fucose receptor, and produces the vacuolating cytotoxin, which induces inflammatory responses and modulates the cell-cell junction integrity of the gastric epithelium. The clinical applicability of topical antimicrobial agents was needed to complete the eradication of H. pylori in the infected fundal area. In the present study, we combined fucose-conjugated chitosan and genipin-cross-linking technologies in preparing multifunctional genipin-cross-linked fucose-chitosan/heparin nanoparticles to encapsulate amoxicillin of targeting and directly make contact with the region of microorganism on the gastric epithelium. The results show that the nanoparticles effectively reduced drug release at gastric acids and then released amoxicillin in an H. pylori survival situation to inhibit H. pylori growth and reduce disruption of the cell-cell junction protein in areas of H. pylori infection. Furthermore, with amoxicillin-loaded nanoparticles, a more complete H. pylori clearance effect was observed, and H. pylori-associated gastric inflammation in an infected animal model was effectively reduced.

Fructus Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis) phytochemistry, pharmacology of cardiovascular, and safety with the perspective of new drugs development

The phytochemistry, cardiovascular pharmacology, toxicology, side effect, and further development prospects of Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis (GJE) and its main constituents crocins and iridoid glycosides were studied. Numerous studies have confirmed that crocins and iridoid glycosides had effects of antioxidation, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerosis, anti-ischemic brain injuries, anti-platelet aggregation, anti-hyperglycemia, anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-hypertension, and so on. Some of them might be related to several attractive pharmacodynamic actions of GJE such as promoting endothelium growth, protecting neurons, and inducing their differentiation. Both of them make it possible for GJE to prevent and cure thromboembolism and cardiovascular diseases well. From our own basic pharmacological research of GJE extract on several rat models, it has been known that GJE extract markedly prolonged bleeding time and inhibited platelet aggregation and thrombosis. It has significant proliferation effect on both endothelial cells and endothelial progenitor cells as well. As the mechanisms of GJE on those diseases were discussed and summarized, questions about its genetoxicity and hepatotoxicity were also discussed during its safety study to make the foundation for long-term medication and clinical research in the near future.

Chitosan-caffeic acid-genipin films presenting enhanced antioxidant activity and stability in acidic media

The use of chitosan films has been limited due to their high degradability in aqueous acidic media. In order to produce chitosan films with high antioxidant activity and insoluble in acid solutions caffeic acid was grafted to chitosan by a radical mechanism using ammonium cerium (IV) nitrate (60 mM). Genipin was used as cross-linker. This methodology originated films with 80% higher antioxidant activity than the pristine film. Also, these films only lost 11% of their mass upon seven days immersion into an aqueous solution at pH 3.5 under stirring. The films surface wettability (contact angle 105°), mechanical properties (68 MPa of tensile strength and 4% of elongation at break), and thermal stability for temperatures lower than 300 °C were not significantly influenced by the covalent linkage of caffeic acid and genipin to chitosan. Due to their characteristics, mainly higher antioxidant activity and lower solubility, these are promising materials to be used as active films.