The hydroxycinnamic acid content of barley and brewers' spent grain (BSG) and the potential to incorporate phenolic extracts of BSG as antioxidants into fruit beverages

Versatile Applications of Brewer's Spent Grain: Solid-State Fermentation and Nutritional Added Value

Brewer's spent grain (BSG) is a major by-product in the beer-brewing process which contributes to 85% of the entire generated by-product in the brewing process. BSG is rich in proteins, and most of the malt proteins (74-78%) remain insoluble in BSG after the mashing process. Solid-state fermentation (SSF) is a promising bioprocess that enables microorganisms to survive in environments with minimal water and has shown to enhance the nutritional composition of BSG. In this review, the potential application of protein, amino acids (proline, threonine, and serine), phenolic contents, and soluble sugars (glucose, fructose, xylose, arabinose, and cellobiose) extracted from BSG by various microorganisms using SSF is explored. Incorporation of BSG into animal feed, human diets, and as a substrate for microorganisms are the prospects that could be implemented in the industrial scale. This review also discussed various advances to improve the fermentation yield such as symbiotic fermentation, the addition of nitrogen supplements, and an optimal mixture of the agro-industrial waste substrate. Future perspectives on SSF are also addressed to provide important ideas for immediate and future studies. However, challenges include optimizing SSF conditions and design of bioreactors, and operational costs must be addressed in the future to overcome current obstacles. Overall, this mini review highlights the potential benefits of BSG utilization and SSF in a sustainable way.

High-Temperature Hydrothermal Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Brewer's Spent Grain and Malt Dust Biomass Using Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents

Aligned with the EU Sustainable Development Goals 2030 (EU SDG2030), extensive research is dedicated to enhancing the sustainable use of biomass waste for the extraction of pharmaceutical and nutritional compounds, such as (poly-)phenolic compounds (PC). This study proposes an innovative one-step hydrothermal extraction (HTE) at a high temperature (120 °C), utilizing environmentally friendly acidic natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs) to replace conventional harmful pre-treatment chemicals and organic solvents. Brewer's spent grain (BSG) and novel malt dust (MD) biomass sources, both obtained from beer production, were characterized and studied for their potential as PC sources. HTE, paired with mild acidic malic acid/choline chloride (MA) NADES, was compared against conventional (heated and stirred maceration) and modern (microwave-assisted extraction; MAE) state-of-the-art extraction methods. The quantification of key PC in BSG and MD using liquid chromatography (HPLC) indicated that the combination of elevated temperatures and acidic NADES could provide significant improvements in PC extraction yields ranging from 251% (MD-MAC-MA: 29.3 µg/g; MD-HTE-MA: 103 µg/g) to 381% (BSG-MAC-MA: 78 µg/g; BSG-HTE-MA: 375 µg/g). The superior extraction capacity of MA NADES over non-acidic NADES (glycerol/choline chloride) and a traditional organic solvent mixture (acetone/H2O) could be attributed to in situ acid-catalysed pre-treatment facilitating the release of bound PC from lignin-hemicellulose structures. Qualitative 13C-NMR and pyro-GC-MS analysis was used to verify lignin-hemicellulose breakdown during extraction and the impact of high-temperature MA NADES extraction on the lignin-hemicellulose structure. This in situ acid NADES-catalysed high-temperature pre-treatment during PC extraction offers a potential green pre-treatment for use in cascade valorisation strategies (e.g., lignin valorisation), enabling more intensive usage of available biomass waste stream resources.

Trends in functional beverages: Functional ingredients, processing technologies, stability, health benefits, and consumer perspective

The World Health Organization's emphasis on the health benefits of functional foods and beverages that has contributed to the rise in its popularity globally. Besides these consumers have become more aware of the importance of their food composition and nutrition. Among the fastest-growing market segments within the functional food industries, the functional drinks market focuses on fortified beverages or products that are novel with improved bioavailability of bioactive compounds, and their implicated health benefits. The bioactive ingredients in functional beverages include phenolic compounds, minerals, vitamins, amino acids, peptides, unsaturated fatty acids, etc. which can be obtained from plant, animal and microorganisms. The types of functional beverages which are globally intensifying the markets are pre-/pro-biotics, beauty drinks, cognitive and immune system enhancers, energy and sports drink produced via several thermal and non-thermal processes. Researchers are focusing on improving the stability of the active compounds by encapsulation, emulsion, and high-pressure homogenization techniques to strengthen the positive consumer perspective in functional beverages. However, more research is needed in terms of bioavailability, consumer safety, and sustainability of the process. Hence, product development, storage stability, and sensory properties of these products are vital for consumer acceptance. This review focuses on the recent trends and developments in the functional beverages industry. The review provides a critical discussion on diverse functional ingredients, bioactive sources, production processes, emerging process technologies, improvement in the stability of ingredients and bioactive compounds. This review also outlines the global market and consumer perception of functional beverages with the future perspective and scope.

Profile of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of organically and conventionally grown black-grain barley genotypes treated with biostimulant

Beneficial dietary and pro-health values, have resulted in the increasing consumption importance of barley. Therefore, genotypes and cultivation methods are sought that guarantee high functional value of grain. The aim of the study was to assess the content of phenolic acids, flavonoids, chlorophylls, anthocyanidins, phytomelanin and antioxidant activity of grain of three barley genotypes depending on agricultural technology. Two of them are primary genotypes with dark grain pigmentation Hordeum vulgare L. var nigricans and H. vulgare L. var. rimpaui, the third is a modern cultivar 'Soldo' H. vulgare with yellow grain, which is the control sample. Evaluated the effect of foliar application of a amino-acids biostimulant on the functional properties of grain under the conditions of organically and conventionally cultivations. The results indicated a higher antioxidant activity and the concentration of phenolic acids, flavonoids and phytomelanin in the black-grain genotypes. Organic cultivation and application of amino acids had increased the content of phenolic compounds in grain. The antioxidant activity was correlated with the content of syringic acid, naringenin, quercetin, luteolin and phytomelanin. Organically cultivation and the foliar application of an amino acid biostimulant improved the functional properties of barley grain, in particular the original, black-grained genotypes.

Spent Grain: A Functional Ingredient for Food Applications

Spent grain is the solid fraction remaining after wort removal. It is nutritionally rich, composed of fibers—mainly hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin—proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals, and must be managed properly. Spent grain is a by-product with high moisture, high protein and high fiber content and is susceptible to microbial contamination; thus, a suitable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly valorization method of processing it is required. This by-product is used as a raw material in the production of many other food products—bakery products, pasta, cookies, muffins, wafers, snacks, yogurt or plant-based yogurt alternatives, Frankfurter sausages or fruit beverages—due to its nutritional values. The circular economy is built on waste reduction and the reuse of by-products, which find opportunities in the regeneration and recycling of waste materials and energy that become inputs in other processes and food products. Waste disposal in the food industry has become a major issue in recent years when attempting to maintain hygiene standards and avoid soil, air and water contamination. Fortifying food products with spent grain follows the precepts of the circular bio-economy and industrial symbiosis of strengthening sustainable development. The purpose of this review is to update information on the addition of spent grain to various foods and the influence of spent grain on these foods.

Impact of gastrointestinal digestion simulation on brewer's spent grain green extracts and their prebiotic activity

Brewer's spent grain (BSG) is a by-product of the beer industry and a potential source of bioactive compounds. In this study, two methods of extracting bioactive compounds from brewer's spent grain were used - solid-to-liquid conventional extraction (SLE) and solid-to-liquid ohmic heating extraction (OHE) coupled with two ratio combinations of solvents: 60 % and 80 % ethanol:water (v/v). The bioactive potential of the BSG extracts was assessed during the gastrointestinal tract digestion (GID) and the differences in their antioxidant activity, total phenolic content and characterization of the polyphenol profile was measured. The SLE extraction using 60 % ethanol:water (v/v) was the extraction method with higher antioxidant activity (33.88 mg ascorbic acid/g BSG - initial; 16.61 mg ascorbic acid/g BSG - mouth; 15.58 mg ascorbic acid/g BSG - stomach; 17.26 mg ascorbic acid/g BSG - duodenum) and higher content in total phenolics (13.26 mg gallic acid/g BSG - initial; 4.80 mg gallic acid/g BSG - mouth; 4.88 mg gallic acid/g BSG - stomach; 5.00 mg gallic acid/g BSG - duodenum). However, the OHE extraction using 80 % ethanol:water (v/v), had a higher bioaccessibility index (99.77 % for ferulic acid, 72.68 % for 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 65.37 % for vanillin, 28.99 % for p-coumaric, 22.54 % for catechin) values of polyphenols. All the extracts enhanced (except for SLE for 60 % ethanol:water (v/v) at 2 and 1.5 %, and for 80 % ethanol:water (v/v) at 2 % with Bifidobacterium animalis spp. lactis BB12, where no growth was observed) the growth of the probiotic microorganisms tested (Bifidobacterium animalis B0 - O.D.'s between 0.8240 and 1.7727; Bifidobacterium animalis spp. lactis BB12 - O.D.'s between 0.7219 and 0.8798; Lacticaseibacillus casei 01 - O.D.'s between 0.9121 and 1.0249; and Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-5 - O.D.'s between 0.8595 and 0.9677), demonstrating a potential prebiotic activity of BSG extracts.

Potential health effects of brewers' spent grain as a functional food ingredient assessed by markers of oxidative stress and inflammation following gastro-intestinal digestion and in a cell model of the small intestine

Brewer's spent grains (BSG) are a by-product of the beer-brewing industry, often employed as animal feeding stuffs. With BSG being rich not only in proteins, lipids, and dietary fiber but also in certain phytochemicals, it constitutes a potentially valuable food source that could be employed as a functional food, e.g. against chronic inflammatory diseases. Several types of bread were prepared with various amounts of BSG as flour replacement (0, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%), either employing wet BSG or dried BSG after pressing. Total phenolics, flavonoids, insoluble dietary fiber, as well as antioxidant capacity (FRAP, ABTS) were measured in the bread, before and after simulated gastro-intestinal digestion. Furthermore, we investigated digested BSG and bread-containing BSG for their capability to alter oxidative stress (Nrf2, malondialdehyde) and inflammation (IL-6, IL-8, NO, and PGE2) in a Caco-2 cell culture model of the small intestine. Incorporation of BSG significantly and dose-dependently enhanced the amount of dietary fiber in the product, as well as total phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant capacity, by over 10-fold, 3-fold, 4-fold and 5-fold, respectively, when replacing all of the flour with BSG. This pattern remained after in vitro digestion. However, digesta failed to show significant antioxidant or anti-inflammatory effects on the biomarkers observed in the cell model. Consuming 150 g of such a BSG-bread (wet based) would supply the proposed RDA of 25 g d^-1 dietary fiber and could be a healthy product valorizing BSG.

The Effect of Upcycled Brewers’ Spent Grain on Consumer Acceptance and Predictors of Overall Liking in Muffins

The brewing industry generates large amounts of food waste including brewers’ spent grain (BSG) and leftover malted grains from beer production. BSG compositions can vary but consistently include high levels of protein and fiber. The potential nutritional and health benefits of BSG have sparked recent interest for food fortification. However, the challenges associated with BSG addition can impact food quality due to increases in fiber and protein content and reduction in starch content. Consumer testing was conducted to evaluate muffins containing varying levels of BSG (0, 20, 30% wt:wt flour) to determine the highest acceptable concentration on overall likeability, appearance, texture, moistness, sponginess, and taste attributes. Significant differences were found within appearance (F = 7.728, P = .001) and taste (F = 4.947, P = .008) ratings across all muffins. Control and 20% BSG muffins were rated significantly higher for appearance (6.74 ± 0.18; 6.64 ± 0.18) than 30% BSG muffins (6.11 ± 0.18). Muffins containing 20% BSG (7.15 ± 0.17) received significantly higher taste ratings than 30% BSG muffins (6.56 ± 0.22) and control muffins (6.49 ± 0.19). However, 30% BSG muffins maintained acceptance for all attributes showing higher allowable BSG substitutions than previously reported. Bivariate correlation analyses found that all attributes across each muffin variation were strongly, positively correlated (r > 0.6) with overall likeability excluding appearance (r = 0.359, P < 0.001) and moistness (r = .466, P < 0.001) in control muffins. Significant predictors of overall likeability were appearance (β = 0.088, P = 0.005), texture (β = 0.181, P < 0.001), sponginess (β = 0.226, P < 0.001), and taste (β = 0.494, P < 0.001). Brewers’ spent grain consumer acceptance results will guide the development of test food products for future human diet intervention compliance.

Sustainable Applications for the Valorization of Cereal Processing By-Products

This review article revises the sustainable practices and applications to valorize valuable components recovered from cereal processing by-products. After introducing cereal processing by-products, their healthy compounds, and corresponding functional properties, the article explores reutilization opportunities of by-products emphasizing specific sources (e.g., oat and wheat bran, distillers' dried grains, etc.) and the biorefinery approach. Proteins and soluble dietary fibers such as arabinoxylans are of particular interest due to their content in the cereal processing by-products and their easy extraction based on conventional technologies such as enzyme-assisted extraction and membrane filtration. Non-thermal technologies have also been suggested to improve sustainability recovery approaches. Finally, the article discusses the different applications for the recovered high-added value compounds that span across biotechnology, foods, and bakery products.

Phytochemical Fortification in Fruit and Vegetable Beverages with Green Technologies

BACKGROUND

Phytochemical, bioactive and nutraceutical compounds are terms usually found in the scientific literature related to natural compounds found in plants linked to health-promoting properties. Fruit and vegetable beverages (mainly juice and smoothies) are a convenient strategy to enhance the consumption of horticultural commodities, with the possibility of being fortified with plant byproducts to enhance the content of bioactive compounds.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to analyse the different green technologies applied in beverage processing with a fortification effect on their health promoting compounds.

RESULTS

Fortification can be performed by several strategies, including physical elicitors (e.g., processing technologies), plant/algae extract supplementation, and fermentation with probiotics, among others. Thermal processing technologies are conventionally used to ensure the preservation of food safety with a long shelf life, but this frequently reduces nutritional and sensory quality. However, green non-thermal technologies (e.g., UV, high-pressure processing, pulsed electric fields, ultrasounds, cold plasma, etc.) are being widely investigated in order to reduce costs and make possible more sustainable production processes without affecting the nutritional and sensory quality of beverages.

CONCLUSIONS

Such green processing technologies may enhance the content of phytochemical compounds through improvement of their extraction/bioaccessibility and/or different biosynthetic reactions that occurred during processing.

Influence of Brewer's Spent Grain Compounds on Glucose Metabolism Enzymes

With a yearly production of about 39 million tons, brewer’s spent grain (BSG) is the most abundant brewing industry byproduct. Because it is rich in fiber and protein, it is commonly used as cattle feed but could also be used within the human diet. Additionally, it contains many bioactive substances such as hydroxycinnamic acids that are known to be antioxidants and potent inhibitors of enzymes of glucose metabolism. Therefore, our study aim was to prepare different extracts—A1-A7 (solid-liquid extraction with 60% acetone); HE1-HE6 (alkaline hydrolysis followed by ethyl acetate extraction) and HA1-HA3 (60% acetone extraction of alkaline residue)—from various BSGs which were characterized for their total phenolic (TPC) and total flavonoid (TFC) contents, before conducting in vitro studies on their effects on the glucose metabolism enzymes α-amylase, α-glucosidase, dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV), and glycogen phosphorylase α (GPα). Depending on the extraction procedures, TPCs ranged from 20–350 µg gallic acid equivalents/mg extract and TFCs were as high as 94 µg catechin equivalents/mg extract. Strong inhibition of glucose metabolism enzymes was also observed: the IC₅₀ values for α-glucosidase inhibition ranged from 67.4 ± 8.1 µg/mL to 268.1 ± 29.4 µg/mL, for DPP IV inhibition they ranged from 290.6 ± 97.4 to 778.4 ± 95.5 µg/mL and for GPα enzyme inhibition from 12.6 ± 1.1 to 261 ± 6 µg/mL. However, the extracts did not strongly inhibit α-amylase. In general, the A extracts from solid-liquid extraction with 60% acetone showed stronger inhibitory potential towards a-glucosidase and GPα than other extracts whereby no correlation with TPC or TFC were observed. Additionally, DPP IV was mainly inhibited by HE extracts but the effect was not of biological relevance. Our results show that BSG is a potent source of α-glucosidase and GPα inhibitors, but further research is needed to identify these bioactive compounds within BSG extracts focusing on extracts from solid-liquid extraction with 60% acetone.

Bioactive extracts from brewer's spent grain

In this study, antioxidant-rich extracts from brewer's spent grain (BSG) extracted by solid-to-liquid extraction using different solvents water and ethanol and their mixtures at two ratios (80% ethanol : water (v/v) and 60% ethanol : water (v/v)) were characterized. Nutritional composition was evaluated for the extracts and for the solid residues obtained after extraction. Additionally, the extracts were analyzed for the total phenolic content and individual phenolic compounds and related biological properties including antioxidant capacity (ABTS; ORAC and DNA protection), antihypertensive capacity, antibacterial activity and antibiofilm capacity. Safety was also demonstrated through genotoxicity and cytotoxicity tests. The results obtained showed that while all the extracts exhibited high antioxidant capacity (except ethanolic extract), the highest values were obtained for the 60% ethanol : water extract. The identification of phenolic compounds using HPLC showed that catechin and vanillin were the main compounds identified with the highest concentration being obtained for 60% ethanol : water extraction. In the biological activity assays, water and hydroethanolic extracts were multifunctional (antioxidant and antihypertensive capacity, antibacterial and antibiofilm activity), and the 80% ethanol : water presented better results in some assays. All were non-genotoxic, but the cytotoxicity was dependent on the extract concentration, with complete safe application for all up to 1 mg mL-1. Therefore, this study shows the potential of a viable green solvent based and low cost extraction recovery method of bioactive compounds from brewer's spent grain.

Barley Protein Properties, Extraction and Applications, with a Focus on Brewers' Spent Grain Protein

Barley is the most commonly used grain in the brewing industry for the production of beer-type beverages. This review will explore the extraction and application of proteins from barley, particularly those from brewers’ spent grain, as well as describing the variety of proteins present. As brewers’ spent grain is the most voluminous by-product of the brewing industry, the valorisation and utilisation of spent grain protein is of great interest in terms of sustainability, although at present, BSG is mainly sold cheaply for use in animal feed formulations. There is an ongoing global effort to minimise processing waste and increase up-cycling of processing side-streams. However, sustainability in the brewing industry is complex, with an innate need for a large volume of resources such as water and energy. In addition to this, large volumes of a by-product are produced at nearly every step of the process. The extraction and characterisation of proteins from BSG is of great interest due to the high protein quality and the potential for a wide variety of applications, including foods for human consumption such as bread, biscuits and snack-type products.

Brewers' spent grain in food systems: Processing and final products quality as a function of fiber modification treatment

The nutritional properties of brewers' spent grain (BSG) have been widely studied, considering its potential as a healthy food ingredient. Because of its fiber composition (amount and ratio), however, adding BSG into the food matrix to bring about changes in physical properties has been believed to impact negatively on the acceptability of the final products' properties, particularly color and texture. Fiber modification can enhance the quality of fiber and can be applied to BSG. Although it appears challenging, modifying fiber composition requires further study, particularly if the acceptability of the final products is to be improved. Furthermore, the level of fiber degradation during the modification treatment needs to be examined to meet the increased demand for BSG in final food products. This concise synthesis provides a new perspective for increasing the use of BSG as a food ingredient that is characterized by high nutrition and acceptability.

Anticholinesterase Activities of Different Solvent Extracts of Brewer's Spent Grain

Cholinesterases, involved in acetylcholine catabolism in the central and peripheral nervous system, have been strongly linked with neurodegenerative diseases. Current therapeutic approaches using synthetic drugs present several side effects. Hence, there is an increasing research interest in naturally-occurring dietary polyphenols, which are also considered efficacious. Food processing by-products such as brewer’s spent grain (BSG) would be a potential bio-source of polyphenols. In this study, polyphenol-rich BSG extracts using 60% acetone and 0.75% NaOH solutions were generated, which were further subjected to liquid–liquid partitioning using various organic solvents. The water-partitioned fractions of the saponified extracts had the highest total polyphenol content (6.2 ± 2.8 mgGAE/g dw) as determined by Folin–Ciocalteu reagent, while the LC-MS/MS showed ethyl acetate fraction with the highest phenolics (2.9 ± 0.3 mg/g BSG dw). The best inhibitions of acetyl- (37.9 ± 2.9%) and butyryl- (53.6 ± 7.7%) cholinesterases were shown by the diethyl ether fraction of the saponified extract. This fraction contained the highest sum of quantified phenolics (99 ± 21.2 µg/mg of extract), and with significant (p < 0.01) inhibitory contribution of decarboxylated-diferulic acid. Amongst the standards, caffeic acid presented the highest inhibition for both cholinesterases, 25.5 ± 0.2% for acetyl- and 52.3 ± 0.8% for butyryl-cholinesterase, respectively, whilst the blends insignificantly inhibited both cholinesterases. The results showed that polyphenol-rich BSG fractions have potentials as natural anti-cholinesterase agents.

The variability of physico-chemical properties of brewery spent grain from 8 different breweries

This research aimed to identify the differences in brewer's spent grains, which were collected from eight breweries for their physicochemical properties. The spent grains were dried until they reached stable weights, grounded to pass through a 385-μm sieve, vacuum-packed in nontransparent packaging, and kept in room temperature conditions for further analysis. The physicochemical properties, including proximate, color, water activity, water-holding capacity, oil-holding capacity, and density were evaluated. The results showed some differences in all measured quality parameters between all eight different spent barley grain samples. A similar pattern was noted in some properties studied. Hence, mathematical modeling of these studied properties should be undertaken with further qualities, such as fiber composition, mechanical properties, and thermal stability.

Valorization of Heat-Treated Brewers' Spent Grain Through the Identification of Bioactive Phenolics by UPLC-PDA and Evaluation of Their Antioxidant Activities

Thermal processing not only disrupts cell membranes and cell walls, but also cleaves covalent bonds releasing low molecular phenolic. This study examined the impact of various heat treatments (100, 140, and 160°C) on the composition of phenolic acids and antioxidant activities in extracts obtained from defatted brewers spent grain (BSG) meal. Heating BSG at 160°C resulted in a 2-fold increase in total phenolic content [TPC, 172.98 ± 7.3 mg Gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g defatted meal] and total flavonoid content [TFC, 16.15 ± 2.22 catechin equivalents (CE)/100 g defatted meal] compared to the untreated BSG extracts. The antioxidant activities of treated BSG extracts, determined by radical scavenging and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) were significantly (p < 0.5) higher than the corresponding untreated BSG extracts. Eleven phenolic acids were identified and quantified in BSG extracts by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography with Photodiode Array (UPLC-PDA). The amounts varied significantly (p < 0.05) depending on the degree of toasting BSG was subjected to. Chlorogenic acid, an ester of caffeic and quinic acid was the predominant phenolic acid present in all fractions. Significant (p < 0.05) increases in TPC, TFC, individual phenolic acids and antioxidant activity were observed in BSG extracts exposed to increasing oven temperatures. These results confirm the ability of heat processing to release bioactive phenolic from their bound forms thereby enhancing the phenolic acids and the digestibility of BSG meal in the intestinal tract.

Subcritical water as hydrolytic medium to recover and fractionate the protein fraction and phenolic compounds from craft brewer's spent grain

The valorization of the brewer's spent grain (BSG) generated in a craft beer industry was studied by subcritical water hydrolysis in a semi-continuous fixed-bed reactor. Temperature was varied from 125 to 185 °C at a constant flow rate of 4 mL/min. Biomass hydrolysis yielded a maximum of 78% of solubilized protein at 185 °C. Free amino acids presented a maximum level at 160 °C with a value of 55 mg free amino acids/g_protein-BSG. Polar amino acid presented a maximum at lower temperatures than non-polar amino acids. The maximum in total phenolic compounds was reached at 185 °C. This maximum is the same for aldehyde phenolic compounds such as vanillin, syringic and protocatechuic aldehyde; however, for hydroxycinnamic acids, such as ferulic acid and p-coumaric, the maximum was obtained at 160 °C. This allows a fractionation of the bioactive compounds. Subcritical water addresses opportunities for small breweries to be incorporated within the biorefinery concept.

Investigation of physicochemical, nutritional, and sensory qualities of muffins incorporated with dried brewer's spent grain flours as a source of dietary fiber and protein

Brewers' spent grain (BSG) is the major byproduct of brewing beer, rich in protein and dietary fiber. This study investigated the effect of two drying methods (impingement and hot-air drying) on chemical composition, physicochemical properties, and bioactive compounds of BSGs from three different brewers (BSG1, BSG2, and BSG3), and then evaluated the quality and consumer acceptance of BSG flour fortified muffins. Results showed that impingement drying led to significantly lower moisture content (MC, 1.33-1.87 g/100g) and water activity (a_w , 0.04-0.07) of BSGs than hot-air drying (5.44 to 5.57 g/100 g and 0.19 to 0.20, respectively). Among different dried BSGs, impingement dried BSG3 achieved the highest protein (18.03 g/100 g dry matter [DM]), total phenolic content (TPC, 2.21 mg GAE/g DM), radical scavenging activity (RSA, 1.58 mg AAE/g DM), and total flavonoid content (TFC, 0.68 mg QE/g DM), and retained lighter color (L*, 54.68) and higher total dietary fiber (TDF, 42.40 g/100 g DM), which was selected for making BSG-fortified muffins. BSG3 was substituted 1:1 as white: whole wheat flour at three concentrations (10, 15, and 20 g/100 g flour mix) for muffins (BSG10, BSG15, and BSG20, respectively). BSG15 provided higher protein (13.11 g/100 g DM), TDF (16.88 g/100 g DM), and higher bioactive compounds compared to control and retained brighter color of muffin compared to BSG20, showing no difference in firmness and overall liking compared to the control muffin. This study demonstrated that impingement dried BSG could be utilized as a functional ingredient in muffins to add value to the food chain providing nutritional and environmental benefits. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study reported the benefit of impingement drying method for the retention of physicochemical quality and bioactive compounds of brewer's spent grains (BSG) produced from three different brewers in comparison with hot-air drying. The study also reported that muffins fortified with BSG flours (15% replacement of wheat flour) yielded a 23% increase in total dietary fiber and 13% increase in protein without affecting consumer acceptance of the products. This information is essential for developing value-added applications of BSG, a byproduct from brewing industry, as a functional ingredient to make nutritive baking goods, such as muffins, for promoting human health.

Ultrasound processing of coffee silver skin, brewer's spent grain and potato peel wastes for phenolic compounds and amino acids: a comparative study

Awareness towards utilizing food-processing by-products are increasing in health as well as environmental purview. Coffee silver skin (CSS), potato peel (PP) and brewer's spent grain (BSG) are voluminous by-products in their respective processing industries. The present study compared these three by-products for their prospective utilization in producing polyphenols-rich aqueous extracts by using ultrasound-assisted extractions (UAE). A probe-type sonicator was used for ultrasound treatments. The total phenolic contents in the extracts were assessed by Folin-Ciocalteu assay, while the phenolic profiles of the extract was characterized by LC-Q-TOF mass spectrometry. The microstructure of the samples after UAE was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Ultrasound treatment enhanced the rate of extraction and recovered 2.79, 2.12 and 0.66 mg gallic acid equivalents/g of TPC from CSS, PP and BSG, respectively in 30 min, which correspond to recoveries of 97.6%, 84.5% and 84.6%, respectively, compared to conventional solid-liquid extractions carried out for 24 h. The extraction yield was dependent on the particle size of the raw materials and the highest yield was obtained from the materials with 100-250 µm particle size. The SEM imaging revealed that ultrasound treatment caused prominent tissue damage. Extracts contained mainly hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives of phenolic acids. PP and CSS had the highest amounts of umami free amino acids (0.13 mg/g in each), while BSG contained the highest amount of essential amino acids (92 mg/g). The present work shows that CSS, PP and BSG are good sources of polyphenols and UAE can be employed to enhance the extraction efficiency as means of a green approach.

A Novel and Simpler Alkaline Hydrolysis Methodology for Extraction of Ferulic Acid from Brewer's Spent Grain and its (Partial) Purification through Adsorption in a Synthetic Resin

This work aims to develop simpler methodologies of extracting ferulic acid (FA) from brewer's spent grain (BSG). BSG is produced by brewing companies at high amounts all over the year and does not possess a direct application. Thus, its use as raw material for extraction of bioactive compounds has gained attention in the last years. FA has different interesting applications in cosmetics, food industry, and pharmaceutics. Several studies aim for its extraction from BSG by various methods, namely alkaline hydrolysis. In the present work, we suggest the use of autoclave to process higher amounts of BSG in a lab scale. A simplification of the regular post-hydrolysis procedures is also proposed to decrease the number of experimental steps and energy costs and to simultaneously increase the extraction yield (up to 470 mg of FA per 100 g of BSG). The adsorption of extracted FA in a synthetic resin is suggested as a partial purification method.

Molecular action mechanism of anti-inflammatory hydrolysates obtained from brewers' spent grain

BACKGROUND

Brewers' spent grain (BSG) is a relevant, protein-rich by-product of the brewing process. Protein hydrolysates from different sources exert immune-regulatory actions activating toll-like receptors (TLRs), nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). Effects of gastrointestinal digestion have been poorly studied. Here, we studied the immune-regulatory effect of BSG hydrolysates, and their in-vitro-digested products, on rat splenocytes, macrophages, and T lymphocytes RESULTS: In primary cultures of rat spleen cells, BSG hydrolysates induced interleukin 10 and tumor necrosis factor production in basal conditions. Under stimulation with lipopolysaccharide or concanavalin A, hydrolysates further induced interleukin 10 production. Tumor necrosis factor and interferon-γ were inhibited in lipopolysaccharide- and concanavalin-A-stimulated cells respectively. In vitro gastrointestinal digestion attenuated the observed effects. Splenic macrophages and T lymphocytes behaved in a similar fashion. In spleen cells from TLR2^-/- and TLR4^-/- mice, immune-regulatory effects were greatly reduced or abrogated. The study of signal transduction pathways indicated a major involvement of NFκB, and the contribution of MAPKs p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2.

CONCLUSION

BSG hydrolysates, like those obtained from other food sources, regulate the immune response, involving TLR2 and TLR4 and the activation of NFκB and MAPKs, an effect partly maintained after in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. Our data support the hypothesis of a shared, rather unspecific, mechanism of action of protein hydrolysates. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Water Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Polyphenol Compounds from Brewer's Spent Grain: Kinetic Study, Extract Characterization, and Concentration

Brewer's spent grain (BSG) was chemically characterized obtaining 52.1% of carbohydrates, 17.8% protein, 5.9% lipids, 13.5% insoluble lignin and 24.3% of water-soluble extractives. This work has been focused on the study of polyphenol extraction of the extractive fraction by water ultrasound-assisted extraction. Selected extraction conditions were 47 °C and 21.7 mL water/g_dry-BSG. The effect of solvent polarity on polyphenol extraction was studied by using ethanol aqueous mixtures, from 20% to 100% ethanol. The kinetics of polyphenol extraction have been fitted to the power law and the Weibull models yielding mean values of the root mean square deviation lower than 7.5%. Extracts have been characterized in terms of quantification of individual phenolic compounds by HPLC-DAD and protein and sugar soluble fractions (glucose, xylose, and arabinose). Polyphenol profile has been compared with other hydrolytic techniques, such as acid, basic and enzymatic hydrolysis, showing that ultrasound was not as effective as basic hydrolysis to release the phenolic acids esterified to the cell wall. A further centrifuge ultrafiltration concentration step was able to yield a retentate enriched in the protein fraction while individual phenolic compounds where mainly transferred to the permeate.

Effect of milk addition and processing on the antioxidant capacity and phenolic bioaccessibility of coffee by using an in vitro gastrointestinal digestion model

An in vitro gastrointestinal digestion model was used to investigate the effects of milk matrix: skimmed milk (Sm), whole milk (Wm) and processing methods: pH adjustment, high pressure homogenization processing (HPHP), thermal treatment (TT) on the antioxidant capacity, phenolics bioaccessibility of coffee. Our findings showed that the antioxidant capacity of all the samples decreased or unchanged after in vitro digestion. The total phenolic bioaccessibility of coffee (C), coffee with whole milk (Cwm), and coffee with skimmed milk (Csm) decreased by 29.2%, 28.5%, 21.1% from the HPHP treatment and by 14.7%, 34.2%, and 33.8% from TT, respectively. pH adjustment had little effect on the total phenolic bioaccessibility of Cwm and Csm but significantly decreased that of C. Wm showed better protective effect on the phenolic bioaccessibility than Sm. These results may contribute to the optimization of formulations and processing methods in coffee beverage production, thereby increasing the health benefits of coffee.

Perceptions of college students in consuming whole grain foods made with Brewers' Spent Grain

One-third of all food produced for human consumption is wasted producing landfill accumulation and greenhouse gas emissions. Brewers' Spent Grains (BSGs) are the leftover grains from beer production, and each year approximately 30 million tons of BSG is generated globally by the brewing industry. Reclaiming BSG as a potential human food source is an opportunity for reducing food waste in the food supply chain. Six focus groups were conducted using 37 college students to determine their consumption of whole grains, perceptions of whole grains versus refined grains, and interest in or barriers related to consuming and purchasing foods made with BSG. Focus groups were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using constant comparative analysis to identify themes and discover relationships among the study aims. Thirteen themes emerged from focus group discussions with Concept of Health, Sensory, and Experience with BSG representing the top three discussed. Participants believed whole grains are healthier and contain more nutrients than refined grains. Most participants enjoyed the BSG foods provided; however, some noted a darker appearance and lingering fiber particles or aftertaste. Findings indicate participants who are hereditary whole grain consumers are acculturated to whole grain sensory attributes and nutritional benefits and would be more receptive to consuming BSG foods in future studies. We concluded most focus group participants were open to tasting BSG foods, but hereditary whole grain consumers should be the target consumer audience, and educating consumers on sensory attributes, potential health benefits, and environmental benefits is necessary to overcome the barriers associated with BSG.

Extraction of Antioxidant Phenolic Compounds from Brewer's Spent Grain: Optimization and Kinetics Modeling

The kinetics of polyphenol extraction from brewer's spent grain (BSG), using a batch system, ultrasound assistance, and microwave assistance and the evolution of antioxidant capacity of these extracts over time, were studied. The main parameters of extraction employed in the batch system were evaluated, and, by applying response surface analysis, the following optimal conditions were obtained: Liquid/solid ratio of 30:1 mL/g at 80 °C, using 72% (v/v) ethanol:water as the solvent system. Under these optimized conditions, ultrasound assistance demonstrated the highest extraction rate and equilibrium yield, as well as shortest extraction times, followed by microwave assistance. Among the mathematical models used, Patricelli's model proved the most suitable for describing the extraction kinetics for each method tested, and is therefore able to predict the response values and estimate the extraction rates and potential maximum yields in each case.

Preparation, characterization, nanostructures and bio functional analysis of sonicated protein co-precipitates from brewers' spent grain and soybean flour

This investigation was performed to assess the effects of sonication on the structure of protein, extractability of phenolics, and biological properties of isolated proteins and protein co-precipitates prepared from brewers' spent grain and soybean flour. Scanning electron micrographs revealed that the sonicated protein isolates and co-precipitates had different microstructures with fewer aggregates and smaller particles down to the nanometer scale compared to non-sonicated samples. However, the levels of free and bound phenolics extracted from non-sonicated protein isolates and protein co-precipitates increased compared to sonicated samples. The bound phenolics extracted after acid hydrolysis of sonicated protein co-precipitates showed improved ACE inhibitory activity and diminished antioxidant potency compared to non-sonicated samples. However, the free phenolics extracted from sonicated protein co-precipitates showed decreased ACE inhibitory activity and increased antioxidant activities compared to non-sonicated samples. The free and bound phenolics extracted from sonicated protein co-precipitates showed increased alpha-amylase inhibitory activity compared to non-sonicated samples.

Composition and Nutrient Value Proposition of Brewers Spent Grain

Brewer's spent grain (BSG), a major brewing industry byproduct, is generated in large quantities annually. This review summarizes research into the composition and preservation of BSG, different extraction techniques for BSG proteins and phenolic acids, and the bioactivities of these phenolic components. Moreover, this article also highlights BSG integration into foodstuff for human consumption and animal feed supplements. BSG is considered a rich source of fiber, protein, and phenolic compounds. The phenolic acids present in BSG are hydroxycinnamic acids (ferulic, p-coumaric, and caffeic acids), which have many biofunctions, such as antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antiatherogenic, and antiinflammatory activities. Previously, attempts have been made to integrate BSG into human food, such as ready-to-eat snacks, cookies and bread, to increase fiber and protein contents. The addition of BSG to animal feed leads to increased milk yields, higher fat contents in milk, and is a good source of essential amino acids. Therefore, many studies have concluded that integrating the biofunctional compounds in BSG into human food and animal feed has various health benefits.

Analysis of polyphenols in brewer's spent grain and its comparison with corn silage and cereal brans commonly used for animal nutrition

Brewer's spent grain (BSG) could be tested as an alternative source of polyphenols in animal nutrition. Proper extraction and analytical methods are critical for quantification. Thus, extraction for BSG, corn silage, and brans of rice, corn, and wheat were studied for the highest yield of polyphenols. A method for 18 phenolic monomers by HPLC-DAD was developed, validated, and applied to samples. An aqueous solution of NaOH (0.75% w/v) using integral samples for extraction resulted in the highest values for colorimetric measurements in all analyzed sources. Method by maceration showed the highest phenolic yield when applied in corn silage and BSG. However, for brans the best method was microwave assisted. Results from HPLC-DAD analysis clearly showed that native structures of phenolic compounds were simplified to its monomers allowing quantification and sample discrimination. BSG had the highest concentration of polyphenols and could be a promising and innovative source for animal feed studies.

Effects of an acid/alkaline treatment on the release of antioxidants and cellulose from different agro-food wastes

The present investigation was aimed to evaluate the release of both antioxidants and cellulosic fibre from different agro-food wastes. Cost-effective and easily available agro-food residues (brewers' spent grains, hazelnut shells, orange peels and wheat straw) were selected and submitted to a double-step acid/alkaline fractionation process. The obtained acid and alkaline liquors were analysed for total phenols content and antioxidant capacity. The final fibre residue was analysed for the cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose content. The total phenols content and antioxidant capacity of the acid liquors were higher than the alkaline hydrolysates. Orange peels and wheat straw gave, respectively, the highest (19.70±0.68mg/g_dm) and the lowest (4.70±0.29mg/g_dm) total phenols release. Correlation between antioxidant capacity of the liquors and their origin depended on the analytical assay used to evaluate it. All the acid liquors were also rich in sugar degradation products (mainly furfural). HPLC analysis revealed that the most abundant phenolic compound in the acid liquors was vanillin for brewers' spent grains, hazelnut shells and wheat straw, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid for orange peels. Wheat straw served as the best raw material for cellulose isolation, providing a final residue with a high cellulose content (84%) which corresponded to 45% of the original cellulose. The applied process removed more than 90% of the hemicellulose fraction in all the samples, while delignification degree ranged from 67% (in hazelnut shells), to 93% (in brewers' spent grains). It was not possible to select a unique raw material for the release of highest levels of both total phenols and cellulose.